As well as: DNA, graphite, cellulose and Kevlar.

C6.2

Distinguish between thermotropic and lyotropic liquid crystals. Thermotropic liquid crystal materials are pure substances that show liquidcrystal behaviour over a temperature range between the solid and the liquid states. The biphenyl nitriles are common examples and are the most commonly used in liquid crystal displays on calculators. Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions that show the liquid-crystal state at certain concentrations. The most obvious example is soap and water. One end of a soap molecule loves water, the other hates it and is more attracted to the dirt. When the concentration is right the molecules arrange themselves so that all the water loving ends are all next to water molecules and vice versa. This allows the dirt to be surrounded by the other ends of the molecules (known as micelles).

C6.3

Describe the liquid-crystal state in terms of the arrangement of the molecules and explain thermotropic behaviour. It is easiest to describe this in an exam in a before and after way. This will show the examiner that you understand liquid-crystal behaviour. Solids are arranged in the typical solid formation. As the temperature is increased, the molecules break free from their neighbours and start to become disordered. Yet, because of their shape they point in the same direction. This is the liquid-crystal or nematic phase. Over certain temperatures this is lost and typical liquid phase properties occur. See the pencil analogy above if it helps.

C6.4

Outline the principles of the liquid-crystal display device. Liquid crystal molecules will allow light of a certain orientation through if they too are facing in the correct direction. If they are not then no light will pass. If you look at a simple LCD display on a calculator or wrist watch you will see that the numbers and letters are formed in black (the absence of light). The liquid crystal molecules used in such displays are polar and the direction they lie in can be changed by the application of a small electric field and can therefore be switched on and off depending on which button is pressed. A more detailed explanation is given in the HL section of this book. Liquid crystal displays require very little current and are therefore very useful in such devices as battery usage low. As discussed earlier, liquid crystals are affected by heat and, as you may have noticed, they can give strange displays when the temperature is changed.

C6.5

Discuss the properties needed for a substance to be used in liquidcrystal displays. A little thought after reading the above will help you see what a molecule to be used in a liquid crystal screen would need:

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x x x

They need to be polar to allow the molecules to be switched by current. They need to change orientation very quickly. Given the temperature changes around the world the liquid-crystal phase needs to be stable under all normal human living conditions. They need to be chemically stable over the reasonable working life of the device.

C7: Nanotechnology C7.1 Define the term nanotechnology. The IB states that nanotechnology is the research and technology development at the 1 nm to 100 nm range, so learning their definition is probably a good place to start. Nanotechnology is used to create structures that have novel properties due to their small size and relies and builds upon the ability to manipulate atoms.

C7.2

Distinguish between physical and chemical techniques in manipulating atoms to form molecules. Physical techniques used in nanotechnology include atomic force microscopy and dip pen nanolithography. These techniques allow atoms to be picked up, one by one, on a very thin, sharp tip, and deposited in specific places, as required. In contrast, chemical techniques such as in DNA nanotechnology involve using chemical reactions to position atoms in particular places. In this particular example, the base pair hydrogen bonds are exploited and used to create new molecules.

C7.3

Describe the structure and properties of carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes are made from carbon atoms which are covalently bonded to each other in hexagons, like in graphite, which join together to form cylinders. Single- or multi-walled tubes can be formed. Bundles of these tubes have very high tensile strength, much more than graphite, which is soft and malleable in comparison. Some nanotubes can conduct electricity and some have been found to be semi-conductors. This behaviour depends on the length of the tube.

C7.4

Discuss some of the implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is a good thing, although it has to be understood properly. When Prince Charles mentioned that nanotechnology was all about grey goo in one of his speeches, he created widespread hysteria. It is vital that the

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public are properly educated about nanotechnology so as not to be unnecessarily scared of it and its beneficial applications. Nanotechnology may be used in the future to solve food shortages, to prevent, cure and monitor diseases and to improve communication technology. There are however, potential problems. Worries include the unknown problems of having nanoparticles in the air and the effects of these particles on humans and animal life. Toxicity regulations are non-existent at present and would have to be calculated. Also, if nanotechnology does really take off, the divide between countries will increase and focus on those that have the money and power to conduct such research. Michael Crichton's hysterical (in all senses) novel "Prey" is probably not a good place to start. C8: Condensation polymers (HL) C8.1 Distinguish between addition and condensation polymers in terms of their structures. Monomers with a carbon-carbon double bond form addition polymers, such as polyethene. The polymer chain is made of carbon only. Condensation polymers are formed when two reactive functional groups on neighbouring monomers react together. The polymer chain will include non-carbon atoms like nitrogen and oxygen. Polyamides and polyesters are examples of condensation polymers (See the core course Organic Chemistry section for more).

H C H

H C H

H C H

H C H

Addition polymer. Note only carbons in the chain.

H C H

H C H

O C

H N

H C H

Condensation polymer. Note the nitrogen in the chain.

C8.2

Describe how condensation polymers are formed from their monomers. Condensation polymers are formed when monomers, each with two functional groups, come together and react, with the elimination of a small molecule which is usually water or hydrogen chloride. 1) Phenol-methanal plastics When an acid or an alkali is added to phenol and methanal, a phenolmethanal plastic is formed. Firstly, the methanal takes the place of a

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