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EI703 (a)
Soumyadev Adhikari
7th Semester
Instrumentation and Control Engineering
Academy Of Technology
Aedconagar-712121, Hooghly
DECEMBER, 2008
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Part 1
Objective and MCQ
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Objective Type Questions (1):
6. What is the relation between power level and total energy transmitted per
unit length in case of transverse wave propagating through a stretched
stribg?
Power level = (Total energy per unit length) * (wave velocity)
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8. Draw the graph that shows the decay of amplitude of the wave with distance
in an absorbing medium.
Wave velocity is called the phase velocity (V). It is the velocity with which planes
of equal phases (for transverse wave, crest & trough and for longitudinal wave
compression & rarefaction) travel through the medium.
V=ν∗λ
Where ν & λ = frequency & wavelength respectively of the wave
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11. What is the function of wear plate of the ultrasonic transducer?
Basic purpose is to protect the active element from the external testing
environment. In case of contact transducers, the wear plate must be a
corrosion resistant material (steel).
Also a wear plate having proper impedance (that depend upon the
impedances of active element & test medium) and proper size (λ / 4) can
allow as much as energy possible to come out from the active element.
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19. What is necessary of suspended particles or bubbles in the liquid for
ultrasonic flow measurement?
Actually the suspended particles or bubbles act as the reflector of ultrasonic
waves in the liquid e. g. in Doppler flow-meter, the particles act as moving source
and moving observers. And the reflections of ultrasound in the particles cause the
frequency shift.
22. What is the major factor that severely limits the transmission and detective
devices used in Submarines using ultrasonic wave?
23. Propagation of ultrasonic wave through the material medium can be treated
as
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i. Isothermal
ii. Adiabatic
iii. Both (i) & (ii)
iv. None of these
24. If a string of mass 1 gm/m is stretched with a force of 10N, the velocity of
transverse wave on the string is
i. 10m/s
ii. 1000m/s
iii. 200m/s
iv. 100m/s
25. For a loss less medium, the impedance is
i. Real
ii. Complex
iii. Both (i) & (ii)
iv. None of these
27. If E is the bulk modulus of a loss free gas and ρ is its density, the
characteristic impedance offered by the gas to the sound wave traveling in it
is given by
i. Z = ρE
ii. Z = ρ2E
iii. ρE)0.5
Z = (ρ
iv. none of these
28. During propagation of ultrasonic wave, if there is a rigid wall between two
media, the incident wave is
i. Completely transmitted
ii. Completely reflected
iii. Partly reflected and partly transmitted
iv. None of these
29. The condition for which all the incident energy with the incident wave is
transmitted with no reflection is that impedance of the coupling medium is
i. Harmonic mean
ii. Arithmetic mean
iii. Product
iv. Sum of the two impedances to be matched
30. The sum of reflection & transmission coefficient at junction between two
media is
i. Zero
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ii. One
iii. Between zero and one
iv. None of these
31. All the energy arriving at the boundary with the incident wave leaves the
boundary with the
i. Reflected wave
ii. Transmitted
iii. Both (i) & (ii)
iv. None of these
32. If Z, ω, A are respectively impedance, angular frequency, amplitude the the
rate at which energy is carried per unit length along with string is
i. Zω 2A
ii. ZωA 2
iii. 0.5 Zωω 2A 2
iv. None of these
33. The piezo-electric material which are used to design ultrasonic trans-receiver
is
i. barium chloride
ii. potassium nitrate
iii. ADP and barium chloride
iv. None of these
34. Ultrasonic used for Doppler flow meter is of
i. Low frequency
ii. Medium frequency
iii. Both (i) and (ii)
iv. None of these
35. in case of ultrasonography, jelly used between probe and body surface for
the purpose of
i. pain relief
ii. removal of etching
iii. coupling
iv. None of these
36. The mounting of ultrasonic sensors at the ________ of a tank for the
measurement of level of fluid is advantageous
i. Top
ii. Side
iii. Base
iv. Both (i) and (iii)
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Part 2
5 Marks Questions
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Short answer type Questions (5):
2. Distinguish between particle velocity & wave velocity and obtain the relation
between them. (5)
For, any types of waves (transverse or longitudinal), the particle velocity refers to
the velocity of vibration of tiny particles of the medium (the vibration is
responsible for the generation of the wave), while the wave velocity is the velocity
at which the wave propagates through the medium as a result of the vibrations of
tiny particles of the medium.
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V=velocity of wave in +ve X direction
A=amplitude of displacement curve
Particle velocity = dy/dt = (2AVπ/λ)cos ((2π/λ)(Vt−x)) = U (say)
And, slope of the displacement curve = dy/dx = −(2Aπ/λ)cos ((2π/λ)(Vt−x)) = m
(say)
Therefore, U = −(2Aπ/λ)cos((2π/λ)(Vt−x)) * V
= m*V
Therefore, U = m*V
Therefore, λ = 272.72cm
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4. Show that the characteristic impedance offered by a string to the traveling
waves is given by Z = µT ; where y is the linear density of the string and T is
the tension with which it is stretched.
5. Define intensity of sound wave. Also prove that intensity of sound wave
depends on amplitude, frequency and impedance.
Intensity: - When wave travels through a medium, energy is transported from one
part to another. The intensity of a sound wave is defined as the average energy
crossing a unit cross sectional area perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the wave per unit time. Or, it may also be stated as the average power
transmitted across the unit cross sectional area perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
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Consider an elemental volume ∆v containing n number of particles of a pipe
containing a gas of density ρ through which sound wave is propagating. Energy of
oscillation of each particle is given by:
E = mA 2ω 2 / 2
Where, m = mass of particles,
A= amplitude of their oscillation,
ω = angular velocity of particle.
Figure 4a: Sound in a pipe Figure 4b: Two consequent wave fronts
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Acoustic impedance: - When wave travels through a medium, the medium offers
an impedance to the wave propagating. In case of longitudinal wave (sound) this
impedance is called Acoustic impedance. From the force-voltage analogy,
acoustic impedance = Acoustic pressure / particle velocity, where acoustic
pressure is analogous to voltage and particle velocity is analogous to current.
Acoustic pressure generates due to wave propagation.
Let us consider a pipe of uniform cross sectional area α which is filled with a loss-
free gas of density ρ and through which sound wave is propagating along positive
X direction (from left to right horizontally in fig-5). Consider two planes, separated
by a distance ∆x, perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. Volume of this element is v
= (α * ∆x )Due to the presence of a tuning fork at the left end of the pipe, the
displacements of the particles in the planes A & B are respectively given by y(x1)
& y(x2). The displacements might not be equal. At equilibrium, the particles of two
planes experience the same pressure(Po), but due to propagation of wave, the
change in pressure occurs. This is the acoustic pressure.
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7. Derive the expression for intensity of sound in terms of maximum pressure.
Let us consider a pipe of uniform cross sectional area α which is filled with a loss-
free gas of density ρ and through which sound wave is propagating along positive
X direction (from left to right horizontally in fig-6). Consider two planes, separated
by a distance ∆x, perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. Volume of this element is V
= (α * ∆x )Due to the presence of a tuning fork at the left end of the pipe, the
displacements of the particles in the planes A & B are respectively given by y(x1)
& y(x2). The displacements might not be equal. At equilibrium, the particles of two
planes experience the same pressure(Po), but due to propagation of wave, the
change in pressure occurs.
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8. (a) Define decibel (dB).
(b) A sound is twice intense that another. What is their intensity ratio in dB?
(c) What is attenuation? What is its unit?
(a) Decibel is a unit to express the ratio of two values in the following manner:
dB = 10log 10 ( value1 / value2 )
Generally it is a unit (dB) for measuring the relative strength of signal power.
The number of decibels equals ten times the logarithm (base 10) of the ratio of
the measured signal power to a reference power. Decibel is one tenth of a bell.
Generally it is a logarithmic unit of sound intensity; 10 times the logarithm of
the ratio of the sound intensity to some reference intensity.
(b) Let the intensities are I1 = 2I & I2 = I. And the reference intensity is Io
Intensity ratio in normal scale = I1 : I2
Therefore, intensity ratio in dB is = 10log 10 ( I1 / I2)
= 10log 10 ( 2I / I )
= 10log 10 ( 2 )
= 3.010299957
(c) When sound wave travels in an absorbing medium, the amplitude or intensity
of the sound wave is reduced with the distance covered. This phenomena is
known as attenuation. Units of attenuation are dB, neper.
Figure 7: Attenuation
Attenuation constant: - It is given by the decrement in amplitude, when wave travels
in an absorbing medium, per unit amplitude per unit length. We know, the amplitude
of wave that decreases with distance in absorbing medium is given by:
A(x) = Ao exp(−αx)
or dA(x)/dx = −αAo exp(−αx)
= −αA(x)
∴ α = − (1/A(x))
(1/ (dA(x)/dx)
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Attenuation length: - It is the distance traveled by wave over which the amplitude is
decreased by a factor “e = 2.718”, i.e. for x = 1/α, A(x) = Ao exp(−1) = Ao/e.
11. Define the terms Intensity Level (IL) and Sound Pressure Level (SPL). Give
the relation between them.
Intensity Level: - It is defined as the ten times logarithmic (base 10) of the ratio of
the sound intensity (I) to the reference intensity (Io).
∴ IL = 10log 10 (I/Io) [in dB]
Sound Pressure Level: - It is defined as the twenty times logarithmic (base 10) of
the ratio of the measured effective sound pressure to the reference pressure.
∴ SPL = 20log 10 (P r.ms /Po, r.ms)
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Now, IL = 10log 10 (I/Io) = 10log 10 ( P 2 r.ms/ρoVΙο)
[Q We know I = P 2max / 2ροV = ( 2 P r.ms) 2 / 2ροV = P r.ms 2 / ροV ]
Now, SPL = 20log 10 (P r.ms /Po, r.ms) = 20log 10 (P r.ms)−20log 10 (Po, r.ms)
= IL + 10log 10 (ροVΙο)−20log 10 (Po, r.ms)
= IL + 10log 10 (ροVΙο)−10log 10 (P 2o, r.ms)
= IL − 10log 10 (P 2o, r.ms)+ 10log 10 (ροVΙο)
= IL − 10log 10 (P 2o, r.ms / ροVΙο)
12. (a) The intensity of sound in a normal conversation at home is about 3*10^-6
W/m 2 and the frequency of normal human voice is about 1000Hz. Find out
the amplitude of waves, assuming that the air is at standard condition.
(Given; density of air = 1.29 kg/m^3 & velocity of sound =332m/s)
We know, the intensity of sound is I = 2ρπ 2A 2ν 2 V = 3*10^-6 W/m 2
Where, ρ = density of traveling medium = 1.29 kg/m^3
A = Amplitude of the wave (to be calculated)
ν = Frequency of the wave = 1000 Hz
V = Velocity of the wave = 332m/s
∴ Now, I = 2ρπ 2A 2ν 2 V gives:
3*10^-6 = 2* 1.29 * π 2 ∗ A 2 ∗ 1000 2 ∗ 332
or Α = 1.88 ∗ 10^-8 m
= 18.8 nm
(b) A sound has an intensity of 1µW/cm 2. if the intensity of another sound is
14 dB higher, what is the intensity of the latter in dB?
Let the two intensities in SI unit is I1 (1µW/m 2) & I2. Io is the reference one.
Now I1(dB) = 10log 10 (I1/Io), I2 (dB)= 10log 10 (I2/Io)
Given that, I2(dB) − I1(dB) = 14 dB
or 10log 10 (I2/Io) −10log 10 (I1/Io) = 14
or 10log 10 (I2/I1) = 14
or log 10 (I2/I1) = 1.4
or I2/I1 = 10^1.4
or I2 = 10^1.4 * I1
= 10^1.4 * 1 (µW/cm 2)
= 25.11 µW/cm 2
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= 25.11*10^-2
= 0.25 W/m 2 (in SI unit)
13. (a) What is the need for matching layer in ultrasonic transmitter?
The needs are:-
For impedance matching. The TX and the test body have different
impedances. As a result, such a huge portion of transmitted wave may be
reflected back to TX portion from the interface of TX and test body that
the transmitted wave will be not enough to be detected by the receiver.
The matching layer is used to transmit as much as transmission possible
with nearly zero reflection from the interface.
Sometimes the matching layer provides isolation to the active element
from harmful test bodies.
(b) Derive the expression for characteristics impedance of matching layer for
maximum over all transmission coefficients.
2 2 2
[(Z+Z1) (Z+Z2) ]
2 2 2 2 2
Or [(Z+Z1) (Z+Z2) 32Z Z1Z2] - 16Z Z1Z2[(Z+Z1) 2(Z+Z2)+ (Z+Z2) 2(Z+Z1)] =0
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(a) Delay line transducer: - As the name implies, the main feature of a delay line
transducer is that it provides a delay between the generation and arrival of
ultrasound from TX to RX. The delay is introduced by an acoustic path separated
by the test body and the transmitter probe as shown in fig-9. This prevents the
single element transducer from ring down effect. For example, say the
sender/receiver alternating time is below the total transit time. In this case if a
sufficient delay can be provided, then there will be no ring down effect. This
enables the transducer to complete its sending function before it starts receiving.
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Measurement of very thin materials.
Cases where the defects are at very distances from the surface of the test
body.
Inspection of course grain material.
15. (a) What is the reason of applying dc magnetic field for magnetostrictive
transducer?
Due to application of only an ac, the frequency of the US pulse becomes twice
that of the input ac. For the two halves of one complete cycle of the input ac, two
consequent pulses are generated (illustrated in fig-11(right)).
Figure 11a: Arrangements of ac and dc sources in series (left). Waveforms for only ac input
(right)
The above happening is not a problem. But to obtain a US pulse whose frequency
is same as that of the input ac we need to connect a dc source in series with the ac.
After adding the dc source the resultant input waveform becomes as it is shown in
fig-11b (Blue). In this case, the output vibration (below the blue input) frequency
is as same as that of the input.
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at that frequency causing sound generation which is hummung sound.
Transformers without core do not generate that sound.
16. An ultrasonic transmitter and receiver are attached to the same side of a
steel block having a length of 75 cm. calculate the percentage of received
energy in receiver. Neglect the noise due to cross talk.
Given (αT)Q/S = 0.73, absorption coefficient of steel αW = 2.0 and (αT)S/air =
3.7*10^-5
Attenuation of ultrasound in a medium occurs exponentially.
∴ The ratio of received and transmitted energy is given by:-
PRX / PTX = [(αT)Q/S * exp(−αW * L )]*[ (αR)S/air * exp(−αW * L )]*[(αT)S/Q]
= [(0.73)*exp (−2*0.75)]*[(1–3.7*10^–5)*exp(−2*0.75)]*[0.73]
= 0.0265 [Q (αR)S/air = 1 - (αT)S/air and (αT)Q/S = (αT)S/Q]
∴ Required percentage = 2.65%
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Part 3
15 Marks Questions
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Long Answer Type Questions(15):
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= (δP(x)/δx)∆x
= (δ(Po −∆p)/δx)∆x
= − (δ∆p)/δx)∆x
= − (δ(−− E(∆v/v))/δx)∆x
= (δ(E(δy/δx))/δx)∆x [Q∆v/v = (δy/δx)]
= E∆x (δ 2y/δx 2 )
Net force = Cross sectional area of pipe * excess pressure
= αE∆x (δ 2y/δx 2 )
= F1 (Say)
Newtonian force = mass of the elemental area * acceleration
= density * volume * acceleration
= (ρα∆x) (δ 2y/δt 2 )
= F2 (Say)
In dynamic equilibrium, F2 = F1
or, (ρα∆x) (δ 2y/δt 2 ) = αE∆x (δ 2y/δx 2 )
or, ρ(δ 2y/δt 2 ) = E(δ 2y/δx 2 )
or, ρ(δ 2y/δt 2 ) = (E/ρ)(δ 2y/δx 2 )
Comparing the above equation with the Differential equation of wave motion i.e.
(δ 2y/δt 2 ) = V 2(δ 2y/δx 2 ), we get, velocity of longitudinal wave V = E / ρ
(c)
i. We know, velocity of longitudinal waves through a medium like water is
given by V = E / ρ . Where, ρ is the medium density and E is the bulk
modulus.
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Now, E = 0.20 * 10^10 N/m 2, ρ = 1000kg/m^3
∴V = E / ρ
= (0.20 *10^10) /(1000)
= 1414.21 m/sec
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Now, from (1) and (2) the kinetic and potential energy density are given respectively
by: dK/dx = (1/2) (µ) (dy/dt) 2 --------------------------------------------(3)
dU/dx = (1/2) T (dy/dx) 2 --------------------------------------------(4)
Now, displacement of particle a wave traveling in positive X direction is given by:
y(x,t) = Asin ((2π/λ)(Vt−x))
∴ dy/dt = (2AVπ/λ)cos ((2π/λ)(Vt−x))
and dy/dx = −(2Aπ/λ)cos ((2π/λ)(Vt−x))
∴ dK/dx = (1/2) (µ) (dy/dt) 2 = (1/2) (µ)[(2AVπ/λ)cos ((2π/λ)(Vt−x))] 2
∴ dK/dx|t=0 = (1/2) (µ)[(4A 2V 2π 2/λ 2)cos 2(2πx/λ)] ---------------------(5)
And dU/dx = (1/2) T (dy/dx) 2 = (1/2) T[(2Aπ/λ)cos ((2π/λ)(Vt−x))] 2
∴ dU/dx|t=0 = (1/2) T[(4A 2π 2/λ 2)cos 2 (2πx/λ)] -------------------------(6)
Now, the total energy associated with one complete wavelength of the sinusoidal
wave on the string is given by:
λ λ
E = ∫ (dU / dx)dx + ∫ (dK / dx )dx
0 0
λ
= (1/4) T (4A π /λ ) ∫ [1 + cos(4πx / λ )]dx
2 2 2
[ Q 2cos 2A = cos2A + 1]
0
λ
+ (1/4) (µ) [(4A 2V 2π 2/λ 2) ∫ [1 + cos(4πx / λ )]dx
0
2 2 2 2 2
=TA π /λ + µA V π /λ
= V 2µA 2π 2/λ + µA 2V 2π 2/λ [Putting T = V 2µ in the first term Q V = T / µ ]
= 2µA 2V 2π 2/λ
= 2µA 2ν 2λπ 2 [ Q V = νλ, ν being the frequency]
∴ E = 2µ
µA 2π 2 ν 2λ
(b)
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Figure 3a: Sound in a pipe Figure 3b: Two consequent wave fronts
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(a) Let, the ultrasonic wave is traveling from medium1 to medium2 and incident
normally on the boundary of the two mediums.
We know,
V1 = E / ρ1 , V2 = E / ρ 2 , Z1 = ρ1V1, Z2 = ρ2V2
Where, V = Velocity of wave,
E = Bulk modulus.
ρ = density of the medium
Z = Acoustic impedance
∴ Ai + Ar = At -------------------------(1)
Now, boundary condition 2 gives:
-Eδyi/δx [x = 0] - Eδyr/δx [x = 0] = -Eδyt/δx [x = 0]
or, E Ai k1cos(ωt-k1x)[x = 0] - E Ar k1 cos(ωt+k1x)[x = 0] = E At k2 cos(ωt-k2x)[x = 0]
or, E Ai k1 cos(ωt) - E Ar k1 cos(ωt) = E At k2 cos(ωt)
or, E k1 Ai - E k1 Ar = E k2 At
or, Ai 2πνZ1 – Ar 2πνZ1 = At 2πνZ2 [ Q Z = E / V ]
∴ Ai – Ar = At (Z2/Z1)---------------------------(2)
Now, adding (1) and (2) we get,
Ai + Ar +Ai - Ar = At (Z1+Z2) / Z1
∴ Ai = 0.5 At (Z1+Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(3)
Subtracting (2) from (1) we get,
Ai + Ar - Ai + Ar = At (Z1-Z2) / Z1
∴ Ar = 0.5 At (Z1-Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(4)
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∴ Reflection amplitude coefficient = r12 = Ar/Ai = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)
Now, from (1) we have
Ai + Ar = At
or, 1 + (Ar / Ai) = (At / Ai) [dividing both sides by Ai]
or, 1 + r12 = At / Ai
or 1 + (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2) = At / Ai
5. Deduce the expressions for the reflection and transmission amplitude and energy
coefficient when a transverse wave traveling in the positive X direction in the
string of impedance Z1 meets the junction of strings of impedance Z2.(15)
Let, the transverse wave is traveling from medium1 to medium2. Two mediums
are represented by two different types of strings having different parameters. We
know, V1 = T / µ1 , V2 = T / µ 2 , Z1 = µ1V1, Z2 = µ2V2
Where, V = Velocity of wave, µ = Linear density of the medium
T = Tension in string, Z = characteristic impedance
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The displacement of particles in medium1 due to incident wave is given by:
yi(x,t) = Ai sin( ωt-k1x)
where, k1 = 2π/λ1 = 2πν/V1
The displacement of particles in medium1 due to reflected wave is given by:
yr(x,t) = Ar sin(ωt+k1x)
The displacement of particles in medium2 due to transmitted wave is given by:
yt(x,t) = At sin( ωt-k2x)
where, k2 = 2π/λ2 = 2πν/V2
Now, the boundary conditions gives:
c) The displacement of particles is same to the left and right of the boundary at
x=0, i.e. y(x,t) is continuous across the boundary at x=0, the velocity of the
particle is also contiuous
d) The restoring force or the transverse component of tension (-Tsinθ = -Tδy/δx)
is continuous across the boundary at x = 0.
Now, boundary condition a) gives:
yi(x,t)[x = 0] + yr(x,t)[x = 0] = yt(x,t)[x = 0]
or, Ai sin( ωt-k1x)[x = 0] + Ar sin( ωt+k1x)[x = 0] = At sin( ωt-k2x)[x = 0]
or, Ai sin( ωt) + Ar sin( ωt) = At sin( ωt)
∴ Ai + Ar = At -------------------------(1)
Now, boundary condition 2 gives:
-Tδyi/δx [x = 0] - Tδyr/δx [x = 0] = -Tδyt/δx [x = 0]
or, T Ai k1cos(ωt-k1x)[x = 0] - T Ar k1 cos(ωt+k1x)[x = 0] = T At k2 cos(ωt-k2x)[x = 0]
or, T Ai k1 cos(ωt) - T Ar k1 cos(ωt) = T At k2 cos(ωt)
or, T k1 Ai - T k1 Ar = T k2 At
or, Ai 2πνZ1 – Ar 2πνZ1 = At 2πνZ2 [ T k1 = T 2πν/V1 = 2πνZ1 Q Z1 = T / V1
and similarly, T k1 = 2πνZ1]
∴ Ai – Ar = At (Z2/Z1)---------------------------(2)
Now, adding (1) and (2) we get,
Ai + Ar +Ai - Ar = At (Z1+Z2) / Z1
∴ Ai = 0.5 At (Z1+Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(3)
Subtracting (2) from (1) we get,
Ai + Ar - Ai + Ar = At (Z1-Z2) / Z1
∴ Ar = 0.5 At (Z1-Z2) / Z1 -----------------------------------------(4)
∴ Reflection amplitude coefficient = r12 = Ar/Ai = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)
Now, from (1) we have
Ai + Ar = At
or, 1 + (Ar / Ai) = (At / Ai) [dividing both sides by Ai]
or, 1 + r12 = At / Ai
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SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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or 1 + (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2) = At / Ai
(a)
We know, V= T / µ and Z = T/V. Therefore, Z = Tµ
∴ Z1/Z2 = µ1 / µ 2
(i)For, µ2/µ1 = 4, Z1/Z2 = 1/2, Z2 = 2Z1
Fraction of incident amplitude reflected = r12 = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)
= (Z1 – 2Z1) / (Z1+2Z1)
= - 1/3
Fraction of incident amplitude transmitted = t12 = 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
= 2Z1 / (Z1+2Z1)
= 2/3
For, µ2/µ1 = 1/4, Z1/Z2 = 2, Z1 = 2Z2
Fraction of incident amplitude reflected = r12 = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)
= (2Z2 – Z2) / (3Z2)
= 1/3
Fraction of incident amplitude transmitted = t12 = 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
= 4Z2 / (3Z2)
= 4/3
(ii) For, µ2/µ1 = 4, Z1/Z2 = 1/2, Z2 = 2Z1
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=8/9
(b)
Acoustic impedance of air = Z1 = ρair * Vair
= 1.29 * 334 kg/m^2/s
= 430.86 kg/m^2/s
Acoustic impedance of water = Z2 = ρwater * Vwater
= 1000 * 1480
= 1480000 kg/m^2/s
Ratio of the amplitude enters water to that of incident wave = t12
= 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
= 5.82*10^-4
Fraction of the incident energy flux enters the water = It/Ii
= 4Z2Z1 / (Z1+Z2) 2
= 1.16*10^-3
P.T.O.
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use of microprocessor techniques processing speed has been increased significantly,
and several manufacturers are now producing commercial systems for industrial use.
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8. (a) Briefly discuss the working principle of pulse echo flaw detector.
(b) Draw and describe the schematic block diagram of pulse echo method of flaw
detection system.
(c) What are the influences that affect the amplitude of the received echo?
(d) What are the general specifications that are accessed in accordance with
particular applications of pulse echo flaw detector?
(e) What is the role of repetition frequency generator and base line voltage in
pulse echo method of flaw detection? 3+4+2+3+3
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SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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The frequency generator triggers both the sweep generator and pulse generator. Now
the pulse generator excites the transducer. Now the fact to be noted is that, the sweep
generator is triggered a little before the pulse generator (as well as the transducer) is
triggered (Tt>Ts). This is because we want to obtain the main echo rather than the
side echoes for our measurement. Actually, during each ramp of the sweep generator
output, the bright voltage of CRO exists and echoes are visible. If, during the main
echo, ramp is not present then we will not be able to see that main echo.
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SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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(d) General specifications:-
Ambient conditions
A testing device must be fully operational even when subjected to adverse ambient
conditions. According to DIN (a set of German standards), there must be a difference
between the conditions for “storage & transport” and for “use”. Under the first, it is
necessary for the device not to be damage when not in use. Under the second, it must
be guaranteed that all equipments functions operate in accordance with performance
specifications. The most important ambient conditions are:-
Range of temperature.
Humidity of the air and dew point.
Mechanical stress produced by shocks and vibrations.
Stability of the mains voltage.
Electromagnetic interference fields.
Rain, sprayed water, dust and dirt.
Ambient light intensity and its effect on the readability of the CRO screen
and / or any digital display.
Operation, reliability of inspection:-
Time needed for training of an operator.
Fail-safe properties.
Reproducibility of the results of any test.
Brightness of the screen, sharpness of focusing, size etc of the display unit.
Design, layout and number of control.
Calculating aids for sound beam calculation.
Simplicity of adjustments.
Potential for connection to computers.
To these general specifications must be added the safety requirements of the VDE
(Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker) and the requirements for possible interference
with communications by the German Post Office..
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SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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Figure 10: Waveforms of different blocks of pulse echo flaw detector forTt<Ts
9. (a)????????????????????????
(b) Three strings are joined together and the composite string is stretched with a
tension of 10N. The linear densities of strings 1 & 3 are 1*10^-3Kg/m & 4*10^-
3Kg/m respectively. A transverse wave of frequency 100Hz is produced in string
1. Calculate the linear density and length of intermediate string 2 so that the
wave is completely transmitted through the composite string without any loss
due to reflection at the boundary.
We know, Z = T / V = T / T / µ = Tµ
∴ Z1 = Tµ1 = 10 * 1 * 10^ −3 = 0.1kg / m 2 / sec
and Z3 = Tµ 3 = 10 * 4 * 10^ −3 = 0.2 kg / m 2 / sec
For zero reflection, Z2 must be = Z1Z 3 = 0.1 * 0.2 kg / m 2 / sec
Again we know Z2 = Tµ 2
∴ µ2 = Z2 2 / T = 0.1*0.2 / 10 = 2 * 10^-3kg/m
Now, velocity (V) = frequency (f) * wavelength (λ)
V2 = f * λ2 (Frequency of the wave remains unchanged in 3 mediums)
λ2 = V2 / f = T / µ 2 / f = 10 /(2 * 10^ −3) / 100 = 5000 /100 = 0.707m
As per condition, the length of the 2nd medium should be = L = λ2/4 = 0.176m
P.T.O.
SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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boundary undergoes a phase change of π.
(b) The ultrasonic level measurement is based on transit time of ultrasonic wave
measuring (generally 30 to 300kHz is used) procedure. The ultrasound travels from
the transmitter TX and a part of it is reflected back from the liquid-air interface and
received by the receiver RX. When the TX & RX are placed at the bottom (bottom),
the transit time is directly proportional to the level. But when TX & RX are placed at
the (roof), the transit time is proportional to the gap (may be air gap) between roof
and liquid level. In this case, one has to subtract the directly obtained gap length from
the height of the tank to get the liquid level.
In fig-12, the transit time measuring arrangement is shown. The pulse generator (PG)
excites the Pulse oscillator (PO) at the same moment. Then and there the PO excites
the TX crystal and US wave is sent to the tank. At that moment, the SR input of the
SR F/F is S=1, R=0 and O/P=1. Now, after reflected back the US wave is received by
RX and the RX generates a pulse which is detected by the amplifier-comparator and
inputs of SR F/F becomes S = 1, R = 1 and output changes to 0. In fig-12, a single
element TX/RX is shown. Now the time taken by the SR F/F O/P from 1 to 0 is
nothing but the transit time and Fathometer is generally used to measure that time.
Figure 11: Ultrasonic level measurement. Unit at bottom (left) and unit at top (right)
P.T.O.
SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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Where, Y (1, 2) = Young’s modulus of medium (1, 2)
ρ = density of mediums (same for both 1 & 2)
Again, impedances of two mediums = Z1 and Z2
Where, Z1 = ρV1 and Z2 = ρV2
Now, Z1 / Z2 = V1 / V2 = Y 1 / Y 2 = 1/ 2
∴ Z2 = 2 Z1
Now, reflection amplitude coefficient = r12 = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2)
= (1- 2 ) / (1+ 2 )
= -0.17
Transmission amplitude coefficient = t12 = 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
= 2 / (1+ 2 )
= 0.82
(d)
We know, r12 = (Z1-Z2) / (Z1+Z2) and t12 = 2Z1 / (Z1+Z2)
The condition given is Z2 > Z1
∴ Always r12 < 0
But, r12 = Ar / Ai
11. (a) Discuss briefly how piezoelectric plate can be used as transmitter and
receiver of ultrasound.
(b) Briefly discuss the applications of ultrasonic waves in medical diagnosis.
(a) With a single crystal vertical probe (normal probe) the generated ultrasonic wave
passes into the test body in a perpendicular direction. The probe is shown in fig-14
and is coupled to the test body by coupling layers. It mainly consists of active
element, backing surface and wear plate. If necessary, there are also electrical
matching elements and all are kept in a single housing.
P.T.O.
SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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Wear plate: - Its Basic purpose is to protect the active element from the external
testing environment. In case of contact transducers, the wear plate must be a
corrosion resistant material (steel). Also a wear plate having proper impedance (that
depend upon the impedances of active element & test medium) and proper size
(0.25*wavelength of ultrasound) can allow as much as energy possible to come out
from the active element.
P.T.O.
SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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12. Write short notes on any three of the following:
a. Acoustic holography
b. Ultrasonic transit time flow-meter
c. A scan, B scan and C scan display
d. Attenuation of ultrasonic waves in an absorbing medium
e. Ultrasonography
P.T.O.
SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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c. A-scan, B-scan and C-scan display
Ultrasonic data can be controlled and displayed by number of formats. The 3 most
common formats are known in NDT world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentation.
Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and evaluating the region
of the material to be inspected. Modern computerized US scanning systems can display
data in all 3 modes simultaneously.
A-scan presentation
It displays the amount of received US energy as a function of time. The relative amount
of received energy is plotted along the Y-axis where the elapsed time (time taken by the
US to travel within the material is plotted along X-axis. Most instruments with an A-scan
display allow the received signal to be displayed in its natural radio frequency form and
either rectified or non rectified form. The size of a defect is estimated by comparing the
defect echo amplitude with a known defect-echo amplitude. Position of the defect is
estimated by observing the position of the defect-echo signal on the horizontal sweep.
The test body and the scanning direction are shown in fig-16(a). And the A-scan
representation is shown in fig-16(b). When the transducer is in far left, only the IP and A
(energy reflected back from the surface A) are visible. As the body is scanned from left to
(a) (b)
Figure 16: A-scan representation
right, the BW (back wall) signal will be displayed but at the right most end because the
transit time, in this case, is maximum. Then signal B will appear and at last signal C will
be appear but it is positioned before B as the transit time in case of C is less than that of B
as the flaw C is nearer from the surface than flaw B is.
B-scan presentation
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SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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It is a profile view of the test specimen. Here the time-of-flight of US wave is plotted
along the Y-axis and the linear position of the transducer is plotted along the X-axis.
Here, the depth of the reflector and the linear dimension of the reflector in the scanning
direction are approximated. The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger
gate on the A-scan. When the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point
on the B-scan is produced. In the B-scan image of fig-17, line IP & A is produced as the
transducer is scanned over surface A. then line BW, line B, line C will be gradually
appear as the body is scanned from left to right. The limitation is that, reflectors may be
masked by larger reflectors near the surface.
C-scan presentation
The C-scan representation produces a plane type view of the location and size of the test
body features. The plane of the image is parallel to the scanning plane. C-scan
representation is produced with an automated DAS. Typically, a data collection gate is
established on the A-scan. Amplitude or the time of flight of the signal is recorded at
regular interval as the test body is scanned. The signal amplitude or the time of flight is
displayed as a shade of gray or a color for each of the positions where data was recorded.
In this way, the C-scan produces an image of the reflectors within the test body (fig-18).
P.T.O.
SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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The inverse of “α” is called the attenuation length (1/α). It is defined as the distance
traveled by wave over which the amplitude is decreased by a factor “e = 2.718”, i.e. for x
= 1/α, A(x) = Ao exp(−1) = Ao/e.
Dispersive medium and dispersion relation:- The displacement of particles of wave when
traveling in an absorbing medium in positive X direction s given by:
Y(x,t) = Ao exp(−αx) exp (i *(2π/λ)∗(Vt – x))
= Ao exp[(2πi/λ)(Vt – x)−αx]
= Ao exp[(2Vπi/λ)(t – x/V)−αx]
= Ao exp[2νπi(t – x/V)−αx] [Q V/λ = ν]
= Ao exp[2νπi(t – x/V−αx/2νπi)]
= Ao exp[2νπi{ t – x(1/V+α/2νπi)}]
= Ao exp[2νπi{t – x(1/V−αi/2νπ)}]
= Ao exp[2νπi(t – x/V*)]
Where, 1/V* = 1/V−α −αi/2νπ
−α νπ
This V* is called the complex wave velocity applicable for the waves traveling through
absorbing medium. In practice this method of introducing the complex wave finds
application chiefly in optics in which we define the refractive index as n = c / V Where, c
is the velocity of light in vacuum and v is the velocity of light at that medium. In
absorbing medium the complex refractive index is given as:
n* = c / V*
= c / V − cαi/2νπ
= n − cαi/2νπ
This shows that the refractive index (and hence the wave velocity) depends on the
frequency ν (or the wavelength λ ) of the wave in an absorbing medium. Such a
medium is called dispersive medium and this relation between wave velocity and
frequency (or wavelength) is called dispersive relation.
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SOLUTION_QUESTION_BANK_ULTRASONIC_SOUMYA
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Now, We know, energy flux = intensity ∝ (Amplitude) 2
∝ [A(x)] 2
= Κ (Ao) 2 exp (−2αx)
(Where, K is a constant)
∴ Energy flux = Κ (Ao) exp (−2αx)
2
This implies that the attenuation length in case of intensity is half that of amplitude. This
loss of intensity during the propagation of the ultrasonic wave is appears as heat in the
system.
P.T.O.