Maid A

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1 Wheat Elieser S. Posner Consultant, Savyon, Israel I Origin Historic documents confirm that wheat is the earliest field crop used for human food processing [1]. It also became the leading grain used for human consumption due to its nutritive profile and relatively easy harvesting, storing, transportation, and processing, as compared to other grains. The earliest varieties, grown 12,00017,000 years ego in the Near East, were Triticum monococcum (einkorn) and Triticum dicoccum (emmer). Continued breeding resulted in the development of new varieties around the world that often became adapted to areas previously unsuited for the cultivation of wheat. The main wheat varieties grown today are Triticum aestivum, subspecies vulgare, which is a hexaploid with six groups of seven chromosomes in each group. This species includes hard red winter, hard red spring, soft red winter, and white wheats. Another wheat durum is a tetraploid, containing four groups of seven chromosomes totaling 28 chromosomes. The botanical name of durum wheat is Triticum durum. A limited area is planted with the soft white wheat variety of Triticum aestivum, subspecies compactum, commonly known as club wheat. Currently about 4000 different wheat varieties are grown around the world. II Morphology of the Wheat Kernel Data related to the morphology of the wheat kernel and proximate analyses vary in different research reports. This variability is likely due to the different types and growing conditions of wheats analyzed. In general, there are about 30,000 cells in a wheat kernel, and their content varies significantly depending on their location in the kernel [2]. Extensive studies have been conducted on the botanical outer layers of wheat kernels. Their metabolic significance, size, and thickness changes from fertilization of the ovary by the pollen of the same plant were reported [3]. A longitudinal and cross section of a wheat kernel along with an identification of its components is shown in Figure 1. Table 1 shows the typical values of wheat kernel parts and their proximate analysis. The morphology of the wheat kernel is unique and as such creates technical (milling) challenges in separating the endosperm and the germ from the outer fibrous layers, commonly named the ''bran." The presence of the crease (about 25% of the kernel surface), which extends almost to the center of the wheat kernel [7], requires special consideration in grinding. The wheat germ (about 24% of the kernel weight) is located on the dorsal side. The wheat germ parts are the embryo, with rudimentary roots and shoots, and the scutulum, which is a transport organ of nutrition to the embryo during sprouting. At the opposite end of the kernel germ, there is a cluster of short fine hairs about 1015 Pm in diameter and 0.5 mm long [8]. The wheat kernel outer botanical coats (about 78% of the kernel weight) consist of several distinct cellulose-rich layers. The outermost layer, the pericarp (fruit coat), is made up of the outer pericarp, which includes the outer epidermis, hypodermis, thin-walled cells, and the inner pericarp, which includes intermediate-size cells, cross layers, and tube cells (inner epidermis). The inner layers are the seed coat (testa) and nucellar epidermis (hyaline layer) [8]. The thickness of the bran coat of hard red winter wheat
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Figure 1 View of a wheat kernel in (a) longitudinal section and (b) cross section. (From the Wheat Flour Institute, Washington, DC.) varieties ranges from 67 to 70 Pm [9]. Between the nucellar epidermis and the starchy endosperm we find the aleurone layer, having high soluble protein and mineral contents. The aleurone layer constitutes about 58% of the wheat kernel. This layer is botanically similar to the endosperm, but it is difficult to separate from the bran by conventional milling techniques. Depending on the kind of wheat, the thickness of the aleurone layer varies.
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Bradbury et al. [10] reported its thickness to be about 46.9 Pm; Crew and Jones [11] found the average thickness of the aleurone layer to be 3060 Pm. Mechanical damage or hydrolysis with cellulase of the aleurone thick cell wall allows access to proteins within the aleurone layer [12]. Although nutritious, incorporation of a fraction with a large percentage of aleurone layer adversely affects the baking quality of flour [13]. The endosperm of the kernel was also shown to follow a gradient [14] in ash, protein content, gluten characteristics, and baking quality. III Breeding, Growing Conditions, and Their Effect on Quality Among wheats grown all over the world there are three major distinctions. The first one, which affects their func-
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TABLE 1 Average Values of Wheat Constituents and Their Proximate Analysisa Kernel Embryo Scutellum Pericarp Aleurone Endosperm (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Wheats Common 1.54 7.9 100 1.2 6.77.0 8184 Durum 100 1.6 12 86.4 Proximate analysis Protein 12.6 35.0 18 26.0 57 7.413.9 Ash 1.9 5.45 5.08.0 34 1417 0.280.40 Fat 1.6 16.3 32.0 35 10 0.81.5 Starch 59.2 68 Pentosans 6.7 1.4 6.6 34.9 39.0 Cellulose 2.3 38.4 3.5 0.3 2.0 Calories 354 177 247 354 314 a14% moisture basis. Source: Adapted from Refs. 46. tional and concomitantly end-use characteristics, is whether the wheat is a winter or spring type. Winter wheats are fall-planted and require a period of low temperature (vernalization). Winter wheats are harvested during June or July. Spring wheats do not require vernalization, are spring-planted, and are harvested during August or September in the Northern Hemisphere. Spring wheats can be fall-planted in regions with mild winter temperatures [15]. The second distinction is the kernel color. The majority of wheats are red or white as a result of the presence or absence of red-brown pigments in the seed coat. Some wheats of uncommon colors can be found in some parts of the world. The third distinction between wheats is due to differences in varieties. Endosperm hardness differs, affecting the wheat milling characteristics. Soft, hard, or durum wheats differ in endosperm structure, hardness, and protein characteristics. Consequently, they are milled differently and the resulting flours are suitable for different end uses. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the relationship between protein percentage, wheat type, hardness, and end-product utilization. Soft wheat endosperm includes air spaces in the protein matrix, and, as indicated by light scattering in these spaces, the endosperm is chalky. In the endosperm protein matrix of hard vitreous wheats, air spaces are absent and its appearance is dense and glossy. The soft wheat varieties with low protein are also evaluated in terms of suitability for soft wheat milling and in the production of cakes and cookies. Hard wheat qualities are defined in terms of their milling characteristics and the quality of the breads produced. Quality within the same kind of wheat is influenced by local climate, soil conditions, and variety. Rain and sun at appropriate periods are important to the yield of wheat per acre and its quality. Usually there are up to five kernels on the same spikelet of the plant. In the center are the largest and heaviest kernels. In general, the length of the wheat kernel is attributed to the variety and the width to the growing conditions. The differences in test weight, ash, protein, sugar, and starch in wheats of the same variety grown in different environments are much larger than those in wheats of different varieties grown under comparable conditions [16]. Shrunken wheat kernels are a direct result of growing conditions and affect flour extraction and quality. Sprouted wheat kernels are a result of excessive moisture during harvest time. Breeding programs of new wheat varieties consider production yield per acre, hardness, flour extraction, protein level, as well as other parameters related to processing. One of the main objectives of breeding programs to select varieties resistant to diseases that attack the plant during the growing period. Resistance to rust, smut, and other sicknesses is genetically
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selected during development of new varieties. Wheat grown in adverse weather conditions might also be affected by fungi and disease during the development period of the kernel. Fungi affecting wheat during early development stages might introduce vomitoxin (DON) into the kernels, which will result in shrunken kernels of lower quality [17]. Some of the problems with diseases in wheat in the last few years can be attributed to the change in tillage practices. Tillage of wheat fields is necessary for the development of a good seedbed, for the control of weeds, and for the destruction of insects and diseases harbored in the debris left after harvest. Breeders require meaningful information for predicting the intrinsic value of genotypes in order to screen the potential lines in early generations. Selection of attributes
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Figure 2 Schematic diagram of relationship between percentages of protein, wheat type, hardness, and end-product utilization. during the breeding program concentrates also on properties that contribute to the processing quality of the wheat. Usually the final decisions about commercialization of new varieties are based on comparison to known varieties as standards. While microtests are performed on early generations, comprehensive tests evaluate larger quantities from later generations by largescale milling and bread baking or other end uses. Analytical as well as milling and baking methods were designed to evaluate the small quantities of wheat from early generations of breading programs [1821]. Analyses of research data generate regression lines to indicate potential performance of new varieties in baking. The regression lines for different wheat varieties (Fig. 3) form a fan-shaped family of lines indicating loaf volume increases with increased protein content within a variety [22]. However, other results shows that in some kinds of wheat, above a certain extraction level there is a decrease in loaf volume [23]. Parameters that could be determined by image analyses and test weight values were used in selecting seeds for breeding [24]. Sixty-six percent of the variation in flour yield was identified by those physical parameters. Statistical analysis systems were used as an aid in the handling of data for quality evaluation of breeder's selections of hard red spring and durum wheat [25]. Personal computerbased software systems were used for the management of wheat quality data of experimental breeding lines and commercial check sample cultivars [26]. Part of the software is a grading system, which facilitates a rapid and unbiased evaluation of numerous discrete wheat and flour analytical values. New breeding lines are compared to known qualities and historically derived limits of statistical differences of the check samples. New tools for improving wheat processing and end-use qualities are being developed using biotechnology. This approach broadens the available germplasm beyond the current
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collections of native germplasm and enables one to modify components such as oils, starches, and proteins. The introduction of high molecular weight glutenin genes into a wheat variety results in more of the gluten protein subunit glutenin [27], which provides the extensibility needed for good bread. IV Wheat Trade and Consumption The stability of wheat in storage under appropriate conditions made it the first-ranked trading food commodity for human consumption. The production and price of wheat
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fluctuate from year to year as a result of supply and demand in different parts of the world. Climatic conditions and diseases affect wheat availability. Figure 4 shows the global economic data, growing areas, production, leading exporters, and consumption of wheat [28]. Wheat consumption around the world for food, feed, seed, and other uses is estimated to be 73.8, 16.1, 5.6, and 4.5%, respectively [28]. During the 1995/96 crop year, the estimated wheat usage in the United States for food, feed, and seed was 77.4, 13.5, and 9.0%, respectively. The annual worldwide increase of wheat consumption is between 0.5 and 1.5%. China is the largest wheat-producing and wheat-consuming country in the world, with a total consumption during the 1995/96 crop year of 119 million metric tons [28]. China's consumer demand for food wheat is growing, while its production capacity is leveling off. Increases in Chinese import demand usually affect the world markets. V Classification and Grading of Wheat Many wheat kinds and classes, available around the world, vary in quality as a result of climate, irrigation, specific va-
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Figure 3 Loaf volume-protein content regression lines for eight hard spring and two hard winter wheat varieties. (From Ref. 22.) riety characteristics, growing conditions, harvesting, and handling. Figure 2 summarizes the utilization requirements of different wheat kinds, hardness, and protein content for major wheat-based products. Presently, wheats are graded differently in exporting and importing countries [29]. In some countries the government is involved in setting limits for contaminants in imported wheats. In others, mainly exporting countries like United States, government officers inspect, according to official standards, all exported wheat; domestically traded wheat is inspected upon request only. Table 2 shows the U.S. grading system for wheat [30]. In the United States the grading standards for hard red winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, common white wheat, and club wheat went into effect on July 1, 1916. Standards for all other wheats became effective on August 1, 1917 [31]. The current grading system covers eight classes of wheat: durum, hard red spring, hard red winter, soft red winter, hard white, soft white, unclassed, and mixed
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wheat. Durum, hard red spring, and white wheat are further divided into subclasses. According to the U.S. standards for wheat, the definitions for the classes and subclasses are as follows: 1. Durum wheat: all varieties of white (amber) durum wheat. This class is divided into three subclasses: (1) hard amber durum wheatthis subclass designates durum wheat with 75% or more of hard and vitreous kernels of amber color; (2) amber durum wheatthis subclass is durum wheat with 60% or more but less than 75% hard and vitreous kernels of amber color; (3) durum wheatdurum wheat with less than 60% hard vitreous kernels with amber color. 2. Hard red spring wheat: all varieties of hard red spring wheat. This class is divided into the following three subclasses: (1) dark northern spring wheathard red spring wheat with 75% or more dark, hard, and vitreous kernels; (2) northern spring wheathard red spring wheat with 25% or more but less than 75% dark, hard, and vitreous kernels; (3) red spring wheathard red spring wheat with less than 25% dark, hard, and vitreous kernels. 3. Hard red winter wheat: all varieties of hard red winter wheat. There are no subclasses in this wheat class. 4. Soft red winter wheat: all varieties of soft red winter wheat. There are no subclasses in this wheat class. 5. Hard white wheat: all hard endosperm white wheat varieties. There are no subclasses in this class. 6. Soft white wheat: all soft endosperm white wheat varieties. This class is divided into the following three subclasses: (1) soft white wheatsoft endosperm white wheat varieties that contain not more than 10% of white club wheat; (2) white club wheatsoft en-
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Figure 4 Wheat economics, 1995/96, depicted by percentage of world totals. Former Soviet Union. (From Ref. 28.) dosperm white club wheat containing not more than 10% of other soft white wheats; (3) western white wheatsoft white wheat containing more than 10% white club wheat and more than 10% other soft white wheats. 7. Unclassed wheat: any variety of wheat that is not classified under other criteria provided in the wheat standards. There are no subclasses in this class. This class includes any wheat that is other than red or white in color. 8. Mixed wheat: any mixture of wheat that consists of less than 90% of one class and more than 10% of one other class or a combination of classes that meet the definition of wheat. Each class and subclass is divided into five numerical grades and a U.S. Sample Grade. The grade designation affects the trading value of the wheat. In Canada the Board of Grain Commissioners enforces the standards for wheat exports. The Board establishes ''export standard samples" for a number of grades. The export standard for each grade, established each year, is a mixture of three parts of wheat equal to the average quality of the grade for the respective crop year and one part of wheat equal to the minimum quality permitted by the basic grade. There are seven classes of wheat divided into spring and winter classes. The five spring wheats are Canadian western, hard red spring, Canadian western amber durum, Canadian western utility, Canadian prairie spring, and Canadian western soft white spring. The two winter wheats are Canadian western red winter and Canadian eastern white winter. Only the registered varieties are equal to standard varieties, which are eligible for classification under the seven classes. There are also wheat of other classes for nonregistered varieties. The Australian Wheat Board annually issues receiving standards and dockage schedules that list grade specifications and tolerances for Australian standard white, Australian general purpose, and Australian
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feed wheats. The Australian wheat is classified into classes that fall into two categoriesmilling and nonmilling wheats. The milling wheat group includes Australian prime hard, Australian
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hard, Australian standard white, Australian soft, and Australian durum wheats. They are further classified into grades based on the state of origin, protein content, grain hardness, milling quality, and dough properties. There are two additional classes, Australian general purpose and Australian feed, which do not conform to the standards of milling wheats in terms of test weight, weather damage, and levels of unmillable material or foreign matter. The International Association of Cereal Chemistry (ICC) evaluates wheat on the basis of its Besatz (extraneous matter) content [32]. According to ICC methods, which have been accepted as the European Economic Community [33] official methods, Total Besatz (Gesamtbesatz) is made up of two parts: Kornbesatz and Schwartzbesatz. Kornbesatz consists of material with some milling value such as shrunken and broken kernels. Schwartzbesatz is foreign material that has no milling value. Wheat milling technology is becoming technically similar in different parts of the world as a result of a reduction in the number of equipment suppliers and easy access to information. On the other hand, wheat is still graded differently in countries around the world using different methods and TABLE 2 U.S. Wheat Grades and Grade Requirements Grading factors 1 Minimum pound limits of: Grades U.S. nos. 2 3 4 5
Test weight Hard Red Spring wheat or White Club wheat lbs/bu 58.0 57.0 All other classes and subclasses lbs/bu 60.0 58.0 Maximum percent limits of: Defects Damaged kernels Heat (part of total) 0.2 0.2 Total 2.0 4.0 0.4 0.7 Foreign material 3.0 5.0 Shrunken & broken kernels 3.0 5.0 Total1 Wheat of other classes2 Contrasting classes 1.0 2.0 Total3 3.0 5.0 0.1 0.1 Stones Maximum count limits of: Other material Animal filth 1 1 Castor beans 1 1 Crotalaria seeds 2 2 Glass 0 0 Stones 3 3 Unknown foreign substance 3 3 Total4 4 4 Insect-damaged kernels in 100 grams 31 31 U.S. Sample grade Wheat that: (a) Does not meet the requirements for U.S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; or
55.0 56.0
53.0 54.0
50.0 51.0
0.5 7.0 1.3 8.0 8.0 3.0 10.0 0.1
1.0 10.0 3.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 10.0 0.1
3.0 15.0 5.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 10.0 0.1
1 1 2 0 3 3 4 31
1 1 2 0 3 3 4 31
1 1 2 0 3 3 4 31
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(b) Has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut or garlic odor) or (c) Is heating or of distinctly low quality. 1Includes damaged kernels (total), foreign material, and shrunken and broken kernels. 2Unclassed wheat of any grade may contain not more than 10.0 percent of wheat of other classes. 3Includes contrasting classes. 4Includes any combination of animal filth, castor beans, crotalaria seeds, glass, stones, or unknown foreign substance.
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factors. Current classifications and methods used in different parts of the world were developed when processing methods were different and international trade was not at its present volume. There is a need to develop a comprehensive worldwide universal wheatgrading system that will identify qualities and values important to farmers, traders, millers, and bakers for domestic and export markets. VI Evaluation of Wheat The value of wheat depends upon its milling and flour end use quality. This can be accurately determined through actual milling and baking tests. The miller has to assess wheat quality and evaluate its suitability to produce, individually or in a blend, final flour specifications. In addition, the miller has to determine the expected wheat-processing performance in the mill, the resulting flour extraction, and other qualities such as color, particle size, and starch damage. Flour extraction is the proportion of the wheat recovered as flour during milling. The following are tests of importance to the miller for evaluating wheats and flours: experimental milling, physical, chemical, physical-chemical, dough rheology, and the baking test. Wheat and flour testing can follow different official methods such as those of the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC), the International Association of Cereal Chemists (ICC), or the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). A Physical Wheat Tests The following tests are used: 1. Test weight: quality test which is basically a rough measure of density of grain in terms of weight per volume, i.e., the weight (lb.) per volume bushel (Winchester bushel in U.S.; Imperial in Canada). The hectoliter weight (hL), indicating the weight in kg/hL (100 L), is used in the metric system countries. No uniform conversion factors between test weight and hL weight values are possible due to differences in kernel shape, size, and procedures for determination of these values. 2. Thousand kernel weight (TKW): a quality test to determine the potential milling value of wheat. Weight of 1000 kernels gives an indication of kernel density and its consequent flour yield. The advantage of TKW is that the weight can be expressed on a desired-moisture basis. 3. Kernel size distribution: the size distribution of kernels in a wheat sample can be determined using a stack of sieves. The ''theoretical flour yield" can be determined by the total value of multiplying the percentage above each sieve by a factor [34]. The factors can be calculated using multiple regression analysis for a mill, based on a database in which percentages of wheat sizes are the independent variables and the actual flour yields are the dependent variables [35]. 4. Kernel hardness: a relative term, which is related to the disintegration of the endosperm during its separation from bran and germ. Currently, hardness values are determined by nearinfrared refraction (NIR) or mechanical crushing instruments such as the single kernel characterization system (SKCS). They are used to identify variation of wheat characteristics in the trading system as well as indicate processing characteristics [36]. 5. Assessment of the milling quality of wheat is performed using an experimental unit using a sample of about 10001500 g. Experimental milling can give a preliminary indication whether a wheat alone or in a mix of wheats complies with a required quality. An experimental mill should be differentiated from a laboratory mill that is a milling unit with a fixed setting, where all wheat samples are treated in the same manner during milling. Flour samples produced with
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laboratory mills in a relatively short time can be used for further testing but do not provide information on the wheat-milling properties. Official methods explain the procedures for using experimental mills and should be followed rigidly, preferably by the same operator [37]. Improved experimental mills are fitted with technical parameters of the commercial mill where the wheat is expected to be processed. Accurate sampling, tempering, and controlled environment in the facility and uniform practices ensure reproducibility and confidence in the results. Flours from experimental milling procedures could be used for further rheological and baking tests. 6. Other physical and chemical evaluation tests performed in the mill laboratory include those for moisture, protein, ash, fatty acids, amylase activity, Falling Number, and gluten quantity and quality. B Rheological Tests; Baking Tests The more sophisticated and automated the bakery plant of the mill's customers, the more effort should be devoted to achieving a uniformity of the end product. The data from physical or rheological dough testing and baking tests simulate critical parameters required by the process in the bakery [38]. Details of these test procedures are discussed in Chapter 16 of this handbook.
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VII Wheat Processing A Storage It is important to preserve the quality and economic value of wheat as it moves from the field into storage at the processing mill. If not properly stored, insects, moisture damage, or other conditions may cause losses. Moisture and temperature are two main factors that influence the development of grain molds and insects in stored wheat. In some areas of the world, where wheat is harvested at a high moisture content, wheat should be carefully dried to a moisture below 12.5%, a level regarded as safe for storage. Wheat exposed to different equilibria of temperature and relative humidity will show increases or decreases in its moisture content [39,40]. The hygroscopic moisture does not increase at a uniform rate when in equilibrium with an increasing atmospheric humidity. A much greater change in hygroscopic moisture is recorded with change in relative humidity from 75 to 90% or from 90 to 100% than from 45 to 60% or 60 to 75% relative humidity. The hygroscopic moisture of all classes of wheat is similar. The rates of insect development and spoilage are related to the moisture content and temperature of the stored wheat. Measures should be taken to control the moisture and temperature of the wheat by aerating the bins with about 0.10.2 m3/min/1000 kg (0.10.2 ft3/min/bu) of air of the appropriate temperature and relative humidity characteristics. Another measure involves using hermetic conditions in the storage bins. It has been established [41] that insects are killed by depletion of oxygen but not by the build-up of carbon dioxide. Established procedures of plant inspection, good housekeeping, fumigation, and other measures such as heat treatment of the facility can control infestation in the flour mill. Welldesigned and well-manufactured equipment that will not harbor material in ''dead corners" where insects could propagate is an important factor. After December 31, 2000, usage of methyl bromide will be outlawed in the USA. This phasing-out of chemical fumigation will require using alternative insect-control methods. One of them would be the use of heat in a prearranged facility for a long enough period to kill all insects. A temperature range of 48.951.7C (120125F) in all parts of the mill for a duration of 1012 hours is sufficient to destroy all insect life [42]. Others recommend 48.857.2C (120135 F) for 16 hours [43]. Insect control in the mill is related not only to spoilage of the raw materials but also to the production of flour within insect fragment count specifications. Wheat arriving at the mill is usually precleaned before storage in the mill elevator (silo) bins (Fig. 5). Magnets, large-capacity sieve cleaners, and strong aspiration remove large chaff and dust from the wheat. Precleaning removes contaminants from wheat to allow its longer storage, more efficient usage of storage space, and subsequently better and uninterrupted flow from the bins. Frequently the conveying equipment to transport wheat from the unloading point to precleaning and then to the storage bins is also used for turning and blending wheat in the elevator. When moved, wheat dust is produced by abrasion of the kernels. Consequently, all handling equipment and empty spaces in the elevator should be under low negative pressure. The exhaust system consists of ducts, suction fans, and air filters or dust collectors. An efficient exhaust system to handle dust from all points in the facility prevents loss of material and dust explosions. Depending on the mill's location, its elevator should have a storage capacity of up to 23 months of production. In some cases wheat arrives at the mill elevator with an 89% moisture content and water is added to the precleaned wheat to raise its moisture to a maximum of 12.5%. By adding
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moisture to the wheat before storage, the miller can subsequently reduce the tempering time of dry wheat in the mill. Wheat will absorb water more readily after it has been tempered. B Blending Usually a mill is designed for milling wheat of a certain class and physical characteristics. However, a mill designed for one class of wheat (e.g., hard or soft) does not ensure uniformity of end-product quality. Wheat arriving at the mill usually varies in quality and requires blending to deliver a "wheat mix" of uniform qualities. Wheat blending is the initial step in providing bakers with a uniform flour. Accordingly, mills prepare "wheat mixes" of certain protein levels or other quality characteristics. There are different methods of blending. Some millers blend wheats directly in storage bins, others before grinding [44]. Wheat blending just before the milling process is mainly applied when the components of the "wheat mix" differ in endosperm hardness and require adjustments of moisture levels and tempering times prior to milling. C Cleaning Intensive cleaning of the wheat before milling ensures that bacteria, mold, undesired seeds, infested kernels, shrunken and broken kernels, and other foreign materials do not contaminate the mill products or damage the equipment (Fig. 6). Separation in the mill cleaninghouse is based on the following differences between whole sound wheat kernels
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Figure 5 Schematic diagram of a mill elevator. and unmillable materials: size and dimension, shape, specific gravity, different behavior in air currents, different surface friction, elasticity and texture, magnetic properties, friability under impact, differences in color, and electrostatic properties. Shrunken kernels in which the ratio of bran to endosperm is higher than in sound kernels cause a reduction in flour extraction [45]. Exposed endosperm of broken kernels would affect significantly the tempering water distribution in the wheat and cause a deterioration of milling quality [46,47]. Magnets or metal-removing equipment separate foreign materials that could damage equipment or generate a spark in today's fast-turning and precisely designed equipment. Sparks in a confined space, within a machine or in a facility in which dust of optimal granulation and concentration is generated, could cause a dust explosion. Initially, the foreign material is removed by a series of screens of selected apertures that remove matter either smaller or larger in size than the wheat kernels. Sieves in the milling separator, similar to those used in the receiving section but with about one third to one half of the load, are finer and more carefully adjusted to the size of the wheat kernels. Gravity separators separate out impurities similar to wheat in size but different in specific gravity. Adjusted air currents are drawn through a layer of wheat moving on a tilted screen. Stones or other materials heavier than wheat are segregated and remain closer to the screen. The lighter wheat floats down the screen, while the heavier stones ''climb" the vibrating screen to the outlet. Following the gravity separators, machines such as the disc separator remove impurities that are similar in diameter but different in shape from the whole wheat kernels. The disc separator utilizes a series of rotating discs with indentations or pockets on both sides to effect separation.
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The discs rotate within the machine and raise those kernels that fit into the pockets. The picked-up particles are dropped into channels between the discs. Pocket configurations depend on the size and shape of the seeds and grain to be separated. The bulk of the wheat in the machine is forwarded to the outlet with angled pallets at the center part of each disc. The level of wheat is controlled with a gate at the outlet end of the machine. The efficiency of separation is also controlled by the option to divert picked-up particles into a screw conveyor that can return them to the head end of the machine.
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Another machine using the principle of shape differences is the indentation cylinder. This device has a lower capacity and is less efficient than the disc separator. Particles are picked up by indentations in a rotating metal cylinder and dropped into a collecting trough. The cylinder is rotated at a speed just below that at which centrifugal force would prevent the lifted particles from dropping out. The disc separator or the indentation cylinder pockets sizes can be selected from manufacturer catalogs to separate shorter particles from the bulk of wheat or the wheat kernels from longer kernels, such as those of barley and oats. Dry scouring of the wheat removes any dirt adhering to the kernel. In the scorer a rotor bounces the wheat against the wall of the machine, which may be of a perforated sheet metal, a steel wire woven screen, or an emery surface. Machines are available with vertical or horizontal design and different rotor configurations. Throughout the wheat-cleaning process all machines and handling equipment are under negative pressure to remove fine dust and light materials. The negative air pressure systems use controlled velocities and pressures to secure separation of particles with different resistance to air flow due to size, density, shape, or other physical characteristics. New wheatcleaning machine designs include air-circulating units as an attachment. Only about 10% of outside air is used during circulation. The concept of circulating air in machines saves energy, air tunnels to air filters, space, and environmental problems. New designs include machines that combine different principles in one unit. This advantage is claimed, for example, for machines that combine sieve separator, gravity table, destoner, and light material and dust removal by air. Another design includes a coarse sieve, disc separator, and indent cylinder combined in a single machine. D Conditioning Conditioning, a process that adjusts the moisture level of wheat before milling, achieves a mellow endosperm and tough bran. Bran that absorbs proper amounts of moisture becomes elastic and will not splinter during grinding to contaminate the flour with fine particles. Mellow endosperm breaks off the bran during grinding, and less power is required to reduce large pure particles to flour. On the
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Figure 6 Schematic diagram of a wheat-cleaning flow.
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other hand, an excessive moisture level softens the wheat endosperm to a degree where it does not have the resistance to break down to sharp particles that is important for efficient sieving and separation from the bran. Another objective of wheat conditioning is to equalize the hardness of the different kernels in the wheat mix before processing. If the moisture content and hardness of wheat lots in a mix are significantly different, they might be treated separately during the conditioning process. Different methods could be used to condition the wheat before milling. Heating the wheat, application of warm water, application of live steam, or just intensive mixing of wheat and water are some of the methods used to increase the amount and rate of water penetration into the kernel. Moisture pick-up by wheat capillary action increases slightly and linearly with increasing water temperature [48]. The increase from the initial temperature of 26.7C is approximately 2% at 30C and 4% at 90C for each variety of wheat. Excessive heat (above 65C) results in gelatinization of starch and protein denaturation. The current method most frequently used is termed ''tempering." According to this procedure, a calculated amount of water is added to the wheat, which is then intensively mixed in a continuous mixer in order to maximize a uniform dispersion of the water on all wheat kernels. Different mixing rotor configurations or vibration during application of the tempering water are used. The tempered wheat is given a certain rest period in bins to allow the water to distribute optimally within the different parts of the kernel and to equalize or reduce the hydration differences among kernels. Initially the water penetrates at a rapid rate through the germ, while the surface water is prevented from moving through the seedcoat layers. The penetration rate of the water entering through the germ side is affected by the protein content and vitreousness of the endosperm. Optimally conditioned wheat will ensure breakage of the kernel to the required distribution of intermediate materials throughout the process, their quality, and the appropriate load to each of the machines. Water penetration and optimal distribution in the wheat kernel is also a function of wheat size and shape. It was shown that water penetrates at different rates into small, medium, and large kernels of hard red winter wheat [49]. Moisture permeability, surface tension, and differences in cell structure are also parameters to be studied regarding wheat conditioning for milling [50]. Three factors affect the rate and level of water penetration into the kernel: temperature, amount of water, and time. The ideal water and wheat temperature for general tempering conditions is about 25C (77F). Higher temperatures will increase the rate of water penetration into the kernel. Temperatures above 50C will change the endosperm starch and protein characteristics. The wheat delivered to the grinding stages should have the right moisture content and preferably a temperature of about 25C. The bran of cold wheat below 15C will fracture excessively in the breaks and result in higher ash in the flour [51]. At optimum moisture and temperature, a significant increase in flour extraction and quality can be achieved. Maximum wheat and grinding equipment temperature should not be above 38C because of difficulties that could develop in separating the bran from the endosperm [51]. During the milling process 22.5% of the total moisture in the mill materials evaporates. Accordingly, the amount of water added to the wheat should be adjusted based on the raw wheat moisture, environmental conditions in the mill, evaporation of moisture while products are treated by air, heat generated during grinding, and the desired moisture content in the final flour. Typical moisture contents of tempered wheats are: for hard spring wheat, 16.017.0%; hard red winter wheat, 15.516.5%; soft wheat, 14.515.5%; and durum wheat, ~16.017.5%. Tempering time variesthe average times are 36, 24, 10, and 6 hours for hard spring, hard winter, soft, and durum wheats, respectively. Especially hard vitreous kernels would have limited water absorption. Without using special means, hard wheat could absorb only about 33.5% of water at one time. Recently, mechanical means such as high-frequency vibration and various modes of rotors in mixers have been applied. According to different engineering companies, with proper equipment up to 78% moisture could be added in a single tempering
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step. The final decision as to the optimum moisture content for milling and tempering time is a subjective decision the miller makes using a trial-and-error approach. To toughen the bran, 2030 minutes before the milling process the miller adds 0.51.0% water to the wheat; to achieve good results, hard wheats should be tempered twice as described above. Very hard wheats could be tempered three times before milling or follow the method of initial tempering in the elevator (see Section VII.A). In the past different additives such as 0.1% sodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate [52] and others [53] were added to the water to increase the rate of penetration and optimal distribution within the kernels. Scouring and intensive aspiration also take place after the wheat-tempering stage. During the tempering process some of the outer pericarp is loosened (beeswing), and with the scouring action it is removed. The intensive scouring of wheats before and after tempering reduces significantly bacteria, mold, and yeast counts per gram of the finished flours [54]. Some authors [55] claim a reduction of mold, yeast, and bacteria of infected wheat by 9095%. This level of reduction was achieved by the application of high electromagnetic frequency waves of 2325 MHz for 1.52 minutes to a 20 mm wheat layer on a endless belt.
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E The Wheat-Milling Process Wheat flour milling is a process that consists of controlled breaking, reduction, and separation. The objective during milling is to separate the branny cover and germ of the wheat kernel from the endosperm. Breaking of the wheat kernel is affected by corrugated cast steel rolls that gradually separate the endosperm, bran, and germ. Reduction of relatively pure endosperm to particles smaller than 180 Pm is achieved by using smooth rolls. Segregation between the kernel parts occurs in sifters and purifiers. In sifters, sieves separate particles of different size. In purifiers with sieves and air, differences in size, specific gravity, and shape of particles are used to separate particles of pure endosperm and those which include different ratios of bran and endosperm. None of the kernel fractions coming out of the mill are completely pure, and each contains some parts of the others. The level of purity of each product at the end of the mill is one of the measures of mill efficiency. Flour extraction in the mill is measured as percentage of flour produced based on a quantity of wheat that is either dirty, dry, clean, or cleaned and tempered. The basis used for calculation of the extraction rate should be stated with the results. Another measure is the gain/loss or the difference between the wheat arriving in the mill and the total weight of products shipped out. There should be a gain of total product weight after the milling process as a result of the difference between the moisture content of the wheat arriving at the mill and the cumulative moisture content of all final products. The flour-milling process consists of numerous stages that can be divided into the following subprocesses: breaking, grading, purification, sizings, reduction, millfeed handling, germ recovery, and flour dressing. The milling stages of the process are shown on the mill flowsheet, which is a ''map" of the process. The intermediate materials of the process flowing to each of the grinding stages are named accordingly by the miller, such as sizing or middling materials. Figure 7 shows an example of a relatively simplified mill flowsheet. This flowsheet demonstrates the links between the different stages in a milling process as well as the specific parameters of the machines. Materials at different stages of the milling process differ in quality or in the ratio of bran to endosperm and particle size. The efficiency of gradual separation between the endosperm, bran, and germ is directly related to the length and the number of stages in the process. Segregation of the intermediate materials to different grinding stages is based on their size and the amount of undesirable bran and germ particles. In an optimal system each of the materials would be treated individually. However, grinding rolls, sifters, and purifiers are manufactured to standard sizes, and this causes mill designers to compromise on the number of separations in respect to quality and quantity of the intermediate materials. Accordingly, the extent to which intermediate materials are subdivided in the mill is a function of the mill capacity. If the mill capacity is too small, different stages would be underloaded with standard size equipment, and in this case products that are only slightly different should be combined. Grinding of the wheat occurs between two cast rolls that are positioned in a machine structure and rotate against each other. The machine, called a "rollstand," includes usually two pairs of cast rolls, parts that function as the engaging and disengaging mechanism, a system of material feeding to the nip of the rolls, and various automation systems. Modern rollstands include pairs of rolls with diameters of 250 mm and lengths of 6001250 mm. The rolls are held by prelubricated roller bearings and positioned horizontally to each other. Some new rollstand designs come with four pairs of rolls, where two subsequent grinding steps are performed on each side before the material is conveyed to a sifting machine. The rolls rotate at different speeds. The ratio of the speeds is called the differential. Fast rolls of the initial grinding stages (breaks) rotate at about 650 rpm, while those at later stages rotate at about 500 rpm. Differentials range from 2.5:1 to 1.5:1 in the break and reduction rolls, respectively. With
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higher differential, there is a larger shear effect between the rolls, while with lower differential, compression is more significant. The initial grinding stages in the milling process are named "breaks." The breaks are used in the grinding steps of the milling process to separate the bran, germ, and endosperm from each other. The success or failure is measured in the level of achieving, as efficiently as possible, complete separation between the kernel parts. Between corrugated rolls there always exists a small gap, which is absent in smooth reduction rolls. In the conventional milling of hard and durum wheats, the objective is to produce minimal amounts of flour in the breaks but a maximum of clean endosperm chunks. However, with soft wheat, because of the softer, less dense endosperm, the percentage of flour extracted from the breaks in conventional milling is higher than that from hard and durum wheats. One study [34] reports that hard, soft, and durum wheats produced on the first three breaks are 49.8, 44.7, and 77.4 and 5.7, 10.5, and 2.0% of sizings and flour, respectively. The corrugations on the roll surface are grooves with front and back angles (Fig. 8). The steeper front angle is 2535 and the back angle could be between 60 and 75. In general, steeper angles would create more granular fractions, while flatter corrugations would generate finer fractions. The corrugations are cut in a spiral with relation to
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Figure 7 Flowsheet of Kansas State University 200 cwt flour mill. the roll axis ranging in the order of 416%. The inclination would be expressed in inches per foot in the United States or in percent per roll length in European countries. The number of corrugations on the first break rolls would be about four per centimeter; in later stages there is a gradual increase in the number of corrugations per inch (smaller corrugations) on the roll surface. Between corrugations there should be a ''land," which is the width of unmachined roll surface. The land strengthens the corrugations and reduces the bran cuttings to fine particles. The effect of the speed differential between the rolls is also responsible for what is called the "action." The action of the front angle of one roll against that of the other is named "sharp to sharp" (S:S). In the case that the back angle of the two corrugations act against each other, the action is "dull to dull" (D:D). Millers could subjectively arrange roll action as S:D or D:S based on variables related to the wheat condition and mill flowsheet. Starting with the first break, the objective is to open the kernel. The shape and depth of the first break roll corrugations should be selected to fit the size of the kernels. Optimum results in the first break are achieved if the kernels are fed to the gap between the rolls horizontally, held by the corrugation of the slow-moving roll, and opened exactly at the crease by the fast-moving roll. Optimum for the second break rolls and the subsequent breaks is feeding the material (endosperm attached to a flake of bran) directly to a precisely adjusted gap where with the right pressure the
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Figure 8 Roll corrugations: (a) the cutting effect between rolls as a result of corrugations spiral (b) Action between corrugated rolls (S:S) (c) Roll cross section showing the shape of corrugation. fast-moving roll scrapes the endosperm from the bran. As the bran flakes get smaller toward the final breaking stages and the endosperm layer attached to it becomes thinner, gradually smaller corrugations are used (or a larger number of corrugations per inch of roll surface). Optimally conditioned wheat and the right corrugations, pressure, and differential minimize splitting of the bran to particles of a size that can be sieved through with the flour. Good results in conventional milling are obtained when most of the endosperm free bran consists of large flakes.
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The commercial flow should be designed to meet the required capacity, wheat quality, and end products, and it is based on specific machine surface values as shown in Table 3 [56]. For example, the roll unit in the United States allocates 0.3 inch of roll length per 100 pounds (cwt) of flour milled per 24 hours. Mills that use the metric system would express the same roll units as 12.58 mm/100 kg wheat/24 h. Conventionally with a longer break system, up to six stages in hard wheat and seven in durum wheat mills, it is possible to grind the material fed to the rolls in a less severe manner. Roll surfaces should be maintained in good condition to ensure good flour extraction and quality. Depending on the quality of the steel and the type of milling technology used, corrugated rolls should be refurbished every 36 months of milling. Other factors that influence the need for refurbishing are roll surface allocation, feed rate per unit, severity of grinding, wheat hardness, and presence of stones or other impurities in wheat. Recent advances in metallurgy that allow casting of harder outer surfaces for corrugated rolls extend the time between refurbishing up to 8 months. Even when the mix in the mill is changed drastically in wheat size and kernels are smaller or larger than normal, usually mills will continue using the existing corrugations, keeping many exiting variables unaltered. Generally, the gap between the rolls will be adjusted intuitively by the miller based on his or her experience. A few studies were conducted to evaluate the first roll action and the different TABLE 3 Mill Technical Specifications for Major Equipment for Different Kinds of Wheatsa Wheat Hard Soft Durum Roll unit (mm) 1015 1013 1620 Sifter surface (m2) 0.0550.081 0.0830.088 0.0860.093 Purifier width (mm) 37 03 812 aPer 100 kg processed wheat in 24 hours. Source: Ref. 56.
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parameters that could effect conventional milling of different kinds of wheat. Grinding of soft and hard wheats on a set of rolls at different rotating speeds indicated that better separation between bran and endosperm occurred on the first break with a lower speed and smaller diameter [57]. Wheat moisture is another important factor that affects the grinding process for common and durum wheat [58]. The best semolina production with first break rolls from durum wheat was achieved by sharp to dull action, angle profile of 25/65, and a differential of 1.5:1 [59]. The severity of grinding between the rolls and the particle size distribution of the ground meal is controlled by adjusting the break release, which is defined as the percentage of material passing through the first group of overtailing sieves in a break sifter, based on the amount fed to the sifter. The miller adjusts the release of the different grinding stages using a laboratory sifter on which a representative sample taken from under the rolls is sifted. With a given mill flow the miller sets the appropriate break releases for each wheat mix. Normally the cumulative release of all the breaks should be about 23% higher than the expected total flour extraction from the mill. Following each grinding stage, the material is conveyed to a sifter section. 1 Sieving In the sifter, particles of the grounded material are separated according to size. Sifters are available in two, four, six, and eight sections. Modern sifters are more sanitary than those used in the past, which often were a source of infestation. Each section contains 2630 frames covered with tightly stretched sieves of appropriate apertures. Properly tensioned sieves on the frames are critical for a sifting efficiency. The optimum degree of tension (~11 N/cm) is related to the cloth material used. Excessively slack sieves reduce the mill throughput up to 4%. In the past, sieves were stretched by hand over the frame and stapled. Today, special stretching devices are used to uniformly stretch the sieves, which are glued to the frames. Sifter sieve areas in mills are specified in m2/100 kg wheat/24 h (Table 3). The sieves in a sifter section are divided into groups. At the top of the section, there are usually coarser sieves separating the larger material that flows out of the sifter through a side channel. The material passing through the sieve is either transferred out of the machine or directed down to finer-aperture sieves for a further separation. Below each sieve, a backwire is attached to the frame on which hard rubber balls, plastic elements, or cotton pads bounce to keep the sieve clean. ''Throughs," a stream passing through the upper sieves in a break stage sifter, is a mixture of flour and chunks of endosperm to which often some bran is also attached. While the "overs" of the top sieves are transferred to the next break for additional scraping of endosperm, the mixture of the throughs is segregated, based on particle size differences on lower sieve groups in the section. This is evident from a schematic view of a first break sifter section where six materials that differ in quality and size flow out (Fig. 9). 2 Grading or Redusting Graders are sifter sections used to handle mainly materials directed from the breaks. A blend of medium-sized and fine sizings as well as middlings is directed to the graders. Materials from primary breaks are directed to the first grader. Materials from secondary breaks (e.g., the third or fourth) are directed to second or third graders. The main objective of the grader is to remove the remaining flour from the middlings and to separate the granular material to narrow particle size ranges for better efficiency in the purifiers. 3 Purification
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At the head end of the milling system granular intermediate materials of the same size range are directed to machines called purifiers. The different size groups differ also in the amount of pure endosperm, bran, and such particles of endosperm to which bran is still attached. The more similar the particles are in size, the more effective is the purifier performance. The purifier's main purpose is to separate particles into fractions of pure endosperm, a mixture of particles to which bran is attached, and bran particles. This is achieved by using sieves and air currents. The purifiers classify the material into several fractions according to size, shape, and specific gravity. The endosperm particles, essentially free from bran and germ, are spouted to smooth rolls, where they are ground into flour. Other particles to which bran and other outer layers of kernel adhere are delivered to different pairs of rolls ("sizings") for careful reduction and separation of the bran. The purifier includes two set of sieve "beds" with one to three layers of graded sieves positioned on top of each other (Fig. 10). Each layer in the bed consists of four sieves that are finer in the head than in the tail end. The upper sieves in each bed are coarser than the lower ones. Vibrating motors apply a reciprocating motion to the sieves that hang in an inclined position. In older models, sieve hangers could be adjusted to vary the sieve inclinations and strokes that move the material. In today's modern machines the vibrating motors and their counterweights are adjusted to control the sieves motion. This permits the miller to adjust the machine to have more pitch for fibrous material than pure endosperm particles. Brushes moving back and forth or rubber balls bouncing on a backwire attached to the sieve frame keep the sieves clean. Air cur-
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Figure 9 Schematic view of a first break sifter section.
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Figure 10 (a) Schematic view of a purifier. (b) Schematic view of a purifier sieve bed.
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rents drawn through the sieves fluidize and stratify the material based on the particle size, specific weight, and shape. The vibrating motion of the purifier sieves also stratifies the material on the sieve layer. The heavier endosperm particles move closer to the sieve surface while the more branny material floats on top. At the head end of the purifier the purest and most dense endosperm particles pass through the sieves. Materials with more bran attached pass to sizing rolls through the coarser sieves. Tailings over the sieves are materials that are directed to the last fine break stages. The purifier air hood is divided into sections and is positioned above the enclosed airtight sieve bed, allowing air to move only through the sieves. The amount of air drawn through the layer of material moving on is controlled by valves in each of the sections. The miller can also regulate the amount of material to the purifier to keep the sieves covered and prevent bare areas on the sieves. Bare areas allow the air to flow through because of the reduced resistance, causing ineffectiveness in stratifying material on the sieves. The number of purifiers in a mill is specified based on the total sieve width per 100 kg of wheat processed in 24 hours (mm/100 kg wheat/24 h) (Table 3). In some cases where space is limited, two machines are stacked on top of each other. 4 Sizings The material at each of the sizing stages is a mixture of particles close in size range, some pure endosperm, and others still with attached bran. The objective of the sizing stages is to reduce the particle size and, during reduction, to separate the still attached bran from the endosperm. Material from the sizing stages can be diverted to purifiers, to middlings for final reduction, or to flour as a final product. However, the miller tries to refrain from severe grinding in the sizing stage to avoid production of flour that may be contaminated by the presence of bran. Some millers use corrugated rolls on sizing stages, while others use smooth rolls. Smooth rolls will have a more delicate effect and produce lower-ash flour than corrugated ones. When corrugated rolls are used in sizings stages, the corrugation features are adjusted to the particle size and the bran adhering to them. 5 Middlings or Reductions Coarse and fine pure endosperm particles from breaks, purifiers, sizings, and reductions in the mill are reduced to flour on smooth rolls. The outer layer of smooth rolls is of ''softer" steel than that of corrugated rolls. The "softer" steel, which includes more carbon molecules in the cast, "loses" them with time, thus keeping a rough surface. Table 4 [60] shows the different effects of rough, polished, and finely corrugated reduction rolls on the middlings' ground material, particle size, and flour quality. Smooth roll surfaces should be refurbished about once a year depending on the steel quality. The speed differential between smooth rolls is 1.15:11.8:1, i.e., much lower than in breaks or other corrugated rolls (2.5:1). The low differential causes higher pressure and lower shear forces between the rolls. Between smooth rolls that practically touch each other, high pressure is exerted on the material. However, that pressure should be optimized for each reduction stage. Tests conducted with a third middling material showed that maximum flour was extracted through a 11XX (124 Pm aperture) bolting cloth following the use of 64.5 pounds per linear inch pressure between a pair of smooth rolls [61]. Higher pressures flaked part of the endosperm material, resulting in a lowering of the amount of flour passing through the bolting cloth. The pressure causes a rise in the temperature of the smooth rolls, which can reach 50C (122F) or higher. To decrease the rise in temperaTABLE 4 Effect of Matte, Polished, and Fine Corrugated Rolls on Second
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Middlings Materials Flour through 136 Pm (%) Flour Ash (%) d.m. >107 Pm (%) >95 Pm (%) >73 Pm (%) Through 73 Pm (%) Dough resistance (Dw) Dough elasticity (Dl, cm) Bread volume: cm3 (ml/100 g flour) Dw and Dl = Extensigraph values. Source: Adapted from Ref. 60. Smooth rolls, matte 65.6 0.52 29 9.5 18 43.5 665 11 561 Smooth rolls, polished 62.1 0.54 29 11.5 18 41.5 640 11 576 Fine, corrugated 64.7 0.56 41 14 15 30 540 13 571
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ture, certain rollstand models include a water cooling system. The material is acted upon between the rolls for about 1/390 of a second. In the nip between the rolls the material temperature can reach 60C (140F) for a short time. However, the temperature of the material usually rises about 7C (12.6F), as indicated by measurements taken above and under the rolls. In addition to the action of the rolls on the material, it was also recognized that reduction of particles occurs among the particles themselves. This depends on the layer of material fed to the rolls [60]. The pressure exerted by the rolls on the endosperm particles is responsible for the physical reduction in size but also causes other physical and chemical changes, including damage to the starch and some modification of the proteins [60]. In general, the reduction system substantially affects the quality of the end product through the compression and shear applied on the endosperm matrix of protein in which starch granules are embedded. In hard wheat the adhesion between the starch granules and the protein matrix of the endosperm cells is stronger than in soft wheat. Therefore, flours from soft wheat disintegrate easier in milling and produce finer flours than those of hard wheats. Millers adjust the flowsheet and mill equipment to produce flours of coarser granulation from weaker wheats and finer granulation from stronger wheats to achieve optimum results in baking. Starch damaged by milling absorbs five times more water during the dough process and is susceptible to diastatic activity by enzymes that decompose starch to dextrin, oligosaccharides, and simple sugars during the dough preparation. When present at an excessive level, damaged starch has an adverse effect on dough and bread quality. Because of its harder cell structure, hard wheat endosperm generates flour with more damaged starch by the action of high roll pressure or high impact forces during the reduction stages of the mill. A matte surface will generate more starch damage than polished surface. The amount of starch damage is also affected by the velocity differential between the rolls [62]. On the other hand, if this differential is unchanged but the roll speed is increased, the starch damage would increase because of the difference between the peripheral speed of the rolls. Some flaking of endosperm occurs during reduction with smooth rolls. To disintegrate the flakes, different types of flake disruption or impact machines are used. Disruption of the flakes can be achieved by impaction with a fast rotating rotor on which an arrangement of blades, pins, hammers, or stripes hits the endosperm particles at an appropriate tip speed. Impact machines are used in some cases instead of rolls to reduce the size of clean endosperm particles of flour. If the position of the impactor and speed are set correctly to grind endosperm of appropriate hardness, impact milling could be more effective than rolls in reducing it to flour. A rotor tip speed of 110 m/s applied to granular endosperm produced 87% flour [63]. Flour produced with impact milling is finer and has a lower level of starch damage as compared to that from roll stand grinding. Protein levels in these flours were higher after impact grinding than in flours produced by rolls. The investment costs in an impact mill are lower, but the energy expense per quantity of material reduced is higher than that of a rollstand [64]. 6 Air As a Means of Processing Machine location and product transfer in the mill are optimized by maximizing the use of gravity flow for intermediate materials. For vertical transfer of materials positive or negative pneumatic systems are used. Negative pneumatic systems are usually used for the transfer of all intermediate materials in the grinding unit. Properly designed and efficient air-handling systems for pneumatic conveying or suction in various locations in the mill reduce significantly the energy consumption of the operation. In a modern mill about 10 times more air weight than wheat weight is moved through the system. Accordingly, it is essential to maintain the relative humidity at about 65% and temperature at about 25C (77F) in the mill to control moisture evaporation in intermediate and final products. In locations where extreme
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humidity levels or temperatures exist, air control units should be installed in the mill. If intermediate stocks are too dry or too wet this affects the sieving efficiency, the breaking up of the bran, and accordingly the final quality of the flours. VIII Mill Control Control of mill performance is a continuous chore of the miller who sets methods and procedures to achieve optimal performance. As an example, when changing wheat mixes in the mill, the flours are directed to a set-off bin until the mill is adjusted for the new wheat mix. The mill flours are directed to the set-off bins also upon starting and shutting down the mill. The reason for such measures is to prevent production of off-grade flours while the mill is underloaded. The flour in the set-off bins is reblended to the main stream at a very low rate. Scales to weigh wheat at receiving point, before and after cleaning, tempered wheat, and final products could indicate changes in loads, extraction levels, and any other problems in each section of the mill. On-line instrumentation to determine moisture, protein, ash, and color ensures uniformity of raw materials and final products. Evaluation of the mill technological performance is measured by using the ash content of wheat, intermediate
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Figure 11 A cumulative ash curve of a flour mill. materials, individual flour streams, and final products. The significant difference in ash content among the three main parts of the wheat kernel endosperm, bran, and germ is used as a measure to determine the level of the separation efficiency from each other. However, in the past, because no other accurate tools were available, ash was used as a criterion of flour quality. Flour ash was an inconclusive parameter and in the past created significant economic losses to millers and bakers. The reason is that ash values of flours are not directly related to the flour end user's specifications. Millers compromised on flour extraction to supply flour within specifications from good baking quality wheats that inheritably had higher endosperm ash. Today, fast and accurate instrumentation to determine flour qualities such as color, starch damage, rheological characteristics, and baking qualities is widening the parameters for flour specifications. The objective in milling is to achieve as high as possible flour extraction with the lowest contamination of bran and germ that increase ash content. The ash curve is a mean to express cumulative ash of the flour streams in the mill. To construct the ash curve the streams are arranged in increasing order of ash content, and they are weighted based on the extraction of each into a function that is a relationship between the cumulative ash content of a number of streams and the related total flour extraction (Fig. 11). The miller's objective is to reach an ash curve that is flat and start to turn upward at the highest possible flour extraction. While the ash values and curve are an indication of the mill separation efficiency between the endosperm and bran, the granulation curve is a function of mill adjustment and screen selection. The granulation curve (Fig. 12) expresses the disintegration of the wheat kernel at different stages of the milling process. The curve is drawn as a graph where the horizontal axis shows the various sieve apertures in micrometers, and the vertical axis shows the cumulative percentage tailovers of the respective sieves. The granulation curve shows the particle size distribution of the ground material. By drawing granulation curves for each of the grinding stages, the miller can monitor variability in kernel disintegration and make the necessary adjustments in the system. The data to construct the granulation curve can be generated with an experimental sifter. The miller sieves the stock from under the rollstand on a stack of sieves
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and then calculates the percentages of all the quantities remaining on the sieves and the material in the bottom pan from the total weight. If a different set of sieves is used for the separation of a grounded stock, different points will be allocated on the same graph to determine a change in the amount overtailing from each sieve. The shape of the curve does not depend on the sieve aperture, but on the sample granulation distribution. The miller draws the granulation curves of the mill for each wheat mix at the time when mill performance is optimum. Granulation curve analysis can generate the following information: (1) corrugation condition, (2) mill balance, (3) roll adjustment, and (4) sieve area, aperture, division, and efficiency of the sieving stages. IX The Mill End Products A Flours Flour quality is a subjective concept that relates to final product usage. For different types of bread around the world specific wheat characteristics and flour qualities are required. Quality parameters such as color, protein, granulation distribution, gluten quantity and quality, and starch damage play a role in the suitability of flour for the baker. Another important factor besides the determination of
Figure 12 A mill granulation curve.
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quality is the concept of flour uniformity. For the commercial baker uniformity of flour supplied is more important than variations in characteristics such as premium protein or reduced starch damage. Flours from the different stages in the mill are not identical in physical appearance, chemical analysis, or baking properties. These flour streams are composed of varying amounts of different parts of the wheat kernel. In the case that all the flour streams are blended to one composite, the result is a ''straight-grade flour." The quality of the straight-grade flour is directly related to the quality of the processed wheat. It is possible to combine these flour streams in different ratios to produce simultaneously two or more final flours that differ in color, ash content, protein content, doughhandling properties, and bread baking characteristics. This method of producing more than one final flour from one wheat mix is called "split milling" or "divide milling." In wheat-importing countries the method of split milling is used to accommodate the requirements for flour qualities of different end uses. In wheat-growing countries such as the United States split milling is not frequently used since the wide variety of wheat types accommodate different end uses. In the United States the common types of flours produced in a mill are patent, first clear, and second clear. Figure 13 shows an example of products from a flour mill and their proximate analysis. Amounts and types of final products vary among mills are a result of differences in flow-sheet, adjustments, and kinds of wheat milled. Flour streams from the head end middlings, primary sizings, and in some cases that of second and third breaks originate from the center of the wheat kernel. The blend of these
Figure 13 Flour grades for a typical milling system. 14% moisture basis. KJ = KentJones Color Grader. (Adapted from Ref. 65.)
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flour streams is called ''patent flour." Patent flour is about 77% of the total flour, is the whitest, and contains the lowest relative amount of ash (0.380.42%, corrected to 14% moisture basism.b.). Other flour streams of the process that contain a higher percentage of the endosperm parts adjacent to the bran and germ are distinguished from the former by higher ash and protein contents, darker color, and inferior baking qualities. These flour streams can be combined to make up "first-clear flour." First-clear flour is about 20% of the total flour and contains about 0.75% ash. "Second-clear flour," made up of the rest of the streams, is 3% of total flour and contains up to 1.2% ash (14% m.b.). The ratio between patent, first clear, and second clear could vary substantially in percentages in other instances and, accordingly, in ash and quality. Blending part or all of the first clear into the patent comprises the "baker's patent." The miller subjectively blends the flour streams from different stages in the mill to make up the final products. Each of the final flours are collected under the sifters in conveyors. As a result, characteristics of the final flours do not follow a regression line of quality. Optimum flour granulation distribution is an important parameter for the baking process. Drastic change in granulation effects water absorption, water retention during fermentation, proofing, and quality of finished breads. The mill adjusts product granulation to the kind of additives added during dough preparation and to the types of breads baked. Control of flour particle size distribution is a parameter the miller controls by wheat selection, tempering, mill flow, and mill adjustment. The ash content does not affect the baking quality of the flour; it relates basically to the level of bran in the flour. Ash content of flour is a very valuable test for mill control. However, in many cases flour ash is used in flour quality specifications disproportionately to its value and significance in baking. This creates a situation where millers are constrained to lower flour extraction when using good baking quality wheat of inherently high endosperm ash. Flour color depends on wheat cleanliness, tempering level, finesse of flour, and the amount of bran particles it contains. Too much fine bran effects flour shade, producing a darker shade. Frequently during the mill operation the miller slicks a flour sample and wets it. This method, called the Pekar test, is used by the miller to evaluate the color and amount of bran particles in the flour. Change in mill ambient conditions could also affect flour color. In addition, flour carries a yellow cast due to the presence of carotene. Natural aging during storage of the flour for up to 2 weeks or usage of different bleaching agents, where permitted, could overcome this problem. In some countries improvers and enrichments are fed into the flour in the mill or in the blending facilities before load-out. The powders are added to the flour with great accuracy and uniformity by special feeders. Modern systems use programmable logic controller (PLC)controlled feeding systems. At the end of the milling process the microingredients are conveyed by air and introduced and mixed into the flour by special agitators. In mills where microingredients are added to flour according to customers' specifications, they are introduced into large-capacity, high-speed batch mixers during final blending and before load-out. B Bran Commercial bran differs from the botanical outer layers of the wheat kernel. The bran that is removed during the various stages of the milling process is made up of fractions that differ in size and endosperm content. Bran is described using factors such as minimum protein, minimum fat, maximum fiber, and maximum moisture. In the United States "wheat mill run" would be a product that includes all offal fractions from a typical mill. According to the American Feed Control Officials [66], wheat mill run consists of the following: minimum protein, 13.0%; minimum fat, 4.0%; maximum fiber, 9.5%; and maximum moisture, 14.0%. The American Feed Control Officials [66] define proximate analysis for all other by-products
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from the milling process. Specifications will vary from country to country based on milling technology, feed regulations, kind of wheat used, and climatic conditions. C Wheat Germ The germ constitutes about 2.53% by weight of the wheat kernel depending on the size of the whole kernel. The two main parts of the wheat germ are the embryo and the scutellum. The loosely held embryo part of the germ can be extracted relatively easily, but the soft scutellum, high in fat and protein, is difficult to separate from the endosperm and the bran [67]. The embryo and the whole germ differ in size, shape, and the level at which they are embedded into the kernel among the different kinds of wheat. The mill flow is designed to separate whole embryos during the breaking stages. The moist, soft, and easily flattened embryos are directed in the mill flow, usually from a purifier, to a pair of smooth rolls with low differential, where they are flaked [68]. The small flakes are extracted in the sifters over a 14 US mesh sieve (1410 Pm). According to definitions of the Association American Feed Control Officials [66], pure wheat germ that is used primarily for human food should contain a minimum of 30% protein. In some mills the germ is separated with an impact machine ahead of the first break roll. After impaction the material is sifted on a sifter, where it is separated into differ-
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ent fractions. The coarse material is diverted to the first-break coarse, the intermediate material to first-break fine, and the fines containing the embryos to a smooth pair of rolls, where it is flaked for separation. X Chemical Composition of Wheat and Mill Products A Protein Various classes of wheat are intentionally bred and selected for a specific composition, usually to meet end-use requirements for a product. For example, commercial soft wheats are maintained at low protein levels, although certain soft wheats are associated with genes for high protein and are used as germplasm in breeding programs to develop high-protein hard wheats [69]. Protein content in a single variety of wheat can vary from 7 to 20% depending upon growing environment and fertilizer use. Typical protein ranges for selected world wheats are given in Table 5. Protein content is negatively correlated with grain yield, so that spring wheats are generally higher in protein content than winter-grown types. Constituents of hard and soft wheats are given in Table 6. The high-protein hard wheat is higher in protein in all constituents except the germ. Constituents of wheat grains are not distributed uniformly. Composition of anatomical parts of the wheat grain along with caloric values are compared in Table 1. The pericarp (bran) is high in pentosans, cellulose, and ash. The aleurone is a botanical part of the endosperm, but during milling it is removed with the bran. It is high in protein, lipids, pentosans, and ash, thus contributing significantly to the nutritional quality of bran as a feedstuff. Starch is found in the endosperm. The outer enTABLE 5 Protein Content Ranges of Wheat Types Wheat type Approximate protein range (%) HRS (United States) 11.518 1016.5 Durum 1016 Plate (Argentina) 918 CWRS (Manitoba) 914.5 HRW (United States) 914.5 Russian 813.5 Australian 813 English 811.5 Other European 811 SRW (United States) 810.5 White (United States) HRS = Hard red spring; CWRS = Canadian western red spring; HRW = hard red winter; SRW = soft red winter. Source: Ref. 70. TABLE 6 Protein Composition of Wheat Fractions Protein Graina Soft wheat Hard wheat Fraction (%) (%) (%) Pericarp and 8.0 4.1 7.6 testa
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Testa and hyaline 7.0 Aleurone 18.4 1.0 Germ 31.1 1.5 Scutellum 24.9 Outer 12.5 12.8 endosperm Middle 12.5 8.2 endosperm Inner endosperm 57.5 5.8 Whole grain 100.0 8.2 aN 5.83, 14% moisture basis. Source: Refs. 6, 71.
15.7 24.3 26.3 16.2
8.0 12.1
dosperm (subaleurone) is higher in protein than the inner portion [72,73]. The embryo and scutellum, which make up the germ, are high in protein, lipids, reducing sugars, and ash. Because of the structure of various parts, as noted in Table 1, milling extraction rates affect flour composition. With an increase in extraction rates, protein, fat, and fiber increase, whereas carbohydrates decrease. It is commonly accepted that the protein content of straight-grade flour is about 1% less than that of the wheat used by the mill. The miller controls variation in flour protein by adjusting wheat protein, wheat size, and wheat-blending methods [46]. The protein ''difference" between the whole kernels and flour is larger for smaller size kernels [49]. In cereals only wheatand to some extent ryehave storage proteins that form the gluten network in flour and water doughs, which has the unique properties of elasticity and strength to produce yeast-leavened bread. Storage proteins comprise 85% of wheat endosperm proteins and consist of gliadin (alcohol-soluble) and glutenin (alkali- or acid-soluble) fractions. Amino acid compositions for four classes of wheat are listed in Table 7. The amino acid composition of a commercial hard red winter wheat mill mix and its flour, bran, break shorts, and red dog are listed in Table 8. Glutamic acid and proline are highest in the endosperm. Lysine, argenine, aspartic acid, and alanine are lowest in the wheat and flour. Lysine is the limiting essential amino acid in wheat and most cereals. B Lipid Lipid contents of wheat grains typically range from 2 to 4%. Lipid material is not dispersed evenly throughout the grain The embryo (germ) contains 30% of its weight as
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TABLE 7 Amino Acid Composition of Wheats (% by weight) HRS HRW SRW SRS Amino acid wheat wheat wheat wheat Tryptophan 1.24 Threonine 2.88 3.1 3.2 3.01 Isoleucine 4.34 3.9 4.3 4.10 Leucine 6.71 7.2 7.3 7.12 Lysine 2.82 2.9 2.9 2.88 Methionine 1.29 1.5 1.4 1.35 Cystine 2.19 1.8 2.18 Phenylalanine 4.94 4.7 4.8 5.41 Tyrosine 3.74 2.7 2.0 1.79 Valine 4.63 4.5 4.7 4.76 Arginine 4.79 5.0 4.5 4.85 Histidine 2.04 2.5 2.4 2.58 Alanine 3.50 3.6 3.7 3.54 Aspartic acid 5.46 5.3 5.4 5.63 Glutamic acid 31.25 31.9 34.8 30.48 Glycine 6.11 4.3 4.3 3.80 Proline 10.44 11.0 10.4 11.57 Serine 4.61 4.8 4.9 4.63 HRS = Hard red spring; HRW = hard red winter (NE701132); SRW = soft red winter (Atlas 66); SRS = soft red spring (NapHal). Source: Ref. 4. oil. Commercial germ is in the 1011% range. The endosperm is lowest in oil, and the outer layers have an intermediate lipid level between the germ and the endosperm. Wheat germ oil includes a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. The fatty acid contents of several classes of wheat and their milled products are presented in Table 9. C Vitamins and Minerals Vitamins are found in high concentrations in wheat germ and bran, and minerals are especially concentrated in the bran. Whole kernel data for each are influenced by kernel size and the ratio of bran to endosperm, which may be higher in small kernels. Kernel size can be influenced by environmental stress or genetic factors. Milling and the degree of flour extraction will also affect vitamin and mineral analysis on flour and other milled products. The vitamin content of spring wheat along with milling products of flour, shorts, and bran are given in Table 10. XI Various Mill Technologies As mentioned previously there are significant differences between milling systems for different kinds of wheat. Table 3 shows general specific machine allocations used TABLE 8 Amino Acid Composition of Hard Red Winter Commercial Mill Wheat Mix and Its Milling Fractions Amino acid Wheat Flour Bran Break shorts Red. shorts Red. dog 3.0 2.2 Lysine 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.7 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.4 Histidine
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4.2 3.5 Arginine 6.4 6.5 6.2 5.5 4.2 Aspartic acid 7.3 7.6 7.9 3.4 3.0 Threonine 3.5 3.6 3.8 5.1 4.8 Serine 4.6 4.8 4.7 32.8 36.9 20.8 Glutamic acid 20.7 19.1 10.1 11.5 6.9 Proline 6.9 6.2 4.3 3.5 Glycine 5.5 5.5 5.7 3.7 2.9 Alanine 4.9 5.2 5.3 1.5 1.6 Cystine 0.7 0.7 4.6 4.2 Valine 5.1 5.2 5.2 1.4 1.5 Methionine 1.4 1.3 1.1 3.9 3.9 Isoleucine 3.8 3.8 3.7 7.2 7.2 Leucine 6.7 6.8 6.8 2.0 2.3 Tyrosine 2.1 2.0 2.1 4.5 4.7 Phenylalanine 4.0 4.0 4.0 13.3 12.2 17.7 Proteina 16.8 14.4 Milling yield (%)b 100 72.8 21.4 3.2 2.2 Red. = Reduction. Red. dog = overs of the flour sieves of the last reduction stage in a mill. aN 5.7 dry weight basis. bMilled on Kansas State University 200 cwt flour mill.
5.2 6.5 3.4 4.9 26.8 8.1 4.8 4.5 0.9 5.0 1.5 3.9 7.1 2.2 4.3 14.1 0.23
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TABLE 9 Fatty Acid Composition of Wheat and Wheat Kernel Parts Saturated fatty acid Total Unsaturated fatty acid, Grain Water lipid Sum sum Wheat Whole grain Hard Red Spring 14.0 2.7 0.37 1.56 Hard Red Winter 14.0 2.5 0.35 1.47 Soft Red Winter 14.0 2.4 0.35 1.40 White 14.0 2.0 0.30 1.14 Flour Hard Red Spring 14.0 1.5 0.23 0.84 Hard Red Winter 14.0 1.5 0.20 0.74 Soft Red Winter 14.0 1.4 0.22 0.76 All purpose 14.0 1.4 0.23 0.72 Bran 14.0 4.6 0.74 3.09 Germ 14.0 10.9 1.88 8.18 Wheat, durum Whole grain 14.0 3.3 0.54 1.88 Semolina 14.0 1.8 0.33 0.90 Source: Ref. 74. for each kind of wheat. Values would vary among mills as a result of wheat quality and specific needs of final products. In general because of the harder endosperm structure hard wheats require more grinding steps and accordingly longer grinding surfaces than soft wheat mills. On the other hand, to cope with the softness of the endosperm of soft wheats, more sifter surface area is required in soft wheat mills than in hard wheat mills. A Durum Wheat Milling Usually drum wheat is milled into a granular product called semolina for pasta production. Depending on the pasta manufacturing system, ranges of semolina granulation and particle distribution will vary. Products with particles in the ranges of 600180, 475180, and <350 Pm are produced as coarse, middle, or fine semolina, respectively. Regulations by the U.S. Federal Drug Administration [76] define semolina as a product made only from durum wheat that passes through a No. 20 sieve, not more than 3% passing through a No. 100 sieve. Its moisture content is not more than 15% and maximum dry ash content is 0.92%. Durum wheat is also milled to flour of a granulation finer than 200 Pm in some parts of the world for local bread baking. The extraction of final products based on wheat entering the durum semolina mill ranges from about 6570, 10, and 2520% of semolina, flour, and bran, respectively. Table 11 shows an example of typical commercial semolina product granulation distribution. The granulation distribution of the semolina affects water absorption of the particles during
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hydration in a pasta-production process. Subsequently, it also affects the drying of the pasta and its quality. Optimum semolina granulation for each pasta product is a major concern of the miller and pasta manufacturer. Common semolina particle size for long pasta is finer than 630 Pm and for short goods finer than 350 Pm. Couscous is made from very coarse durum semolina with a particle size range between 550 and 1100 Pm. Couscous is not extruded, but is coagulated and steamed in granular form. Durum wheat semolina is evaluated based on speck count, protein level, and ash. The origin of specks in the TABLE 10 Vitamin Contents of Chris Hard Red Spring Wheat and Its Milling Fractionsa Vitamin Grain Flour Shorts Bran Thiamine 9.9 0.7 10.1 13.2 5.5 Riboflavin 3.1 1.5 1.8 Niacin 48.3 9.5 23.5 171.4 0.162 Biotin 0.056 0.013 0.055 1.59 Folacin 0.56 0.09 0.59 Pantothenic acid 9.1 2.5 7.0 31.7 Vitamin B6 4.7 0.48 5.3 13.0 aP/g (dry basis). Source: Ref. 75.
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TABLE 11 Durum Semolina Granulation Distribution Sieve aperture (Pm) % over 600 0 425 18 250 67 180 10 140 3 Pan 2 semolina could arise from different sources. Generally about 45% originate from discolored germs, 25% discolored endosperm, 15% bran particles, 10% grit, and 5% other sources. Ergot, when present in wheat, could show up as specks in the semolina. Durum and spring wheat, like other cereals that might go through the flowering period during cold and wet weather, could be infected by the fungus Claviceps purpurea or ergot. Ergot is a fungus that produces alkaloids toxic to humans and animals when it invades spring wheat, durum wheat, and rye. The word ''ergot" is applied to both the fungus and the disease that the fungus causes. Hard wheats are more vulnerable to ergot attack than soft wheats [77]. Hybrid varieties are more susceptible presumably because they have smaller anthers with less than sufficient pollen for quick fertilization, resulting in sensitivity to ergot attack. Millers use different methods such as gravity tables and color sorters to separate ergot from the wheat. According to U.S. Department of Agriculture Standards for Grain [30], ergoty wheat is wheat that contains more than 0.05% percent ergot. The specks have an adverse effect on the aesthetic appearance of pasta and, to some extent, the resistance to breakage of long varieties. Grit content in the granular semolina is also a quality measure. Grit originates from ground stones not separated from the wheat during cleaning. Grit in semolina could damage the pasta extruder's surface. Durum milling is substantially different from flour milling. To achieve maximum extraction of granular endosperm, more break and corrugated sizing stages are used. Although the total cumulative break release would be the same, the release on the individual breaks is lower than in flour milling. The number of purifiers used in semolina milling is significantly higher than in conventional flour milling. The purifier is the machine from which the final semolina is extracted. In durum milling the miller sends material to purifiers with much narrower particle size ranges than in flour milling to differentiate more sharply between the different characteristics of materials based on size, shape, and specific gravity. The tail-end materials in the mill that could not be extracted as semolina are usually ground on smooth rolls to flour. B Soft Wheat Milling The soft wheatmilling process differs from that for hard wheat because of the softer kernel endosperm. Soft wheat is milled to flour that is used mainly for the manufacture of baked goods not requiring a developed structure during fermentation. Protein contents of flours produced in the soft wheat mill ranged from 4.7 to 9.1% and patent ash contents from 0.23 to 0.42% (14% m.b.). Soft wheat kernels are wider and have a lower specific weight than hard wheat kernels. Accordingly, cleaning machinery must be adjusted to the physical characteristics for efficient separation of unmillable materials. The endosperm structure of soft wheat is not vitreous and dense, allowing water to penetrate at a faster rate than in hard wheats through the capillary spaces in the endosperm. Therefore, tempering time to reach a milling moisture is very short for soft wheat, usually about one half of the time required by hard wheat. In cases when the natural moisture of the wheat is high, only a limited amount of water is sprayed on the wheat
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about 30 minutes before milling to toughen the bran. Endosperm of soft and hard wheats fracture differently during the milling process. Hard wheats are more crystalline and break into large chunks of endosperm while soft wheat endosperm is amorphous and crumbles into smaller particles. The soft endosperm disintegrates during the milling process with less pressure. As a result, soft wheat produces finer flour particles with lower levels of starch damage compared to hard wheat. In countries where soft wheat flours are used for bread baking, the miller is aware that he or she has to control the starch damage of the flour. This is done by applying heavy roll pressures in the reduction system. Also, the starch protein bond in soft wheat is weaker than that in hard wheat. With proper impact force, it is possible to separate the granules from the protein matrix in which they are embedded. During milling more flour from breaks and less sizing production are the main characteristics of soft wheats compared to hard wheats. The sifter effective area in a soft wheat mill is relatively larger than in the hard wheat mill. This should overcome difficulties in sieving of fine flours. Some millers overcome the difficulties of sifting soft wheat materials by using centrifugal sifters. The centrifugal sifters might have advantages over regular gyrating sifter boxes. The action of a centrifugal machine, in which a counterrotating rotor throws the stock against a cylindrical sieve, allows efficient separation, especially in the poorly flowing stocks of the soft milling flow. In general, purifiers are not used in
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soft wheat mills. In cases where they are incorporated in the flow they treat only the small amount of sizings from the primary breaks. The less rigid endosperm attached to the bran in the tail end breaks is difficult to separate with conventional grinding rolls that might splinter the bran. Impact dusters are used before the third, fourth, and fifth break rolls to achieve more flour extraction. In general, more impactors are used in a soft wheat mill between the rolls and sifters to increase flour extraction compared to hard wheat milling. A survey of U.S. millers listed the primary differences in the flow diagram of soft versus hard wheat [78]. Soft wheat flow diagrams had about twice the number of bran dusters and flake detachers in the grinding system, about 10% more centrifugal sifters and 12% more break sifter surface, and about 50% less purifier surface than hard wheat flow diagrams. C Air Classification of Specialty Flours Air classification of flours is used where there is a demand for extremely precise specification of granulation and protein content of flour. Flour with a narrow range of particle size has the advantage of increasing the tolerance of oven temperature and water absorption during the baking of cakes. In general, soft wheat millers use about 35% more air classifiers. Commercial flour particle granulation is between 0150 Pm. A flour fraction of 117 Pm contains a high level of protein. A flour fraction of 1740 Pm will usually be marked as to its higher starch content and lower protein level. It is not practical to separate particles of less than 73 Pm with conventional sieves. Accordingly, particles are segregated by air using differences in particle shape, specific gravity, and size. One of the objectives of air classification is protein shifting. Classifying flours to a granulation of between 17 and 40 Pm will produce a very-low-protein flour that can be used for special cake mixes. The fine fractions in the range below 17Pm are blended in with flours to increase protein levels. To increase the efficiency of the airclassifying system, millers use pin mills to disintegrate chunks of endosperm larger than 40 Pm in order to release the starch granules that are embedded in the protein matrix. D New Developments in the Milling Industry There is a new technical approach to the separation of the three main parts of the wheat kernel: endosperm, bran, and germ. The new technology applies intensive and accurate abrasion of the wheat kernel bran. The miller can selectively remove wheat pericarp layers from the outside in. The objective of the new technology is to break up the structure of the kernel in such a way that the crease ''structure" will stay intact. This technology reduces to a large extent the number of machines in the mill. The benefits of such a technology are reduced capital investment, shorter milling process, reduction in energy, reduction of D-amylase content of flour when partially sprouted wheats are used [79], and reduction of fragments and bacteria count in flours. The rapid developments in electronics and instrumentation are implemented in the mill for rapidly sensing online the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of mill products. Evaluation of intermediate and final mill products allows the development of mill automation and control. Near-infrared reflectance [80], fluorescence imaging [81], microwave, and electronic weighing are some of the current and future areas of development. References 1. Swanson, C.O. Wheat Flour and Diet, The MacMillan Co., New York, 1928. 2. Ziegler, E., Das Strkekornseine Entstehung, seine Bedeutung in Mllerei und Bckerei. Die Mhle & Mischfuttertechnik, 106 (38) (40) (41) (42) (43): (1969)
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3. Simmonds, D. E. H., and O'Brien, T. P., in Advances in Cereal Science and Technology (Y. Pomeranz, ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1981, pp. 570. 4. Simmonds, D. H., in Cereals '78: Better Nutrition for World's Millions (Y. Pomeranz ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1978, pp. 105137. 5. Pelshenke, P. F., Brotgetreide und Brot, Paul Parey, Berlin 1954, p. 86. 6. Aykroyd, W. R., and Doughty, J., Wheat in Human Nutrition, FAO Nutritional Studies No. 23, FAO, Rome, 1970. 7. Evers, A. D., Ann. Bot., 34:547555. (1970). 8. MacMasters, M. M., Hinton, J. J. C., and Bradbury, D., in Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed. (Y. Pomeranz ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1971, pp. 51113. 9. Shellenberger, J. A., and Morgenson, J. B. Am. Miller Proc., 75(8):29 (1950). 10. Bradbury, D., McMasters, M. M., and Cull, I. M., Cereal Chem., 33:361 (1956). 11. Crew, J., and Jones, C. R., Cereal Chem., 28:4049 (1951). 12. Saunders, R. M., and Kohler, G. O., Cereal Chem., 49(1):98103 (1972). 13. Ranhotra, G. S., Hepburn, F. N., and Bradley, W. B. Cereal Chem., 48:699706 (1971). 14. Hinton, J. J. C., Cereal Chem., 36(1):1931 (1959). 15. P. J. Mattern, in Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology (K. Kulp and K. J. Lorenz, eds.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1990, pp. 153. 16. Shollenberger, J. H., Curtis, J. J., Jaeger, C. M., Earle, F. R., and Bayles, B. B., The Chemical Composition of Various
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Wheats and Factors Influencing Their Composition, USDA, Washington DC, Technical Bulletin No. 995, 1949. 17. Seitz, L. M., and Bechtel, D. B., J. Agric. Food Chem., 33:373 (1985). 18. Finney, K. F., Cereal Chem., 61(1):20 (1984). 19. Finney, K. F., and Bolte, L. C., Cereal Chem., 62(6):454 (1985). 20. Finney, K. F., Cereal Chem., 66(6):527530 (1989). 21. Dubuc, J. P., and Boudreau, A., Cereal Res. Commun., 20(12):105 (1992). 22. Finney, K. F., and Barmore, M. A., Cereal Chem., 25(5):291 (1948). 23. Orth, R. A., and Mander, K. C., Cereal Chem., 52(3):305 (1975). 24. Berman, M., Bason, M. L., Ellison, F., Peden, G., and Wrigley, C. W., Cereal Chem., 73 (3):323 (1996). 25. Nolte, L. L., Youngs, V. L., Crawford, R. D., and Kunerth, W. H., Cereal Foods World, 30 (3):227 (1985). 26. Morris, C. F., and Raykowski, J. A., Elsevier Science B. V., 11:229 (1994). 27. Katz, F., Food Technol., 50(11):63 (1996). 28. International Grain Council, World Grain Statistics 1995/96, London, 1996. 29. Greenwood, C. T., and Stewart, B. A., Cereal Foods World, 21(9):477 (1976). 30. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Official United States Standards for Grain, Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration, Federal Grain Inspection Service, Washington, DC, 1995. 31. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Historic Review of Changes in the Grain Standards of the United States, Agricultural Marketing Service, Grain Division, Washington, DC, 1963. 32. International Association for Cereal Science (ICC), Determination of Besatz of Wheat, Approved 1972, Int. Assoc. Cereal Chem., Verlag Moris Schfer, Detmold, West Germany, 1972. 33. European Economic Community, Grain Grading Regulations, Council Regulation No. 856/67/EEC, revised No. 2731/75, approved 1975. 34. Shuey, W. C., and Gilles, K. A., Northwest Miller (March):9 (1969). 35. Posner, E. S., and Hibbs, A. N., Wheat Flour Milling, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, (1997). 36. Osborne, B. G., Kotwal, Z., Blakeney, A. B., O'Brian, L., Shah, S., and Fearn, T., Cereal Chem., 74(4):467 1997. 37. Approved Methods of the AACC, 9th ed., Methods 26-20, 26-21, 26-30. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1995.
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68. Posner, E. S., Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., (Oct.):4577 (1985). 69. Johnson, V. A., and Mattern, P. J., Wheat rye and triticale, in Nutritional Quality of Cereal Grains: Genetic and Agronomic Improvement (R. A. Olson and K. J. Frey, eds.), Agronomy Series 28. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, 1987. 70. Kent-Jones, D. W., and Amos, A. J., Modern Cereal Chemistry, 4th ed., Northern Pub. Co. Ltd., Liverpool, 1947. 71. Hinton, J. J. C., Cereal Chem., 30:441445 (1953). 72. Kent, N. J., Cereal Chem., 43:585601 (1966). 73. Kent, N. L., Technology of Cereals, 3rd ed., Pergamon Press, Inc., Elmsford, NY, 1983. 74. Lockhart, H. B., and Nesheim, R. O., Nutritional quality of grains, in: Cereals '78: Better Nutrition for the World's Millions (Y. Pomeranz, ed.) American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1978, pp. 201221. 75. Zook, E. G., Greene, F. E., and Morris, E. R., Cereal Chem., 47:720731 (1970). 76. Food and Drug Administration, Code of Federal Regulations. Food and Drugs Standards of Identity. Parts 100 to 169. Revised as of April 1, The Office of the Federal Register, Washington, DC, Sections: 137.200, 137.300, 137.320, 1989. 77. Betz, H. G., and Mielke, H., Mhle Mischfuttertechn., 133(44):726 (1996). 78. Wingfield, J., Assoc. Per. Millers Bull. (Nov.):4151 (1983). 79. Liu, R., Liang, Z., Posner, E. S., and Ponte, J. G., Jr., Cereal Foods World, 31:471 (1986). 80. Posner, E. S., and Wetzel, D. L., Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull. (April):4711 (1986). 81. Symons, S. J., and Dexter, J. E., J. Cereal Sci., 23:73 (1996).
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0.5 7.0 1.3 8.0 8.0 3.0 10.0 0.1

1.0 10.0 3.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 10.0 0.1

3.0 15.0 5.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 10.0 0.1

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Figure 6 Schematic diagram of a wheat-cleaning flow.

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