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Consumer Workers as Immaterial Labor in the Converging Media Markets: Three Value Creation Practices

Johanna Moisander* and Saara Knkkl Aalto University School of Economics Pikka-Maaria Laine University of Lapland Accepted for publication in International Journal of Consumer Studies, April, 2012

ABSTRACT
This paper takes a practice-based approach to consumer studies and focuses on the strategic and productive roles that consumers play as immaterial labor or consumer workers in the converging media markets. Based on a case study of a print media organization and its customers, the aim is to discuss the collaborative practices through which value is created in the market. By means of a textual analysis of online and interview data, three value-creation practices are abstracted and illustrated: constructing a sense of belonging and collective identity, mutual helping and peer support, and building pride and self-respect. Overall, the paper suggests that in global media environments, consumer-customers are playing increasingly significant strategic roles in the practices and processes through which value is co-created in the market. It is therefore concluded that the idea of consumers, and media audiences in particular, as recipients of communication and targets of marketing activities needs to be problematized and the dynamic strategic roles that consumers currently play in the market need to be acknowledged and actively incorporated into the business praxis of media corporations. Keywords: immaterial labor, consumer workers, Service Dominant Logic, practice theory, media convergence, consumer agency

Corresponding author. Contact address: Aalto University School of Economics, Department of Communication, P.O. Box 21210, 00076 AALTO, Finland, Email: johanna.moisander@aalto.fi

INTRODUCTION
In the media industry, significant technological, cultural, and economic transformations are currently taking place as the result of media convergence (Deuze, 2007; Dupagne and Garrison, 2006; Hartmann, 2009; Jenkins, 2004, 2006, 2008; Winseck, 2002). Henry Jenkins (2008:2) defines media convergence as the flow of content across multiple media platforms; the cooperation between multiple media industries, and migratory behavior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they want. On the one hand, convergence thus occurs on a top-down corporate level, taking the form of media conglomeration, as corporations seek to integrate content and brands across many channels and media platforms, so as to broaden their markets. But on the other hand, media convergence also occurs on a bottom up grassroots level, as consumers are taking media in their own hands and acting as communities, learning to use the new digital technologies to direct and control the flow of media content and to engage in civic activism. In particular, media convergence involves a cultural shift towards a participatory media/consumer culture, in which consumers produce media content, interact with each other and engage in civic activism to construct their identities and to exert their influence in the market (Deuze, 2006; Jenkins, 2008; Rokka and Moisander, 2009). In this market environment, media consumers can no longer be viewed as passive spectators (Jenkins, 2006) or targets of media firms offerings (Banks and Humphreys, 2008) but rather active participants in the processes and practices through which value is produced in the market (Lusch and Vargo, 2006; Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2000, 2004a, 2004b; Schau, Muiz, and Arnould, 2009; Vargo and Lusch, 2004). Media convergence thus represents a complex technological and cultural shift, which brings about significant changes in the global media markets, altering not only consumers everyday media use but also the practices and logic through which media corporations operate and value is created in the market (Bar and Sandvig, 2008; Carpentier, 2009; Couldry, 2009; Jenkins, 2004). In this paper, we focus on the implications of these ongoing changes for consumer agency, discussing and empirically illustrating the active and productive roles that consumers might play as immaterial labor (Arvidson 2005; Cova and Dalli 2009) in the converging media markets. More specifically, we argue that in global media environments, consumers as mediausers are currently playing increasingly significant productive and strategic roles as consumer workers (Cova and Dalli, 2009) in the practices and processes through which media organizations generate economic value in the market. In the sections that follow, we first theoretically elaborate on this argument, and then illustrate the argument by presenting findings from an empirical study that focuses on a print media organization and its consumer-customers. Based on a practice-based analysis (Schatzki, Cetina, and Savigny, 2001; Reckwitz, 2002) of online and interview data, we show how the consumers of the media organization engage in particular co2

creative practices of meaning work that effectively produce the basic serviceproviding offering that the magazine represents. Overall, the paper thus further problematizes the traditional idea of consumers as recipients of media content and targets of marketing activities, suggesting that the dynamic strategic roles that consumers currently play in the media market be acknowledged and actively incorporated into the business praxis of media corporations.

MEDIA USERS AS CONSUMER WORKERS


In building and empirically elaborating our argument, we draw primarily from the literature on consumer work (Cova and Dalli, 2009; Cova, Dalli and Zwick, 2011), the Service Dominant Logic (SDL) of marketing (Lusch and Vargo, 2006; Vargo and Lusch, 2004), and practice theory (Rasche and Chia, 2009; Reckwitz, 2002; Schatzki, 2002). Drawing on this literature, we argue that media users may be viewed as consumer workers who function as immaterial labor in the processes and practices of value creation through which media corporations generate economic value in the market. By immaterial labor we refer to the series of activities that produce the immaterial, informational and symbolic, cultural content of products and services that constitutes the basis of value generation in the market. It can be described as meaning work that is based on consumers ability to socially construct, articulate and work on the meanings that products and services have (Arvidsson 2005, Cova and Dalli 2009). Cova and Dalli (2009) have discussed this type of consumer agency in terms of consumer workers who, through the meaning work that they perform in their social networks, add cultural and affective value to market offerings (also Cova, Dalli and Zwick, 2011). As immaterial labor, consumers thus perform various activities that can be labeled immaterial work, producing economic value for the corporation through interaction with both their social networks and the editorial staff of the media corporation. Through this social activity and meaning work, however, consumers also contribute to the social and cultural capital of the community as well as pursue their personal purposes. Moreover, drawing on the literature on the Service Dominant Logic of Marketing (Vargo and Lusch, 2004) we argue that in contemporary media environments, value is increasingly defined by and co-created with the consumer rather than embedded in an output (Vargo and Lusch, 2004: 6). Value creation is a process of collaborative learning and co-production that entails a set of activities, resources (reputation, skills, knowledge) and relationships through which offerings are co-created in the market. Through these activities, resources and relationships corporations are able to learn and adjust the course of operations in light of environmental feedback on past actions. Through these learning processes, they are also able to incorporate foresight, opportunism, and anticipation into their everyday activity and business processes (Araujo and Easton, 1996). From this perspective, therefore, we view the serviceproviding offering of the corporation as something that emerges from initiatives and activities that are undertaken by both the corporation and its consumer-customers in

the processes of value creation. It is inscribed in the assemblages of practices through which valueand the firms offeringis collaboratively created. Finally, accordingly with the practice -based approach that we take in this study, we view consumption, consumer work and value creation as something that occurs within and is part of a field of practices (Schatzki et al.,2001; Warde, 2005). The term practice here refers to embodied, materially mediated arrays of human activity that are centrally organized around a shared practical understanding (Schatzki et al., 2001: 2). Practices are coherent and consistent patterns of purposive activity, which is performed in the organization through several interconnected mental and bodily behaviors that are grounded in and guided by particular collective structures of knowing, reasoning, and understanding that transcend the individual (Reckwitz, 2002: 249-250). These collectively shared codes and knowledge schemes constitute a trans-subjective background understanding of what constitutes a normal, intelligible, appropriate, and desirable course of actionin terms of thinking, feeling, and doingin specific situations. Consequently, we assume that in performing their daily tasks, both consumers and business practitioners draw upon on particular socially instituted practices and collectively shared understandings or trans-subjective codes of knowledge, which enable particular ways of making sense of the world and which sanction particular behaviors as appropriate, worthwhile, and desirable in particulars contexts. From this perspective, the analytical focus is placed on the trans-subjective practices through which value is created in the market, rather than on the motivations and intentions of individuals. The various single activities through which value emerges in the interaction between consumers and corporations are conceptualized and analyzed as constitutive elements or components of particular trans-subjective social practices that cannot be reduced to the motivations and intentions of consumers or business practitioners as individual agents. Next, we present findings from an empirical study that illustrates the role of media users as consumer workers. In line with the practice-theoretical approach that we draw on, the objective of the study is to empirically elaborate on the practices of value co-creation though which consumption and consumer work takes place in the media market, focusing particularly on the roles of the customer in performing the practices.

METHODS AND MATERIALS


As an empirical illustration we present findings from a qualitative case study (Stake, 2003) that focuses on the activities, resources, and relationships through which customers of a youth magazine, Demi, participate in value creation, i.e. production of the service-proving offering that the magazine and its online community constitute for its consumer-customers. The objective, more specifically, is to abstract practices of value co-creation that empirically illustrate the nature of consumer work and immaterial labor in the context of participatory media culture.

Demi is a highly successful media product of a large Nordic media corporation, which publishes altogether 19 magazines for 2 million readers nation-wide. The product consists of a magazine, published in print, and a website that hosts the brand community of the magazine online. The target audience of the magazine consists of 13-19 year-old females, generally representing the age cohort in the national market. The case organization was chosen because it manifests vividly the new and emerging practices of value-creation and consumer agency that characterize the contemporary participatory consumer culture. The empirical data of the study comprises (1) online material obtained from the online discussion forums of the magazine (Kozinets, 2002; Maclaran and Catterall, 2002; Rokka, 2010) and (2) personal interviews (Holstein and Gubrium, 1997; Moisander, Valtonen and Hirsto, 2009) carried out with the editorial staff of the magazine. The online material was obtained through netnographic fieldwork (Kozinets, 2002; Rokka, 2010) that lasted over a period of 17 months. One of the researchers actively engaged in and observed the discussions on the online community of the magazine. The researcher spent a few hours on the website once or twice a week, and downloaded a total of 160 discussion threads for further textual analysis. In addition to the netnographic material, altogether 20 interviews each lasting between 50 and 120 minutes were carried out. Eight producers (editorial team and managers) and 12 consumer-customers (members of the online community) of the media organization were interviewed using the standard techniques of collaborative personal interviews (Moisander and Valtonen, 2006; Moisander, Valtonen and Hirsto, 2009). The interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed in verbatim. All in all, the interview material consists of over 200 pages of transcribed text. The selection of this data set was based on theoretical considerations: the aim was to obtain empirical material that would serve to explore and learn as much as possible about media users as immaterial labor and consumer workers in the contemporary participatory consumer culture (Alasuutari, 2006; Moisander and Valtonen, 2006; Stake, 2005). Empirical analysis in the study is carried out using standard techniques of practicebased cultural analysis (Alasuutari 1996, Alvesson and Krreman, 2007; Moisander and Valtonen 2006). In this approach, analysis is data-driven and abductive, and based on textual analysis that uses a set of carefully chosen theoretical concepts as analytical tools that open up the phenomenon for new and interesting interpretations. When analyzing the data, we thus combine the practice perspective that we specified above with the basic ideas of SDL and consumer work, to form a theoretical lens that provides a way of drawing attention to particular aspects of the textual empirical material that we study (Alasuutari, 1996), and thus helps to identify and characterize the practices through which value is created by the editorial staff and the readers of the magazine in the day-to-day collaborative processes and activities. In analyzing the textual data obtained, our aim was to identify a set of activities that constitute a coherent pattern of routinized activity, organized around an inherent logic and shared background understanding (knowledge scheme, code, discourse) of what is appropriate, understandable, and desired in the organization and in the social 5

context of the activity (Reckwitz, 2002). While these activities include, physical and discursive activities, the use of particular tools and techniques, particular material arrangements, visibilities (visible objects) and visual and spatial arrangements (Valtonen, Markuksela and Moisander, 2010), in this paper we focus primarily on the co-creative meaning work that consumers perform in the market.

EMPIRICAL ILLUSTRATION: THREE PRACTICES OF VALUE-CREATION AND CONSUMER WORK


Based on our empirical analysis, we identify three social and communicative practices of consumer work through which the young consumer-customers of Demi, the Demi-girls, engage in immaterial labor online: constructing a sense of belonging and collective identity, mutual helping and peer support, and building pride and selfrespect. In the course of engaging in these practices the Demi-girls come to generate media content, social relationships, and a community of peers that function as resources for their individual and collective identity work as young females. We argue that through these practices, the media corporation that publishes the magazine and hosts the website, is able to co-produce and stage the personalized experience (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004a) and unique value (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004b) that the magazine and its brand community constitute for its young customers.

Constructing a sense of belonging and collective identity


The practice of constructing a sense of belonging and collective identity renders the consumption of the magazine understandable as a neo-tribal identity project (Cova and Cova, 2002) and as participating in a community of like-minded, socially aware young women, the Demi-girls. This practice is performed mainly through discursive activities of constructing a shared mode of being and a community that serves as a reference group or extended family for teenagers who are trying to make sense of who they are and wish to be. The editor in chief, for example, talks repeatedly about our girls, and the members of the community refer to themselves as people who do the Demi. The practice orients both the consumers and the editorial staff towards nurturing a cooperative spirit and building a family-like brand communitya family of 50000 sisters who can provide answers to questions that mothers, best friends or anybody else for that matter cannot be asked, as the editor in chief put it in the interview. The following extract illustrates the nature of these discussions:
What kind of issues are considered as taboos in your circle of friends and family? HK 11.1. 19:18 (1/51) Religion, drugs, sex.. What are the issues that are not talked about or mentioned in your circle of friends and family? Im interested :-) MM 11.1. 19:25 (3/51) Problems I 11.1. 19:26 (4/51)

We dont talk about the death of a friend KV 11.1. 19:29 (8/51) that my uncle is an alcoholic R 11.1. 19:31 (9/51) The death of the child of my close relative GB 11.1. 19:42 (10/51) That theres a lot of non-heterosexual people in my family. For example me. Theres gays, lesbians, bis, transvestites, transsexuals, pansexuals, you name. Nobody talks about it. Ps. My granny doesnt like :---( LS 11.1. 19:43 (11/51) homosexuality LRA 11.1. 19:46 (12/51) my cousin is a drug-addict and killed a person. This we dont talk about.

In this family, it is inappropriate to moralize or look down upon the problems of fellow sisters. Instead, the practice obliges the members of the community to generously share their knowledge and experience as well as to advise and give constructive criticism when needed both to other readers and the members of the editorial staff. As the Editor in Chief explains, this is done through sharing ones knowledge and experiences and giving direct and honest comments and feedback that nurtures mutual affection and respect among members of the brand community Through this practice, the journalists and other staff members of the editorial office cooperate with their readers to gain insight and in-depth knowledge about their customers as well as the social settings and personal situations in which the magazine is consumed. Engaging in a constant web-based dialogue with their readers, for example, the members of the editorial staff obtain continuous feedback and insights into the values, everyday concerns, and sources of joy of a teenage girl, which helps them to design and produce contents that add value to their customers. Customers, for their part, are able to give feedback and suggest new ideas for editorial content.

Mutual helping and peer support


You could say that [the magazine] is a sort of an older sister, a person whos a few years older than you are, and who knows a tiny bit more about everything than you do, and who is therefore able to help you and to anticipate, say, new trend, but also to tell you what to do if your mom is just plain awful (Editor in chief).

The practice of mutual helping and peer support renders the community of Demi-girls understandable as a project of collaboration and communal support in the spirit of true sisterhood. The practice is performed mainly through various discursive activities of asking for and giving advice and sharing ones experiences with the community to provide collaborative guidance and direction to fellow members of the community. Within the consumer community, the practice is most clearly visible in the discussion forum, where members of the community ask their peers about their opinions or advice about ordinary teenager concerns and everyday issues, such as issues related to

personal relationships. The following posting from a discussion titled Feeling anxious about having a crush what to do?, serves as an example:
Theres a guy coming over to our place tomorrow, and were going to be alone, just the two of us. I dont get it why, but in situations like this I always start to feel really anxious. Im stressed over about how to talk to him, cause I dont know him that well yet. Itd be easier if there were more of us there than just the two of us. You can also suggest me topics to talk about. Every time I meet a cute boy I start to get nervous and anxious and Im too afraid to meet him. I love the feeling of having a crush on somebody, but the anxiousness is so wearing. What causes it and how can I get rid of it? :o Do you think Im having some kind of a fear of commitment of something? This happens EVERY time when Im in a situation like this. Id so much like to get rid of this and be happy. Therefore I ask you, what to do? (Magazine discussion forum).

The magazine and its brand community thus function as a site of peer-based support for the young readers collective identity work as young females. In doing so, the practice constructs a collaborative and close relationship between the magazine and its readers, in which the magazine as a community symbolically obtains the role of a big sister, with whom the young female reader can go through the transition to adulthood together. In the web-based brand community of the magazine, the practice encourages all members of the community to collaborate and serve as older sisters in areas of their personal expertise. Consequently, the practice of mutual helping produces value by providing consumer-customers with considerable agency in collaboratively helping the other members of the brand community.

Building pride and self-respect


We try to avoid all sorts of stereotyping and putting labels on the girls I mean, like whats trendy or in fashion at the moment, or what might please their boyfriends. We know that their lives are much more multifaceted than, say, an advertising catalogue might suggest. I actually think that our representation of the female gender is more diverse and multifaceted than in many womens magazines. Many, including some of the advertisers, seem to think that yeah, those kids are interested in the latest movies and music, maybe fashion and maybe boys. We know that theyre interested in, say, global warming, political activism, football, classic movies. It doesnt preclude the fact that theyre interested in the latest Lady Gaga gossip and the nail polish colors of the season, but thats not the whole picture. Theyre much deeper persons than many of the womens magazines suggest. (Editor in chief).

The practice of building pride and self-respect renders the identity of the Demi-girl understandable as an ethical project of creating, developing, and promoting a form of female subjectivity that is socially conscious and intellectual. The practice orients the members of the Demi -community towards a shared purpose of becoming the woman that one wants and chooses to be, as one of the former readers had reportedly put it in a message sent to the editorial office. The practice is performed, through various discursive activities of positive collective identity construction, but also through othering by stereotyping and active 8

construction of difference through binary oppositions (e.g. Hall, 1997). For example, being a a stupid blond or a Paris Hilton-type valley girl, i.e. a materialistic, selfcentered, hedonistic and not particularly smart female, is clearly discouraged in the community, as the following extract from a discussion thread on How many of you confess being a valley girl illustrates:
M 15:33 (1/44) Ive been wondering for a while what kind of people the members of Demi are, and do the valley girls know that they actually are valley girls :----------------D so how many of you know and confess being one? At least I dont ;PPPP D 15:34 (2/44) I dont think so, at least not by my looks or my personality. Nor by how I act. BS 15:34 (5/44) I think Ive grown over that phase, but of course there are adult valley girls as well (such as Paris Hilton) :--------) VT15:35 (6/44) hell no MY 15:36 (8/44) nothing to confess

JAD 15:37 (9/44) Fuck no! :D I laugh at them! Im not a teenage valley girl piece of shit, not by how I look, how I dress, how I think or how I act. Euw! W 15:38 (10/44) Never been one and never will be

At the level of political and religious ideas and sexual preference, however, the practice orients the members of the Demi-community towards intellectually-based value pluralism and respect for sub-cultural differences. As regards value-creation, practice enables the editorial staff to stage positive personalized experiences for their culturally omnivorous readers, and supports the young females in their identity work towards becoming intellectually ambitious young female citizens.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION


In this paper, we have focused attention to the role of consumers as meaning workers and co-producers of value in the contemporary participatory media/consumer culture. We argue that in global media environments, consumers are playing increasingly significant roles as consumer workers in the practices and processes through which value is co-created in the market. Through web-based consumer communities, citizen journalism and blogging, for example, consumers not only generate content but also configure the service-providing offerings that help the corporations of the media industry succeed and survive in the market. In this sense, consumers may well be viewed as having certain strategic agency in the market: their actions and interactions may have important impacts upon the formation of business strategies in the media market.

Overall, we contribute to the literature on consumer studies by theoretically elaborating and empirically illustrating the changes that media convergence and participatory media/consumer culture bring about for consumer agency. More specifically, we articulate a practice-based perspective on consumer work and cocreation of value, which directs attention to the ways in which media corporations are able to tapand possibly exploitthe creative potential of their consumer-customers as consumer workers in the practices and processes of meaning work through which ordinary media-users consume media content in the market. It sheds light on the ways in which the media corporations are able to learn from their consumercustomers and to work toward building managerial competencies and knowledge in collaboration with the counterpart in the relationship, i.e. the consumer-customer (Araujo and Easton, 1996). Moreover, in the literature on marketing management, the firm and its marketers are typically conceptualized and viewed as the primary economic actors, and customers are merely given a role as targets of the firms marketing activities (for a historical review see Lusch and Vargo, 2006). In this paper, however, we continue and draw on the recent discussions on the service dominant logic (SDL) of marketing (Lusch and Vargo, 2006; Pealoza and Venkatesh, 2006; Vargo and Lusch, 2004) to problematize these views and to empirically explore and elaborate on the practices and processes of co-creation through which value is co-produced in the market. While much of the existing literature on SDL has concerned itself with discussing the dimensions of co-creation of value on the level of theory, as abstract principles, we elaborate on the practices and processes through which this co-creation may take place in the praxis of contemporary media corporations. Examining the changing modes of media production and use in the market, we are also hoping to offer media industry practitioners new insights into the strategic and ethical challenges that the converging media markets bring about for traditional print media organizations. By theoretically elaborating and empirically illustrating the practices through which value is co-created in the media markets, we provide strategic insights into the ways in which media producers need to relate to their customers and manage brands in the converging media markets in both ethically and economically sustainable ways. For the media industry, media convergence brings about important new business opportunities and strategic challenges. The producers of traditional media content, such as local newspapers and magazines, are now facing the fact that in order to survive in the market they need to redesign their basic offerings, so as to adapt to the fundamental changes that media convergence has brought about in their business environment. The aim of this paper has been to contribute to a better understanding of the challenges that these changes involve. And we conclude, in particular, that the idea of consumers, and media audiences in particular, as recipients of communication and targets of marketing activities needs to be problematized and the dynamic strategic roles that consumers currently play in the media market need to be acknowledged and actively incorporated in the business praxis of media corporations.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Partial funding for this research was provided by Helsingin Sanomat Foundation, (http://www.hssaatio.fi/en/), and ELOMEDIA, Doctoral Program of Cinema and Audiovisual Media (http://www.elomedia.fi), Finland.

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