THE NOUN

THE NOUN
1. Classification of Nouns 1.1. According to word-formation, nouns can be: a) s i m p l e: pencil, dog, mountain; b) d e r i v e d: driver, booklet, discontent; c) c o m p o u n d: postcard, dining room, editor-in-chief. 1.2. According to countability, nouns can be: a) c o u n t a b l e, when they can have a plural form and can be used with the indefinite article, or with many, few, several: apple, lesson, son: Id like to eat an apple. They eat many apples. b) u n c o u n t a b l e, when they cannot be used in the plural or with the indefinite article, but can be used with much, little: There was much noise in that room. NOTE: Some nouns can be countable in one meaning and uncountable in another: paper, difficulty, lamb, etc.: Paper is not cheap nowadays. I have a morning paper. 2. Number of Nouns 2.1. Variable nouns form the plural in the following way: a) the inflection -s is added to the singular: book books, cat cats, toy toys; b) -es is added to the singular nouns ending in -s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh: bus buses, box boxes, watch watches, brush brushes; c) -es is added to nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant (y changes into i): fly flies, city cities; d) -es is added to nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant: hero heroes, potato potatoes, (but: photo photos); e) -(e)s is added to nouns ending in -f(e) (which changes into -v): knife knives, leaf leaves, (but: roof roofs, belief beliefs, chief chiefs, etc.);
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f) the root vowel changes: man men, woman women, foot feet, tooth teeth, goose geese, louse lice, mouse mice; g) -en is added to the singular: child children, ox oxen; h) foreign plurals are preserved with some borrowed nouns (mainly Latin and Greek): stimulus stimuli, larva larvae, stratum strata, basis bases, criterion criteria; (but: cactus cacti/cactuses, formula formulae / formulas) i) -s is added to the last element of a compound noun: washing machine washing machines, forget-me-not forgetme-nots, to the first element: passer-by passes-by, son-in-law sons-in-law, or both elements take the plural: woman-driver women-drivers. NOTE: Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural: deer, sheep, fish, fruit, Chinese, Portuguese, Swiss, dozen, hundred, thousand, means, series, species, etc.: A sheep is in the valley. Ten sheep are in the valley. A Chinese is looking at us. The two Chinese are looking at us. This is an efficient means. These are efficient means. The plural forms fishes, fruits denote different species or varieties: We studied the fishes of the Pacific Ocean. 2.2. Invariable nouns have either the singular or the plural. 2.2.1 Singular invariable nouns, which take a verb in the singular, are: a) Concrete uncountable nouns: bread, meat, luggage, furniture, money, etc.: My luggage is very heavy. (Bagajele mele sunt grele.) The money is on the table. (Banii sunt pe masa.) b) Abstract uncountable nouns: music, progress, nonsense, information, knowledge, advice, homework, etc.:
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Your advice is always good. (Sfaturile tale sunt ntotdeauna bune.) His knowledge of German is poor. (Cunotinele lui de germana sunt slabe.) c) Proper nouns: George, The United States, The Atlantic Ocean, The Danube, etc.: The United States lies in North America. d) Nouns ending in -s: news, measles (and another names of diseases), optics, mathematics (and other names of sciences), cards, ninepins (and other names of games): This news is very good. (Aceste veti sunt foarte bune.) Mathematics is difficult for me.. NOTE: To express quantity of uncountable nouns, we can use the words: piece, item, bar, slice, gramme, pound, a loaf etc.: a piece of news/information/furniture/advice/cake/bread (o veste / informaie / mobil / un sfat /o bucat de prjitur /pine), a bar of soap/chocolate, a slice of bacon/cake, a pound of sugar/flour/rice/coffee; a loaf of bread. 2.2.2. Plural invariable nouns, which take a verb in the plural, are: a) Articles of dress: trousers, pijamas, tolls and instruments: scales, scissors, etc.: Your trousers are on the chair. Where are the scissors? b) Proper nouns: The Alps, The Highlands: The Alps are high mountains. d) Substantivized adjectives: the rich, the poor, goods, etc.: The poor are suffering. The goods were sold at the auction. e) Unmarked plurals: cattle, infantry, people, police, etc.: The police are after the thief.

THE NOUN

NOTE: When we want to refer to one article of dress or instrument, we can use the word pair: a pair of trousers/scissors/scales. Some collective nouns like: family, team, crew, jury, etc., take a verb in the plural when reference is made to the component elements, and a verb in the singular, when they are used generically: His family is large. His family are at home. (Ai lui/membrii familiei lui sunt acas.)The crew is waiting for the captain command. All the crew are washing the deck (Toti membrii echipajului spala puntea). 3. Case of Nouns. The Genitive From the point of view of form, there are two types of genitive: 3.1. The analytical genitive with the preposition of, used with neuter nouns or with long noun phrases: the colour of his eyes, the husband of the woman you have met. 3.2. The synthetical genitive with s added to singular nouns or irregular plurals: the girls performance, the mens results, and () added to regular plurals, or to proper nouns ending in s: the students answer, Dickens works. It may be used with the following: a) nouns denoting persons or other beings: Johns wife, the doctors order, the cows milk; b) nouns denoting measurement, time, space, quantity, value: a two weeks holiday, a lifes work, a miles drive, a pounds worth of pears; c) collective nouns: the firms investment, the governments decision; d) nouns that can be personified (geographical names, vehicles, natural phenomena, etc.): Romanias history, the ships crew, the days heat. NOTE: In the elliptic genitive the head noun is not expressed: the bakers (shop), my grandmothers (house), St.
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Pauls (Cathedral). Ive seen some of Harrys drawings, but none of Marys (drawings). 4. Gender of Nouns 4.1. There are four categories of gender: a) m a s c u l i n e: man, brother, uncle; b) f e m i n i n e: woman, sister, aunt; c) n e u t e r: book, house, snow; d) c o m m o n: cousin, friend, pacient. 4.2. Gender contrasts are expressed with the help of: a) different words: barman-barmaid, husband wife, boy girl, bull cow, cock hen, bachelor-spinster, drake-duck, dogbitch, stag-doe, stallion-mare, gander-goose; b) compounds: schoolboy schoolgirl, landlord landlady, male cousin female cousin, he-bear she-bear, bull-elephant cow-elephant, tom-cat tabby-cat; c) suffixes: host hostess, hero heroine, bridegroom bride, widower widow, tiger-tigress, heir-heiress, stewardstewardess, actor-actress, lion-lioness. Substantivul 1.Substantive numarabile - (countable nouns); Exemple : a book - two books; a dress - two dresses Obs. Au forma atat la singular, cat si la plural. Pluralele sunt de doua feluri : a) regulate ; b) neregulate ; a) Pluralele regulate - se formeaza adaugand un -s la sfarsitul formei de singular ; Exemple : hat - hats; head - heads; country - countries; boy - boys; Obs. 1. Consoana + y => ie + s la plural; 2. Vocala + y => y + s la plural; -se formeaza adaugand -es : -la substantivele terminate in :-s,-x,-z,-ch,-sh;
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-la substantivele terminate in :-f,-fe (sunt si exceptii); -la substantivele terminate in consoana+'o' (sunt si exceptii); Exemple : bus-buses ; box-boxes; watch-watches; life-lives; roof-roofs; hero-heroes; potato-potatoes; piano-pianos; photo-photos; Obs. -f sau -fe devin cateodata v+es; b) Pluralele neregulate man-MEN; woman-WOMEN; foot-FEET; tooth-TEETH; mouse-MICE; ox-OXEN; child-CHILDREN; Exemple : a man - two men; a tooth - two teeth; Not : Compusii cu substantivul man au aceeasi pronuntie la singular si la plural,desi ortografia difera . 2. Substantive ce se folosesc numai la singular : a) -news; -nume de boli (measles) +altele ; -nume de stiinte si obiecte de studiu }=> + verb la singular ; terminate in -ics (Mathematics, Physics, Accoustics) b) advice furniture information luggage }=> +verb la singular knowledge money Nota: Cuantificarea (numararea) substantivelor news,advice,information, luggage,knowledge,se face cu ajutorul cuvintelor: A PIECE OF 3. Substantive cu forma de plural trouses (a pair of) pyjamas }=> +verb la plural
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glasses Nota: Substantive cattle si people - desi au doar forma de singular se acorda cu verbul la plural. 4. Substantive ce se folosesc dupa inteles cu: a) verb la plural: cand referirea este la membrii colectivitatii. Exemplu: Paul's family are at home . b) cu verbul la singular : cand se denumeste colectivitatea ca un intreg. Exemplu: Paul's family is large. Family class crew public team audience committee 5. Substantive nume de materie si substanta -sunt numarabile; -Cuantificarea (numararea) lor se face cu ajutorul cuvintelor: a piece of; a kilogramme of; a spoon of; a slice of; a bottle of; a bunch of; 1.1 Felul substantivelor Substantivele n limba engleza se pot mparti n patru categorii: substantive comune: cat, girl, lamp substantive proprii: England, London, Mr Smith, Mary substantive abstracte: beauty, love, courage, fear, joy substantive colective: crowd, group, team 1.2. Genul Substantive de genul masculin sunt fiintele si animalele de sex masculin: Ex.: man, boy, lion, dog Substantivele de genul feminin sunt fiintele si animalele de sex feminin: Ex.: woman, girl, cat, giraffe Substantive de genul neutru sunt lucrurile, plantele, animale sau fiinte al caror sex nu este cunoscut (pronume: it/they): Ex.: world, peace, house, mouse, baby
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Exceptii: tarile, navele, n majoritatea cazurilor si autovehiculele sau alte vehicule sunt de genul feminin. Substantivele de genul comun sunt o particularitate a limbii engleze. Substantivele care intra n aceasta categorie au aceeasi forma pentru ambele sexe: Ex.: child (copil, copila), cook (bucatar, bucatareasa), teacher (profesor, profesoara). Unele substantive au forme diferite pentru genul masculin si cel feminin: Ex.: boy - girl, husband - wife, brother - sister, father - mother, son - daughter, uncle - aunt, dog - bitch, bull - cow, king - queen 1.3. Numarul Numarul este forma pe care o ia un substantiv pentru a arata ca ne referim la unul sau mai multe obiecte sau fiinte. Singularul coincide cu forma de baza a unui substantiv: dog, girl, wife, world, storm Pluralul substantivelor se formeaza prin adaugarea unui s la forma de singular: Ex.: cat+s=cats, day+s=days, world+s=worlds Pluralul substantivelor teminate n ch, o, sh, s, x se formeaza adaugnd es la singular. Ex.: church+es=churches, bush+es=bushes, class+es=classes, potato+es=potatoes, bush+es=bushes, box+es=boxes 1.3.1. Pluralul neregulat Substantive terminate n consoana+y fac pluralul n ies: Ex.: company - companies, factory - factories, baby babies Unele substantive terminate n o fac plural prin adaugarea unui s. Ex.: soprano - sopranos, piano - pianos, photo - photos Unele substantive terminate n f sau fe vor suferi la plural schimbarea n ves. Ex.: leaf - leaves, half - halves, wife - wives, life - lives,
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self - selves, wolf - wolves Exceptii: roof - roofs, handkerchief - handkerchiefs, gulf gulfs, wharf - wharfs/ wharves Cteva substantive formeaza pluralul prin schimbarea unei vocale interne Ex.: foot - feet, man - men, tooth - teeth Pluralul substantivului child este children. Unele substantive ramn identice la plural Ex.: aircraft, deer, series, sheep, species, fish 1.3.2 Pluralul substantivelor compuse n cazul substantivelor compuse numai ultimul cuvnt va trece la plural. Ex.: boy-friends, break-ins, travel agents Exceptii: substantivele compuse al caror prim element este man sau woman vor primi semnul pluralului pentru ambele substantive componente. Ex.: men drivers, women teachers, men servants n cazul substantivelor compuse formate din constructii de genul substantiv + prepozitie / adverb + substantiv, substantivul de baza va primi semnul pluralului. Ex.: sisters-in-law, passers-by, men-of-war, hangers-on, lookers-on, runners-up Abrevierile sau initialele vor forma pluralul prin adaugarea unui s Ex.: MPs (Members of Parliament), VIPs (very important persons) 1.4. Substantivele unice (uncountable nouns) Sunt substantive care nu se pot numara (uncountable) deoarece reprezinta fie unicate, obiecte puternic individualizate, notiuni abstracte. Nume de substante: bread, coffee, gold, paper, cloth, glass, oil, stone, wood Abstractiuni: earth, paradise, nature, the present, advice, death, help, information, news, beauty,
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experience, horror, knowledge, friendship, theory, literature Alte substantive: baggage, damage, shopping, reading, luggage, parking, weather Substantivele unice sunt ntotdeana la singular si vor lua un verb la singular: Ex.: This coffee is cold. The weather was dreadful. Nu sunt precedate de a/an; pentru a exprima o unitate din aceste substantive se foloseste: some, any, no, a little, bit, piece of, slice of, etc. Ex.: I do not want any help. I need some information. This slice of bread is hard. The piece of advice you gave me helped. Nota: Multe dintre substantivele unice pot avea si sensuri care se pot numara, astfel devenind substantive comune si comportnduse ca atare (primes a/an la singular, pot avea plural). Sens Unic / Sens Comun Her hair is black. (Parul ei este negru.) She found a hair in the milk. (A gasit un fir de par n lapte.) Their house was made of wood. (Casa lor este din lemn.) We picnicked in the woods. (Am mers la picnic n padure.) 1.5. Forma posesiva Se adauga 's la forma de singular a substantivelor care nu se termina n s: Ex.: a child's voice, the people's choice, a horse's mouth, women's clothes Vom folosi doar apostroful (') cu formele de plural ale substantivelor care se termina n s. Ex.: a boys' school, the Johnsons' residence Numele proprii terminate n s vor primi fie doar apostrof ('), fie 's Ex.: Mr Jones's / Mr Jones' car, Yeats's / Yeats' poems n cazul substantivelor compuse si a titlurilor ultimul cuvnt va primi 's Ex.: My father-in-law's guitar, Henry the Eighth's wives
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's se foloseste si dupa initiale sau abrevieri. Ex.: The CEO's assistant, the PM's speech Forma posesiva se foloseste n general cnd vorbim de oameni, animale, tari. Se foloseste de asemenea n urmatoarele cazuri: o n expresii temporale Ex.: yesterday's newspaper, in five years' time, ten minutes' break o n expresii construite dupa modelul bani + worth Ex.: ten dollars' worth of bananas, a shilling's worth of stamps o n alte expresii uzuale: Ex.: for heaven's sake, a winter's day, the water's edge, the plane's wings, the train's departure n cazul anumitor substantive folosite la posesiv, este uzuala omisiunea substantivului urmator atunci cnd sensul comunicarii este clar (magazine, birouri, oficii, casa, locuinta). Ex.: You can buy this at the baker's (shop). Mary bought her tickets at the travel agent's (office). The kids went to Bobby's (house). Ideea de posesie se poate exprima si cu ajutorul constructiei of+substantiv. Aceasta constructie se foloseste mai ales pentru lucruri sau fiinte umane sau animale atunci cand acestea sunt urmate de o propozitie subordonata. Ex.: the walls of the town, the roof of the church, the keys of the house. Eg: I took the advice of the girl I met on the bus and went to buy the book. Masculine genders-----Feminine genders

1. Bachelor----- Spinster 2. Bachelor----- Maid 3. Bullock----- Heifer 4. Dog----- Bitch 5. Drone------ Bee
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6. Horse----- Mare 7. Nephew----- Niece 8. Jew----- Jewess 9. Wizard----- Witch 10. Heir----- Heiress 11. Manager----- Manageress 12. Poet----- Poetess 13. Shepherd----- Shepherdess 14. Benefactor----- Benefactress 15. Hunter----- Huntress 16. Negro----- Negress 17. Emperor----- Empress 18. Traitor----- Traitress 19. Prince----- Princess 20. Lion----- Lioness 21. Bull----- Cow 22. Ox----- Cow 23. Mayor----- Mayoress 24. Tiger----- Tigress 25. Actor----- Actress 26. Host----- Hostress 27. Uncle----- Aunt 28. Monk----- Nun 29. Gentleman----- Lady 30. Ducke----- Duchess 31. Sultan-----Sultana

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