PVL Lab Guides

VirtualDynamicsSoft EduVirtualLabs PVL Lab Guides Javier Montenegro Joo 1
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Science & Engineering Virtual Labs

VirtualDynamicsSoft is a registered trademark of the VirtualDynamics~ Org.

PVL Lab Guides

Javier Montenegro Joo

Physics Virtual Lab, PVL

This document contains some Physics virtual experiments executed with the PVL.
The PVL has been successfully used by its creator, Javier Montenegro Joo, to teach
physics to Engineering and Physics students at two universities in Lima Peru. Other
universities in other countries are also using the PVL. The PVL has also been used
by its creator to train teachers on the use of computers to teach Physics.

The PVL is used as a teaching aid in the classroom to demonstrate topics covered
during the exposition of the theory and also as a virtual laboratory of physics in the
physics lab sessions, where every student executes the PVL in a computer.

This document contains the lab guides of some of the experiments executed with the
PVL, not all experiments that have eventually been executed with the PVL have been
included.
The PVL operates under two different modes, Research and Learning. When
executing the experiments here described, the PVL must be in Research mode.

Advantages of using simulation software

- Software allows extreme experimentation, this is, experimenting with parameters
not possible with conventional lab equipment. (like different values of g, the
acceleration of the gravity).
- Trajectories of motion leave tracks so comparison is possible and easy.
- Time evolution can be controlled (set time pace, pause, freeze), thus permitting
detailed analysis of experiments. This is impossible in real life experiments.
- The Doppler Effect module allows the "visualization" of the sound waves as these
are emitted by a source in motion. Changing parameters in this module, permits
experimenting with different cases of the phenomenon, resulting in a thorough
understanding of it, because the sound frequencies in front and behind the
moving source can be "seen", something impossible in real life. Simultaneous
simulation and visualization allows visualizing the compression and expansion of
the sound waves in front and behind the moving source.
- Much more experimental data is obtained with software.
- Since for a given experiment every student may work with his/her own data, all
students in the lab produce similar graphs, but not equal.
- The experiment equipment always works as expected, there are no missing
pieces, and there are no problems when setting up the equipment.
- Neither Physics lab instructors nor students need any kind of special training to
operate the software.

Index
Mechanics

Experiment PVL Module
1

Analysis of the graphs of Position vs
Time in the Uniform Rectilinear Motion.
Mechanics Analysis of Position vs
time graphs
See
2

Analysis of the graphs of Velocity vs
Time in the rectilinear accelerated
motion.
Mechanics Analysis of velocity vs
time graphs.
See
3 Curves of Free Fall Mechanics Free Fall See
4 Relationship between Cannon Elevation
Angle and Range
Mechanics - Parabolic motion
Cannon: The Projectile Flight
See
5
Vertical Shot from a Moving Cannon
Vertical shot from a moving car
See
6
Cannon bullet hits free-falling object
Cannon bullet hits free falling object.
See
7 Cannon elevation angles to hit the same
point when shooting up an incline
Mechanics Parabolic motion
Projectile shot up an incline by a
cannon

See
8 Friction on a tilted plane

Mechanics - Static Friction
Coefficient
See
9 Finding the Acceleration of Gravity
from the crossing of falling bodies
Mechanics - Falling bodies.-
Crossing of parabolic and vertical
falls
See

Waves and Oscillations

1 Behavior of an oscillating spring.

Waves and Oscillations SHM -
Oscillating Spring
See
2 Frequency behavior in the SHM

Waves and Oscillations SHM
Position, Velocity and Acceleration
See
3 Simple Pendulum executing a SHM
and the Acceleration of the Gravity
Waves & Oscillations SHM
Simple Pendulum executing a SHM
See
4 Dependence of the period on the CM-to-
pivot distance for a physical pendulum
Waves and Oscillations - Physical
pendulum
See
5 Frequency of an oscillator in a viscous
medium
Waves & Oscillations
The Damped Oscillator
See

Electricity & Magnetism

1 Deflection of a Charged Particle by an
Electric Field

Electricity & Magnetism Charged
particle deflection by an Electric
Field
See
Experiment

Analysis of the graphs of Position vs Time
in the Uniform Rectilinear Motion.

PVL Module.- Mechanics Analysis of Position vs time graphs

Objective.-
Becoming familiar with the graphs of uniform rectilinear motion and learning how to
extract useful information from them.

Introduction.-
Analyzing a graph of position versus time, information about the motion of a body can be
obtained. The average velocity may be calculated by means of

t
x x
t t
x x
t
x
V V
o
o
o

=
=
A
A
= = > <

and the displacement of the body is computed with S = <V> t


Research procedure.-
1 Shift to Research mode.
2 Click the "Random XT" button so a XT graph is randomly generated.
3 For each sector of the generated graph compute the Time interval, the
displacement, Motion direction, Average Velocity.
For the whole graph compute the Total Displacement.
4 On a piece of paper make a drawing of the randomly generated XT graph.
5 In order to verify the information resulting from the analysis of the graph, shift to
Learning Mode and by displacing the yellow dots on screen, manually reproduce
the original graph.
As the graph is reproduced, its corresponding data are displayed and the
information previously extracted may be verified.
6 This process must be repeated for other two randomly generated XT graphs

Results.-

Under Research mode the student randomly gets graphs like the one shown above
and makes the computations to obtain the data displayed below the graph, which is
not visible under Research mode.

Back to Index
Experiment
Analysis of the graphs of Velocity vs Time
in the rectilinear accelerated motion.

PVL Module.- Mechanics Analysis of Velocity vs Time graphs.

Objective.-
To get familiar with the graphs of one-dimensional rectilinear motion under constant
acceleration and to learn how to extract information from them.

Introduction.-
Information about the motion of a mobile may be obtained from a graph of Velocity vs
time (V vs t).
If the initial Vo and final V velocities are both known, the acceleration may be
computed from
t
v v
t t
v v
t
v
a
o
o
o

=
=
A
A
=
Where the resulting sign indicates if the motion is accelerated (plus sign) or
decelerated (minus sign). The mean velocity is obtained from averaging V and Vo:
2
o
v v
V V
+
= = > <

and hence the displacement S is calculated by means of S = <V> t


2 Click the "Random VT" button so a VT graph is randomly generated.
3 For each sector of the generated graph compute the Time interval, Delta
Velocity, Average Velocity, Displacement and Acceleration.
Compute the total displacement for the entire graph.
4 On a piece of paper make a drawing of the randomly generated VT graph
5 In order to verify your computations, shift to Learning mode and by displacing the
yellow dots (A, B, C, D, E and F) on screen, manually reproduce the original
graph. As the graph is reproduced, its corresponding data are displayed and the
computations previously made may be verified.
6 This process may be repeated for two or three randomly generated VT graphs.

Results.-

Under Research mode the student randomly gets graphs like the one shown above
and makes the computations to obtain the data displayed below the graph, which is
not visible under Research mode.

Back to Index
Experiment
Curves of Free Fall

PVL Module.- Mechanics Free fall

Objective.-
Generate graphs of behavior of position and velocity for the free fall.

Introduction.-
The equations of position and velocity for a free falling body are respectively
) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 2 1 (
2
t g v t g y = =
where g, the Acceleration of the Gravity depends on the place where it is measured; in
general the value of is influenced by the presence of lakes, caves, density of ground, etc. In
the earth the average g is 9.8 m/s, but in the moon and in the sun its vale is different.

1 Prepare a table to be filled in with 15 values of Time, Squared time, Vertical Position Y,
Delta Y, Velocity V and Delta V.
t t y Delta y v Delta v
1
2

15
2 Use the Free Fall module of the PVL to simulate and generate data for g = 9.8 m/s
during 15 s in steps of 1 s. The module generates data for Time t, Position Y, Delta Y,
Velocity V and Delta V.
3 Use equations (1) and (2) to generate data corresponding to other two values of g out of
the range of g in the module. Make two new tables.
4 With the collected data make plots of Y vs t, V vs t, Delta Y vs t, Delta V vs t, and Y vs
t . At the end there must be five graphs with three curves each.
5 Get the slopes of the straight lines resulting in the plots of V vs t, these must be equal to
the corresponding value of g.
6 Get the slopes of the straight lines resulting in the plots of Y vs t, these must be equal to
g/2 in each case.

Example of results.-
An investigation with three values of g (g = 3.0, g = 9.8, g =16) was made, the
resulting graphs are:

Back to Index

Experiment

Relationship between Cannon Elevation Angle and Range

PVL Module.- Mechanics - Parabolic motion Cannon: The Projectile Flight

Objective.-
Investigate the dependence of the horizontal range of a cannon, on its elevation
angle, for both, fixed cannon shooting velocity and fixed acceleration of the gravity.

Introduction.-
The range of a cannon depends not only on its shooting velocity, it also depends on
its elevation angle, on the acceleration of the gravity and on the air resistance.
In this experiment an investigation of the behavior of the cannon range as a function
of its elevation angle will be performed, the acceleration of the gravity and the
cannon shooting velocity will remain fixed.

1 Set to Research mode
2 Put the acceleration of the gravity in g = 9.8 m/s.
Set also a shooting velocity Vo for the cannon.
3 Set the cannon elevation angle A, at a low value.
4 Shoot the cannon.
5 Once the projectile lands, measure with the mouse the landing distance R.
Take note of A and of R.
6 Increment a little the cannon elevation angle A
7 Repeat steps from (4) to (6), some 15 times
8 Repeat the process above for other two values of cannon shooting velocity Vo and
acceleration g of the gravity.
Cannon elevation angles A, do not need to be the same as those previously used.
9 Make plots of cannon range R versus cannon elevation angle A.
10 At the end a graph with three curves must result, one for each value of g and Vo.


The plots of range R versus elevation angle A, for three different cases are shown
below. Each curve displays the associated values of g and of Vo. It can be seen that
the maximum range is achieved when A = 45, no matter neither the shooting
velocity Vo, nor the acceleration of gravity g. It can also be seen that the same
range is obtained for Aand for 90 A.

Back to Index

Experiment

Vertical Shot from a Moving Cannon

PVL Module.- Mechanics - Parabolic motion Vertical shot from a moving car

Introduction.-

When a shot is vertically upwards made,
the projectile is provided only with a
vertical velocity Voy, but if this shot is
made from a horizontally displacing car,
then the velocity of the projectile has
also a horizontal component Vox, given
by the velocity of the car. Under these
conditions, once the projectile is fired, it
must behave like the projectile shot with
velocity Vo by a cannon with a certain
elevation angle A respect to the
horizontal.

The elevation angle of the projectile shot
from the moving car, is
( )
ox oy
v v A
1
tan
=
its shooting velocity is
2 2
oy ox o
v v v + =
and the horizontal range of the projectile is
)
2
(
2
g
v
v
g
v v
R
oy
ox
oy ox
= =

which means that the plotting of R versus
2Voy/g will produce a straight line whose slope will be Vox, the velocity of the car.

Objective.-
To determine the horizontal velocity Vox of the car, from where the vertical shot is
made. Additionally, to investigate the behavior of the horizontal range R and
maximum altitude h of the projectile by making plots of R vs Voy, h vs A, and
R vs A

1 Set the module in Research mode. Notice that this simulation module reports the
coordinates (x,y) of the mouse, as this displaces over the screen.
2 Choose a value for Vox, the horizontal velocity of the car, and for the Acceleration of the
Gravity g.
These will remain fixed during the research. Even though the user sets these
parameters, both are supposed to be unknown.
3 Set Voy, the vertical shooting velocity, at its minimum value
4 Right after Vox and Voy are fixed, the values of the shooting velocity Vo and cannon
elevation angle A, are automatically calculated. Take note of these values.
5 Start the motion of the cart and then fire (make a shot).
6 Once the projectile lands, use the mouse coordinates to find out the horizontal range R
of the projectile and its maximum height h reached during its flight.
Fill in the corresponding row in the table:
V
oy
V
o
A R h 2 V
oy
/ g
1
2
:
15
7 Increment a little the value of Voy
8 Repeat steps from [4] through [7] until no more increments are possible
9 Make a plot of (1) R vs 2Voy/g, this will generate a straight line, whose slope may be
determined with the help of a ruler; this slope must be equal to Vox, velocity of the car.
10 Additionally make plots of (2) R vs Voy (3) h vs A (4) R vs A
11 Repeat the experiment for other two values of g.

The experiment was executed with Vox = 50 and g = 9.8

Back to Index

Experiment

Cannon bullet hits free-falling object

PVL Module.- Mechanics - Parabolic motion Cannon bullet hits free falling object.

Introduction.-

In this experiment a cannon shoots a
bullet to a ball being held at an
elevated position, but the ball starts
to fall freely the moment the cannon
makes fire. Eventually the bullet hits
the ball at a certain position (Xo,Yo)
below the initial position of the ball.

It can be seen in the diagram that
the time for the bullet to reach the hit
point -whose coordinates are (Xo,
Yo) - is the same to that needed by
the ball to descend to that point.
Consequently, equating the time t from equations
t v x
ox o
= and
2
2
1
gt H
o
= it will result that
2
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
ox
o
o
v
x
g H and since A tg x y H H
o o o
= + =
then the coordinates (Xo, Yo) of the hit point are related by
means of
2
2
2
ox
o
o o
v
x g
A tg x y =
which happens to be the equation for the flight of a
projectile fired by a cannon, when the projectile is at the
point of (Xo, Yo)

Objective.-
To investigate the dependence of the hit point height Yo on the shooting velocity Vo of the
bullet.

2 Fix an elevation angle A for the cannon and fix also the horizontal position Xo of the
object that begins to fall freely the moment the cannon fires.
Set a value for the acceleration of the gravity.
3 Fix the shooting velocity Vo of the cannon, making sure that this velocity is enough for the
bullet to meet the free-falling object.
4 Fire the cannon.
5 Once the bullet hits the free-falling object, place the mouse on the hit point and read its
coordinates. Take note of the shooting velocity Vo and the vertical position Yo of the hit
point.
6 Increment a little the shooting velocity Vo
7 Repeat steps from 4 to 6, some 12 times
8 Repeat the whole process for other two values of the acceleration of the gravity.
At the end there must be three sets of Vo and corresponding Yo
9 Plot Yo versus Vo, for the three sets on a single graph. Ultimately there must be a graph
with three curves, one for each value of g.


Another experiment:
Find the maximum value of g, beyond which there is no bullet - ball meeting.
After fixing A, Vo and Xo, vary g in small steps, from small to large values, until it
becomes impossible that the bullet hits the ball.

Notice in the resulting
graph that the three lines
cross by pairs, this
suggests that for every g
there are two values of Xo,
producing the bullet ball
meeting in the same Yo.

Back to Index
Experiment

Cannon elevation angles to hit the same point
when shooting up an incline.

PVL Module: Mechanics Parabolic motion
Projectile shot up an incline by a cannon.

Introduction.-
It is known that for a cannon
on a horizontal surface and
whose shooting velocity is Vo,
the same hitting point R on the
horizontal is obtained, when
the cannon elevation angles
are complementary, this is A
o

and 90 A
o
To this property
we may refer as the law of
complementary angles for the
parabolic flight of a projectile
shot by a cannon; this may be
Mathematically expressed as

) 1 ( 90
1 2
o o o
A A =

Objective.-
To experimentally detect the cannon elevation angles that allow hitting the same
point when shooting up an incline.

1 Set an elevation angle B for the incline, another elevation angle A
1
for the cannon, and a
shooting velocity for the cannon.
2 Fire the cannon and take note of the point P where the bullet impacts on the incline.
3 Change only the cannon elevation angle A, fire the cannon, and see if the projectile hits
the same point P.
Repeat this process until finding a cannon elevation angle A
2
that allows making impact
on the same point P, as with A
1
.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 with different cannon elevation angles, incline elevation angles and
also different shooting velocities.
5 Once you are sure you have found a relationship between the elevation angles of cannon
and incline (angles A and B), make a statement like the one in equation (1)
6 Repeat steps from (1) through (5) for other two values of the Acceleration of Gravity.
7 Solve theoretically the same problem and compare your experimental results with the
theoretical ones.

Results.-

Experimentally it is found that the cannon elevation angles A
1
and A
2
to hit the
same point on the incline, whose elevation angle is B, are related by means of
A
2
= 90 A
1
+ B
This relation is valid for any value of the Acceleration of Gravity and it is effective
provided that A
1
and A
2
are greater than B, the incline elevation angle.

Back to Index

Experiment
Friction on a tilted plane

PVL Module: Mechanics - Static Friction Coefficient

Introduction.-
A way of finding the
coefficient of static friction Us
between two materials is to
place one on the horizontal
surface of the other, and
slowly tilt upwards the surface
and see at what inclination
angle A, the block resting on
the surface begins to slide
downwards.

Objective.-
To experimentally study the relationship between the inclination-angle of the tilting
surface and the coefficient Us of static friction.
To determine the value acquired by the normal force, at the moment the sliding
begins. To find the influence of the weight in the value of the static friction coefficient
Us.

Introduction.-
The figure shows the deduction of a relation between the static friction coefficient Us
and the critical angle A of surface inclination at which the block begins to slide
downwards

1 Set to Research mode.
2 Set any weight for the block that will slide over the tilted surface.
3 Set a small value for the coefficient of static friction, Us. This is tantamount to
select the material of the block to be placed on the tilting surface.
4 Gradually tilt the surface and see at what angle (A) the block begins to slide
down. As the surface tilts, the experimental inclination angle (A) is shown.
5 Once the block has slid over the tilted surface, take note of the values of Us
and the corresponding tilt angle A.
6 Using the experimental value of A, calculate the value of the normal force N, at
the moment the sliding begins
7 Enter the values of Us, A and N in a table:
Experimental data.-
Weight =
1 2 3 4 15
U
s

A
N
Increase a little the value of the coefficient of static friction, Us.
8 Repeat some 15 times, steps from (4) through (7).
9 Repeat the whole process for any other two weights.
10 Make plottings of Us vs A, N vs Us, N vs A. At the end three graphs must
result, with three curves each, one curve for each used weight.


The three following graphs show the results of the investigation:


Back to Index
Experiment
Finding the Acceleration of Gravity
from the crossing of falling bodies

PVL Module.-
Mechanics - Falling bodies.- Crossing of parabolic and vertical falls

Introduction.-
From the free fall equation y = (1/2) g t it can be seen that the plotting of y versus
t is a straight line with slope g/2.

Objective.-
To determine the Acceleration of Gravity g, from the position of the crossing
point and elapsed time for two projectiles, one under a free fall and another falling in
a parabolic route.

2 Randomly fix a value for the Acceleration of Gravity g. The value of g however,
is supposed to be unknown along the research, because finding g is precisely
the objective of this investigation.
3 Randomly set the position d of the block supporting the ball that will fall freely.
Positions close to the table allow for more data collection, hence these must be
preferred. Take note of the supporting-block position.
4 Set the horizontal shooting velocity Vox at its minimum.
5 Make a shot. Take note of the shooting velocity Vox
6 Carefully wait for the vertically falling ball to meet the ball falling along a
parabola. Click "Pause" or "Abort" when both balls meet. Take note of the
meeting point vertical position and of the elapsed time.
Acceleration of the Gravity g =
1 2 3 4 15
V
ox

y
t
t

7 Increment the shooting velocity by 5 units
8 Repeat some 15 times, steps (5), (6) and (7).
9 Make a plot of y versus t (a parabola must appear), and a plot of y versus t, (a
straight line must show up).
10 Get the slope of the straight line in the plot of y vs t, its value must be g/2.
11 Repeat the whole process for other two values of g. Make the plotting on the
same graphs, so that comparison of curves of the same kind is possible.

With data generated in the simulations the two following graphs were obtained:

Back to Index

Experiment

Behavior of an oscillating spring.

PVL Module.- Waves and Oscillations SHM - Oscillating Spring

Introduction.-
The oscillations of a spring can be approximated by the equation of a Simple
Harmonic Motion, ) ( t Sin A A
o
e = where the angular frequency is given by
m
k
= e and then )
1
(
2
m
k
m
k
= = e
and therefore the plotting of m vs1
2
e is a straight line whose slope is k, the value
of the elastic constant of the spring.

Objective.-
Analyze the dependence of the period T of oscillation on the mass m.
Verify that the plotting of m vs1
2
e is a straight line whose slope gives the value of
the elastic constant k of the spring.

1 Shift to Research mode
2 Choose a spring to work with; this is, set some value for the elastic
constant k. Also set to 10 the number n of periods. These will remain
unaltered throughout all the investigation.
3 Set the value of the mass to some value from 1 to 5 units, take note of it.
4 Oscillate the spring
5 Take note of the oscillation total (elapsed) time.
6 Calculate the oscillation period T, dividing the elapsed time by the
number n of periods.
7 Compute the frequency f = 1/T and the angular frequency w = 2 Pi f =
2 Pi / T
8 Calculate w and 1/m and take note of these values.
9 Increase the mass in 4 or 5 units and repeat some 15 times steps from
(4) through (9). For a given value of k, generated data my be stored in a
table like

m t T = t / n f = 1 / T f t e 2 =
2
e
1 / m
1
2
:
15
10 Make a plot of Period T vs Mass m.
11 Make a plot of w versus 1/m, this graph must be a straight line.
12 Compute the slope of the resulting straight line.
This slope must be the value fixed in (2) for the elastic constant k.
13 Repeat steps from (2) to (12) for other two values of k, using the same
values for the mass.

Make all plottings on the same graph, at the end there must be two graphs, one of T
vs m and another of m vs1
2
e , with three curves each.

The two graphs below display the results obtained following the instructions in the
Research Procedure:

Back to Index

Experiment

Frequency behavior in the SHM

PVL Module.- Waves and Oscillations SHM Position, Velocity and Acceleration

In this module the Simple
Harmonic Motion is visualized
by means of a freely oscillating
spring. The oscillator is not
subject to the acceleration of
the gravity.

Three plots are generated as
the spring oscillates: position
vs time, velocity vs time and
acceleration vs time.

The number of periods
completed during oscillation
can be easily visualized and
counted on the x vs t plotting.
This means that the period T of the oscillation may be calculated by dividing the total
elapsed time, by the number of oscillated periods, and after that, the oscillation
frequency may be computed by means of f =1/T

Introduction.-
The frequency f of an oscillator describing a simple harmonic motion is given by
m
k
T
f
t t
e
2
1
2
1
= = =
Where T is the period of oscillation, w is the angular frequency, k is the elastic
constant and m is the mass. It can be seen that the frequency increases with k and
decreases with m.

Objective.-
Generate graphs of behavior that permit to study the dependence of the SHM, on its
mass and also on its elastic constant.

1 Shift to Research mode. Fix some value for the elastic constant k of the oscillator
and set also a small value for its mass m. Take note of k.
2 Start the oscillations and pay attention to the number of completed periods on
the x vs t plotting.
3 Click Abort when the spring has completed an integer number of periods. The
larger the number of periods, the more accurate the results.
4 Carefully count the number n of completed periods on the x vs t plotting.
5 Read the elapsed time and calculate the oscillation period T, by dividing the
elapsed time by n.
6 Calculate the oscillation frequency by means of f = 1/ T
7 Take note of the mass m and the corresponding T and f.
8 Increment a little the value of m.
9 Repeat some 15 times, steps from [2] through [8]
10 With the collected values of m and f make a plot of frequency versus mass.
11 Repeat this process for other two values of the elastic constant k.
Make the plotting on the same graph, so that, at the end a single graph with
three curves must result. Having two or more curves of the same kind on a
unique graph, allows comparison.

Following an analogous procedure, fix the oscillator mass m and varying k, find the
corresponding frequency f for each k. Make a plot of frequency versus elastic
constant (f vs k).


Back to Index

Experiment

Simple Pendulum executing a SHM
and the Acceleration of the Gravity

PVL module.- Waves and Oscillations
Oscillations of a simple pendulum executing a SHM

Introduction.-
Since the angular frequency W of the simple pendulum executing a Simple
Harmonic Motion (SHM), is given by

| | L g L g 1 /
2
= = e e

then the plotting of L versus 1
2
e will be a straight line whose slope is g. In this
way the value of the Acceleration of the Gravity g, may be determined from a set of
experiments with different pendulum lengths L, by measuring their oscillation periods
T and computing their angular frequencies with

T f t t e 2 2 = =

In this experiment the oscillations of the simple pendulum are at the most 14, which
means that the pendulum executes indeed a SHM, oscillation amplitudes beyond 14
are not SHM.

Objective.-
Verify that the plotting of L versus 1
2
e is a straight line whose slope is the
Acceleration of the Gravity g

Prepare a 5-column table, to be filled in with the following experimental data:
Length L, 1/L, Period T, W, W.

1 Set to Research mode.
2 Choose a value for g, the Acceleration of Gravity. This will remain
constant along the research, and it is supposed to be unknown, finding g
is the aim of this experiment.
3 Set a small value for the length L of the pendulum rope.
4 Start the oscillations of the pendulum.
As the pendulum oscillates the Amplitude vs Time plotting is shown on
screen. Click "Abort" in order to stop the oscillations when an integer and
not so small number of periods has been oscillated.
5 When the oscillation finishes, take note of the total time.
6 On the plotting of Amplitude vs Time shown on screen, count the number
n of oscillated periods.
7 Find the oscillation period T, by dividing the total time by n.
8 Increment the length L of the pendulum by a short amount.
9 Repeat some 15 times, steps from (4) through (8).
10
Make a plot of L versus 1
2
e , this must be a straight line. Obtain the
slope of the resulting line which must be equal to the value of g
previously fixed in (2).
11 In order to verify if this method for finding g is valid for other cases,
repeat the whole process for two other values of g. The lengths L of the
pendulum do not need to be equal to those used previously.

The plotting below is the result of executing the Research Procedure for three
different values of g, as expected the slopes of the lines on the graph are close to the
predefined values of g:

Back to Index


Experiment

Dependence of the period on the CM-to-pivot distance
for a physical pendulum

PVL module.- Waves and Oscillations - Physical pendulum

Introduction.-
Though the period of
oscillation of a physical pendulum
describing small oscillations (at most
14), is given by
) 1 ( 2
mgb
I
T t =
some insight may be obtained if this
equation is used to investigate
oscillations of the physical pendulum
of any amplitude.

Objective.-
To investigate the dependence of the period T on the CM-to-pivot distance b,
and verify that the period of oscillation of the physical pendulum is independent of its
mass.

2 Choose a value for the mass of the pendulum, and another for g, the
Acceleration of the Gravity. Though the amplitudes of oscillation have no
influence in this investigation, fix the amplitudes in at least 60, because in this
way it is easier to count the oscillated periods depicted on screen. These three
parameters will remain constant throughout the research.
3 Fix the value of b, the distance from the CM to the pivot, at its minimum
4 Oscillate the pendulum. The oscillation amplitudes vs time (A vs t) will be
depicted as a sinusoidal on screen, on real time.
The time is also reported as it evolves.
5 Pause or abort the oscillations when an integer number of periods have been
oscillated. Including fractions of a period introduces errors.
More accurate results are obtained when the number of periods is rather high,
so avoid small number of periods.
6 On the A vs t plotting count the number n of oscillated periods.
7 Dividing the Total time by n, get the period T of oscillation
8 Tabulate the experimental values of b and T.
9 Increment in 0.05 the value of b, and repeat steps from (4) to (9) until no more
values of b are possible.
10 Repeat steps from (1) to (9) for other two pendulums with different masses.
11 With the collected data make plots of T versus b.
At the end there must be a graph with three curves, a curve for each used mass.


The fig. shows the behavior of the period of oscillation T versus the distance b from
the CM of the pendulum to its pivot. The plotting makes evident the fact that the
period of oscillation is independent of the mass of the pendulum.

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Experiment

Frequency of an oscillator in a viscous medium

PVL module.- - Waves and Oscillations -The Damped Oscillator

Introduction.-
The oscillations of a damped oscillator are mathematically represented by the second
order differential equation
0
2
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ x
m
k
dt
dx
m
b
dt
x d

where x is the amplitude of the oscillation, m the mass of the oscillator, k its elastic
constant, and b is the viscosity of the medium where the oscillator is immersed.
When there is no damping the (free) oscillator oscillates with a frequency m k
o
= e ,
and when it is immersed in a medium that imposes a damping m b D 2 = , its
oscillation frequency becomes
2 2
D
o
= e e .
The solution of the differential equation above is
) ( ) (
2
o e + =

t Sin e A t x
m t b

and it represents oscillations that decrease as time passes by. It can be seen that the
oscillations x(t) depend on both, the viscosity b and the mass m of the oscillator.

Objective.-
To study the dependence of the oscillation frequency of an oscillator on the viscosity
of the medium and, on the mass of the oscillator.

Studying the frequency of oscillation as a function of the viscosity.-
2 Set some value for the elastic constant k of the oscillator and also for its mass.
3 Choose a low value of the viscosity b.
4 Start the oscillations.
5 When the oscillations stop, the experimental frequency w of the oscillations is
reported. Take note of b and w.
6 Increment a little the value of b.
7 Repeat some 12 times steps from 4 through 6.
8 Make a plot of w vs b.

Studying the frequency of oscillation as a function of the oscillator mass.-
2 Set some value for the oscillator elastic constant k, and for the viscosity b.
3 Choose a low value for the mass m of the oscillator.
4 Start the oscillations.
5 When the oscillations stop, the experimental frequency w of the oscillations is
reported. Take note of m and w.
6 Increment the value of the oscillator mass m.
7 Repeat some 12 times steps from 4 through 6.
8 Make a plot of w vs m.


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Experiment

Deflection of a Charged Particle by an Electric Field

PVL module.-
- Electricity & Magnetism
- Charged Particle Deflection
by an Electric Field

Introduction

In this experiment, a particle of
mass m and charge Q is shot
with velocity
o
v into a
transversal uniform electric field
E, produced by two parallel
plates with opposite charge. Due
to the interaction of the electric
field with the charge of the particle, this is deviated from its original direction and it
finally hits onto a screen placed a distance D away.
The deviation h of the charged particle, from its original direction, is given by
2
o
v m
D L E Q
h =

This means that plotting
2
o
v ELD vs h will generate a straight line whose slope
is m Q .

The vertical E field between the plates exerts a force Q E F = on the charged
particle, so that this experiments a vertical acceleration E m Q a
y
) / ( = , and this
acceleration is associated to a vertical velocity t a v
y y
= .
Traveling with velocity
o
v the time to traverse the parallel plates is
o L
v L t / = , hence
the vertical velocity of the particle when leaving the E-field region, is
o y
v m L E Q v =
thus the velocity of the charged particle when leaving the E-field region, will be
o o o y x
v v m L E Q v v v v > + = + =
2 2 2 2
) (

Objective.-
To study the deflection of charged particles by an electric field and to verify that the
plotting of
2
o
v ELD vs h is indeed a straight line of slope Q/m

2 Fix values for the Electric field intensity E, for the distance D to the screen, for
the mass m and charge Q of the particle. The mass m and the charge Q of the
particle are supposed to be unknown; experimentally finding the Q/m ratio is the
aim of this experiment.
3 Set the shooting velocity Vo of the particle at a small value.
4 Shoot the particle, it will traverse the electric field between the plates, it will be
deviated and will finally hit the screen at a height h. Take note of Vo and of h.
5 Increment a little the shooting velocity Vo.
6 Repeat some 15 times, steps (4) and (5)
7 For each recorded value of Vo, compute ELD/Vo
8 Make a plotting of h vs ELD/Vo
9 The plotting of h vs ELD/Vo must generate a straight line, whose slope should
be close to the previously defined Q/m ratio
10 This procedure must be repeated for other two sets of values for E, D, m, and Q.
The three plottings have to be made on the same graph, in this way at the end
there ought to be a graph with three lines, one for each Q/m ratio.
11 Analyze the dependence of the deviation h on the initial velocity Vo, making
plottings of h vs Vo, for the three studied cases.
12 Verify that the final velocity of the charged particle is greater than the initial one,
making plottings of V vs Vo, for the three studied cases.


Following the instructions above, the three following cases were studied:
(1) E = 1, m = 1, Q = 1, D = 400, Q/m = 1
(2) E = 4, m = 7, Q = 3, D = 600, Q/m = 0.428
(3) E = 5, m = 3, Q = 10, D = 500, Q/m = 3.333

The resulting graphs are shown below:


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