Integrated Application of Geophysical Methods in Archaeology

i
YARMOUK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

Integrated application of geophysical methods for investigation of the
Al-Berktain archaeological site in the city of Jerash, Jordan

By
Ala'a Hussein Hawamdeh

Supervisor
Dr. Rasheed Jaradat

Co- advisor
Prof. Dr. Ziad Al Sa'ad

January, 2012

ii
1

DEDICATION

To my parents, for all their endless support,

Brothers,

Sisters, and

Friends

2

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my
advisor, Dr. Rasheed Jaradat. This thesis could not be written without his
guidance and support. And my thanks to Prof. Dr. Ziad Al Sa'ad for his
encouragement and support.
Special thanks for Mr. Abdullah Alawneh for his support.
Also I would like to express my gratitude to the Yarmouk University.

3

Integrated application of geophysical methods for investigation of the
Al-Berktain archaeological site in the city of Jerash, Jordan

By
Ala'a Hussein Hawamdeh

Master of Science
Department of Earth and Environment Sciences
Yarmouk University, 2012

Advisor: Dr. Rasheed Jaradat
Co-advisor: Prof. Ziad Al Saad
Abstract
The joint application of Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
techniques involving the Wenner and Schlumberger electrode
configurations was conducted across four stations the ancient site of
Al-Berktain of Jerash, N-Jordan. It may be considered as the first
archaeogeophysical survey at this site. The objective of the work was
to determine the precise layout dimensions, and the depth of possible
buried structures within the site. The results showed high resistivity
anomalies located within the eastern, western and northern sides of the
pool. These anomalies were interpreted as a part of a general infra
structure of ancient man-made buried channels or supporting basins
4

drainging out or feeding water to the two the water reservoirs
especially for the western and eastern side areas. Additionally, the
results indicated the presence of a very shallow compacted anomaly
that was interpreted as an ancient 0.5 meter pavement floor layer
extends over the northern side area. Within the pool floor the results of
survey showed anomalous thin shallow zone interpreted as a layer
limestone pavement of a thickness of 1 meter underlain by a thick
conductive sequence of wadi sediments and sediment fill material. In
order to obtain a more realistic image of the expected man-made
structures, 3D field surveying and inversion of measured data showed
the extension of some anomalies to the western side of the pool. It may
be concluded the site of Al-Berktain can be considered as part of the
general architectural context of the City of Jerash. Accordingly, other
uses for the two water pools can be implicated, rather than leisure,
such as water reservoirs to serve the city or irrigations purposes.
Key words: Electrical Resistivity Tomography, Geophysical, Wenner,
Schlumberger, Al-Berktain, Archaeological site, the two pools, Jerash.

5

Chapter One

Introduction
6

1.1 Introduction:
Geophysical methods have been successfully applied to reveal and delineate
archaeological remains and have proved to be rapid, effective, and non-
invasive tools for the study of a broad range of various targets (Eppelbaum
et al., 2009).Geophysical surveys provide a ground plan of cultural remains,
and expose the probable layout, location, depth and physical properties of
archaeological settlements (Ekinci and Kaya, 2007).
Jerash (Gerasa) is one of the major cities in northern part of Jordan that
historically belonged to the Decapolis (Aubin, 1997). Much of the
archaeological value of Gerasa is mainly contained within the premises of
the surrounding walls of the ancient city.
In this study an attempt will be made to explore this archaeological site
using an integrated geophysical techniques approach. Specific survey
objectives often cannot be met by applying only one geophysical technique.
Al-Berktain site represented a place of sanctuary for the inhabitants of the
ancient city of Gerasa (Segal, 1994). Recent archaeological excavations
within Al-Berktain revealed a number of structures, such as: a roman
theatre, a mosaic floors and a roman bath (Malkawi, 2006). Figure 1.1.

7

Figure 1.1: A closer look to the survey area. The imposing ruins of the
pool, theatre, and a roman baths are shown in the aerial photo.

There are ambiguities and limitations restricting the use of methods in
different cases, for instance, in resistivity surveys thin beds and smaller
features may not contribute their signature to an apparent resistivity curve or
a resistivity image, unless they create especial high resistivity contrast with
surrounding geology. Noise is another problem that all geophysical data
contain to some degree, and can mask desired geophysical signals. For these
reasons, Wenner resistivity tomography and Schlumberger resistivity
tomography methods were used together to provide important cross-checks
for interpretations (Burger et al., 2006). The ability of detecting the man-
made structures, and the low cost of the investigation and the fact that there
is resistivity contrast between these structures and the surrounding soil, all
8

made the resistivity method one of the most commonly applied techniques
for geophysical investigation in archaeological sites (Ekinci and Kaya,
2007). By the conventional resistivity mapping surveys, a map is generally
produced using the apparent resistivity data which is a function of the
subsurface resistivity distribution and of the geometry of the electrodes.
Tomographic resistivity data are collected a long a measuring line by
sequence of a selected configuration for building up a pseudosection (2D) or
obtained from a selected area by different arrangement of electrode
configurations for 3D surveys (Drahor et al., 2008). Compared with
conventional electrical soundings and profiling, the electrical profiling is the
most common method. It yields more detailed structural information (Storz
et al., 2000).

1.2 Significance and Objectives of the Study:

Gerasa (Jerash) is one of the main archeological cities of the Middle East
region that is still underexplored. The site of Al-Berktain (the two pools) is
located outside the ancient walls of the city. It is hoped that this study will
be able to explore possible subsurface structures adjacent to the pool body,
draw the attention to the archaeological value of the site, open the
9

opportunities for future investigations, and provide the means for necessary
site preservation.
The main objectives of this study are to:
- Locate potential subsurface structures and their extensions
using integrated application of Electrical Resistivity
Tomography (ERT) techniques.
- Determine the precise layout, dimensions, and the depth of
possible buried structures within the study area.
- Set priorities and provide recommendations for future
excavation projects within the proposed archaeological site.
1.3 Literature Review:
Previous literature related to the site of Al-Berktain is very limited. Most
of the available data is mainly in the form of unpublished reports of
previous excavation campaigns. Al Momani et al. (2002) conducted
archaeological excavation works in Al-Berktain historical site (Jerash), and
provided logging for the previous excavation projects which discovered a
Roman bath and exhibited a number of covered features within the site.
Balawneh and Malkawi (2005) reported the results of the 2002 campagin
project of the archeological survey to excavate roman archeological ruins
11

southern theatre in Al-Berktain site. A number of buried chambers and
relicts were reported.
Malkawi (2006) reported the results of archaeological prospecting study at
Al-Berktain site in Jerash. Significant findings indicated the presence of
many Roman ruins at the site.
The application of geophysics in the field of archaeology in Jordan is
growing more and more and it has proved to be very effective in delineating
potential sites of investigation. For example, Qazaq (1995) exerted
magnetic geophysical survey at Yasileh Archeological site, Northern
Jordan. His results indicated that magnetic surveying succeeded in locating
archeological features that have not been discovered by excavation, and it
had proved to be successful for the first time in Jordan to locate buried
archeological features in the Yasileh site. Two rectangular buried features
were detected in two areas, area and area , with probable dimensions of
35 x 40m and 25 x 35m for area and area , respectively.
Witten et al. (2000) utilized a range of geophysical surveys;
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI); Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR); and
Magnetometry, in the Jebel Hamrat Fidan, south Jordan. They aimed to help
locating buried remains of architectural and industrial features from early
mining and metallurgical operations; including copper ore bodies or voids.
Magnetometry and ground penetrating radar provided little useful
information. Buried stone walls were apparently masked by numerous
11

magnetic stones on the ground surface making magnetometry useless.
Reflections from known strata demonstrated that radar penetrated the
ground adequately; known shallow buried walls were not recognizable.
Electromagnetic induction produced maps of linear and rectilinear features
that suggested spatial distribution of widespread buried stone walls suitable
for future excavation.
Batayneh et al. (2001) conducted a magnetic and resistivity geophysical
surveys over the Tell al Kharrar archaeological site, at Wadi al Kharrar, east
of Jordan River, Jordan, to map buried structures, identify target zones
quickly, thereby reducing the required amount of costly excavations.
Measurements of the total magnetic field and pole-dipole resistivity surveys
yielded anomalies, which are associated with walls, floors, mosaic floors
with ornaments, iron construction tools, channels, and a church abattoir.
Conyers et al. (2002a and b) used GPR maps and images as a guide to
excavation strategies at Petra site in, Jordan. A number of buried buildings
were discovered, as well as stratigraphic horizons that were later found to
contain evidence of ancient gardens. The GPR profiles and amplitude slice-
maps and renderings were an excellent tool for mapping both subsurface
features and stratigraphic interfaces of interest.
Oleson et al. (2002, 2003, and 2004) carried out geophysical surveys
(electrical resistivity, magnetic gradiometry, and ground-penetrating radar)
at Humayma site (southern Jordan). GPR was the best tool for locating
12

buried structures, but only if the profile spacing was small (around 1m).
The magnetic gradiometer generally was only able to detect fairly shallow
targets (upper meter). The data collected with the capacitively-coupled
resistivity meter was useful for identifying deeper targets (>1m), but did not
have the vertical or horizontal resolution potential of the GPR. GPR and
magnetic geophysical surveying successfully indicated the presence of
buried structures at the site. They made an extensive survey, and detected
several archeological remains based on those geophysical surveys which
proved very effective in revealing the plans of structures known but not yet
excavated.
Batayneh et al. (2007) applied a suite of geophysical methods of
microgravity, magnetometry, and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)
methods to investigate sites within Umm er-Rasas archaeological site,
Madaba. Geophysical methods aimed at obtaining information about the
subsurface and associated buried structures beneath the Late Byzantine
Lion Church, in the ancient town of Umm er-Rasas (Kastrom Mefa'a).
Microgravity and magnetometry methods found a number of structures with
contrasting physical properties to those of the surrounding material. The
archaeological interpretation of such structures is in terms of two possible
floors of a building with remains of walls, rooms, paths and foundations.
Resisitivity data showed a highly conductive region close to the church
wall.
13

Baker and Ambrose (2007) examined the application of geophysical
surveys that were conducted on and around the site of a 4th Century Roman
fort in Southern Jordan from 2002-2005 as apart of the Humayma
Excavation Project. Data were collected in a series of 1-m-spaced profiles
within the 150m by 200m Fort and collated to generate 3D volumes. Data
yielded good details of interior structures (walls and potential tiled floors)
and exterior features (defensive ditches, claviculae, the Via Nova).
Batayneh (2010) exploited magnetometry and pole-dipole electrical
resistivity geophysical methods for assessing their capability in the
detection of Nabataean Hawar (Humayma) archeological site in the SW-
Jordan. A number of magnetic stations and two pole-dipole resistivity
traverses were carried out in the investigated area. Magnetic method found
structure with contrasting physical properties to those of the surrounding
material. The archeological interpretation of such structure is in terms of
rectangular cistern (pool) with dimensions 2616 m. A probable location of
two buried walls spaced 16 m are indicated by low resistivity values.

In a regional example, Weinstein-Evron et al. (2003) Conducted
geophysical investigations in el-wad cave, Mount Carmel, Palestine.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and Seismic refraction provided similar
results. A Continuous Vertical Electrical Sounding (CVES) geoelectric
survey in the (collapsed) Misliya Cave indicates a low resistivity layer
14

suggesting that lithified archeological deposits, of ca. 4 m, are preserved at
the site. At the bottom of the cliff and across the hypothesized cave (or
chamber), the used two-layer model showed a low resistivity (100200
ohm-m) layer, overlying a layer of high resistivity (800010,000 ohm-m).
Yaliner et al. (2008) reported the results of a temple discovery at the
archeological site of Nysa western Turkey by applying GPR method. They
described the discovery of a new temple in the ancient city of Nysa (western
Turkey). Testing two different frequency of GPR antenna showed that the
roots of olive trees hide the buried archaeological remnants if a 500 MHz
central frequency antenna is used. This difficulty was overcome by using
the 250 MHz GPR antenna. Therefore, this suggested that relatively lower
frequency antennas should be used in areas covered by trees. In order to
map the 3D distribution of the archaeological remnants and determine their
size they had carried out their surveys in a grid manner. This allowed them
to reveal the architecture of the temple in fine detail, which, in turn, allowed
the archaeologists to expedite their archaeological excavation.
Boyce et al. (2009) employed magnetic detection of ship ballast deposits
and anchorage sites in King Herod's Roman harbour, Caesarea Maritima,
Israel. Their geophysical investigations at Caesarea Maritima in Israel had
discovered a thick, laterally extensive ballast layer in the area seaward of
the 1st c. BC Roman harbor, large quantities of Late Roman and Byzantine
pottery, local sedimentary boulders (kurkar sandstone, limestone cobbles)
15

and foreign igneous and metamorphic boulders (granite, schist, volcanics;
ca. 50%). Magnetic surveys at Caesarea have identified several magnetic
anomalies in the area seaward of the main harbour that mark the location of
ballast deposits and ship anchorage areas.
1.4 Structure of study:
This thesis is divided into five chapters following the introduction in
chapter one, a general view about the study area, topography, geological
setting and local/regional geological structures are described in chapter two.
A description of the methodology and field techniques used in this thesis is
given in chapter three. Results and analysis of geophysical data are
presented in chapter four. Finally, the last chapter provides the conclusions
and some recommendations.

16

Chapter Two

History, geography
and geological
settings of the study
area

17

2.1 Archaeological backgrounds:
The ancient city of Jerash (Gerasa) is one of ten Greco-Roman cities which
formed the Decapolis (figure 2.1), that took its name from the confederation
of the ten cities that domainted its extent. During the first and second
century AD all the cities of the Decapolis developed into grand
metropolises decorated with many fine civic and religious building
(Browning, 1982).

18

Figure 2.1: The region of the Decapolis (Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency,
2007).

The landscape of Jerash represents an evolution of human society because
of its various architectural monuments and settlements that refer to many
periods like, Prehistoric, Roman and Islamic periods. The succession of the
ancient cultures in Jerash gave the ancient city its historical value.
Excavations have exposed architectural remains and artifacts from
settlements that existed on the south part of the site, around the zeus Temple
and Camp Hill, during the middle and late Bronze Age (1600-1200 BC)
(Khouri,1988 & Zayadine, 1988) and the Early Iron Age (1200-900BC)
(Kouri, 1988 & Borgia, 2001).
19

The site appears to have been abandoned from the 8
th
to 3
rd
Centuries BC
before the advent of Hellenism, there was a settlement at the site known by
its indigenous Arab/Semitic population as Garashu. The name was later
Hellenized into the Roman name Gerasa, which was finally arabised to give
us the modern name of Jerash. Recently the excavations have proved
liberary references from the Classical period which indicate that the first
major urban settlement at Jerash was established in the Hellenistic period,
sometime after the armies of Alexander the Great conquered the region in
332 BC. Architectural remains confirm that a Hellenistic settlement
certainly existed at Jerash by the 2
nd
Century BC, when the region was part
of the Seleucid Empire (Khouri, 1988).
The city and other Decapolis cities were conquered by Pompey in 63 BC,
which ended up being a positive development (Kraeling, 1938). The
dramatic events associated with the Jewish revolt in 66AD and the
consequent representation by Vespasian and Titus do not seem to have
affected the city's gradual process of urban development (Borgia, 2001).
Jerash lost its autonomy under Emperor Trajan, but his annexation of Petra in
106 AD brought the city even more wealth. Parapetti mentioned that there
are two well known inscriptions on a panel of the North Gate which proved
the reality of the political and commercial situation in Gerasa. The city plan
with its colonnades flanking the main streets where they were commonly
adopted after the beginning of the 2
nd
century AD (Khouri, 1995). In 129
21

AD, the monunental triumphal arch at the southern end of the city was
erected to celebrate the visit of emperor Hadrian; this was the golden age of
Jerash (Harding, 1973). During the 2
nd
century, several temples were built
including the Temple of Artemis (in 150 AD) and Temple of Zeus (in 162
AD). After 330AD, the emperor Costantine declared Christianity as the
official religion of the Eastern Roman. Under Justinian, 531-565 AD, there
was a rise in prosperity, and more than seven churches have been built in
this period. Inscriptions record the erection of other public buildings
(Harding, 1973). The city was invaded by the Persians in 614 AD, captured
by Muslims in 635 and badly damaged by several earthquakes in the 8th
century (Alanen, 1995). In 749AD a great earthquake struck the city
(Khouri, 1988).

The investigated area is located due north of the north gate of Jerash. Its a
large pool that is called locally as the Berktain or Al-Berktain; the two
cisterns. In fact, it is one large pool body devided into two basins that is
generally rectangular. The structure is 45.88 m wide and 89.55 m long,
oriented due north and south. At 18 m from the southern end of the structure
a heavy wall (2.7 m thick and lower than the western edge of the pool)
divids it into two unequal parts may be to situate opposite to the western
theatre that rest about 8m upon the slope of a western hill, or to regulate the
depth of water in the upper, or main pool.
21

The pool was built in the early 3
rd
century, and the theater somewhat later.
A sixth-century inscription says that the notorious Maiumas water festival
was held at Al-Berktain, a festival frowned on by the Christian element, as
it involved, among other things, mixed bathing (Kraeling, 1938). When
Burckhardt visited the site in 1812 he described it as a "most romantic
spot," where "large oak and walnut trees overshadow the stream." (Segal,
1995).

Figure 2.2: The site of Al-Berktain.

22

The restoration and excavation projects at Al-Berktain are very few. The
recent works were achieved and exposed a number of remnant roman ruins;
e.g. the roman bath (Figure, 2.3). Restoration project for the site was carried
out by the Royal Corps of Engineers of the Jordanian Armed Forces during
the sixties of the last century. No documentation was found for their
activities. Locals from the regions indicated that most of the work was
related to reconstructing the two pools and clearing off their basins and their
surrounding basins. Heavy machinery was used for that purpose.

Figure 2.3: Excavation works during 2002 at the site of Al-Berktain by
support of the Jordanian department of the Antiquities (DoA).

23

2.2 Location of the study area:
The study area locates 1,200 meters from the north Gate of the roman city
of Jerash, N Jordan. It is delimited between 772300 E, 3575300 N assuming
the UTM, Zone 36 coordinate system (Fig. 2.4).
The study area resides within the alluvial plain of Wadi El Dair Valley
(Fig. 2.5), that is a north-south draining stream valley that is used to feed
the northeast parts of the old city with fresh water. The valley floor is
covered by soil deposits, with relatively low slopes. To the east, the valley
is wider. The altitude of the area is between 625 m A.S.L, in its
southeastern part, and 633 m A.S.L in its northwestern part.
It receives a relatively high mean annual rainfall 500mm/yr. summers are
fairly hot, with a mean monthly and yearly temperature of 20
o
c for the
months July, August and September and with an absolute maximum of
35
o
c.Winters are cold with a mean daily temperature of less than 10
o
c.

24

Figure 2.4: Jordan map showing the location of the study area. The right
image, facing north, shows the survey area. It is marked with a red
rectangle.

25

Figure 2.5: Topographic map showing the location of the study area next to
Wadi El Dair valley (Modified after the 1:50:000 sheet of Jerash produced
by the Royal Geographic Center).

26

2.3 Geological Setting:
The geology of the study area is characterized by Quaternary sediments
that are represented by thick brown to red soil deposits. Figure 2.6
illustrates the different formations outcropping within the study area and
the vicinity. The outcropping rocks predominately consist of limestone
(Burdon, 1959). Rimawi (1985) provided a summary for the dominant
sedimentary rocks outcropping within north Jordan. Within the study area
Ajlun group is dominated by the Naur Formation of the Cenomanian age.
2.3.1 Ajlun Group (Cenomanian to Turonian):
Ajlun group is overlain unconformably by chalk, limestone, marine sediment
and dolostone with a maximum thickness are in the north, forming extensive
outcrops from Ajlun to Amman, while to the south thickness decrease
(Burdon 1959; Masri 1963). In the Cenomanian, a major marine
transgression, which had reached west Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria in the
lower Cretaceous, reached the northern part of east Jordan and spread
southwards. During the Turonian, the seas spread farther south, and marine
beds, mainly limestones and dolomites with some marls, were deposited. All
these beds have been grouped into the Ajlun series, named from the major
outcrops around Ajlun. At the beginning of the Senonian (Conacian-
Santonian), the types of rock deposited in this transgressive sea changed;
limestones and dolomites were replaced by chalks, flint and marls which
were sometimes bituminous. Within the study area this group is dominated
27

by the Naur Formation of the Cenomanian age. Naur limestone belogs to
Ajlun series occupying most of the country between Irbid and Amman.
(Burdon,1959).

2.3.2Naur Formation(Cenomanian):
The majority of the formation is poorly exposed, and in many areas it is
covered with soil or calcrete as well as vegetation. The formation
predominately consist of limestone; grey to yellow-grey, frequently nodular
and marly, fossiliferous, medium to thick bedded, locally massive, spary
micrite, to micrite alternating with yellow to white grey marl enclosing
medium to thin beds of nodular and fossiliferous limestone, and with lenses
and thin beds of green grey calcareous mudstone and gypsiferous clay
(Wetzal and Morton 1959; Basha 1978; Dilley 1985).

28

Figure 2.6: Simplified geological map of Jerash, showing the major
outcropping geological formation in the area of study (Abu-Jaber et al.,
2009).

29

Table1: Presents the geological description of the dominant rock units of
N. Jordan, (Modified after Rimawi (1985).

E
p
o
c
h

Age Group Formation Rock type

Thickness
(m)
U
p
p
e
r

C
r
e
t
a
c
e
o
u
s

Maestrichtain
Balqa

Muwaqqar
Chalk, Marl and Chalky Limestone.
60-70
Campanian Amman
Chert, Limestone with phosphate.
80-120
Santonian Ghudran
Chalk, Marl and Marly Limestone.
15-20
Turonian
Ajlun
Wadi As Sir
Hard Crystalline Limestone.
Dolomitic and some Chert.

90-110
Cenomanian
Shueib
Hight Grey Limestone interbeded with
Marl and Marly Limestone.

75-100
Hummar
Hard dense Limestone and Dolomitic
Limestone.

40-60
Fuheis
Gray and Olive Green soft Marl.
Marly Limestone and Limestone.

60-80
Na'ur
Limestone interbeded with a thick
sequence of Marl and Marly
Limestone.

150-220
L
o
w
e
r

C
r
e
t
a
c
e
o
u
s

Albian-Aptian Kurnub
Mssive White and Varicolored
Sandstone with layers of Reddish Silt
and Shale.

300
31

Chapter three

Methodology

31

3.1 Preface:
This chapter describes the methods used in this study that depend on the
application of electrical resistivity geophysical methods to explore potential
subsurface structures within Al-Beriktain archeological site. The flowchart
showing the different stages of works is given in Figure (3.1).

Figure 3.1: Schematic flowchart illustrating the general procedures of the
methodology of this study.

32

3.2 Electric Resistivity Survey:
3.2.1 Introduction:
Electrical measurements are the most commonly used method to
investigate subsurface conditions in an area. The electrical current is driven
through the ground and the resulting potential differences are measured at
the surface. Anomalous conditions within the ground, such as poorer
conducting layers, are inferred due to the fact that they deflect the current
and distort the normal potentials. The technique of resistivity surveying was
developed by Conrad Schlumberger, who conducted the first experiments
(1912) in the fields of Normandy (Sharma, 1997).
The resistance of a block of material can be calculated by measuring the
voltage drop (V) a cross the block and the intensity of a passing current (I)
through the block using Ohms law:
R=V/I . eq. 1

The resistivity of a block of material () can be calculated in (ohm.m) by
combining the electrical resistance(R) produced by the entire block, the
length of the block (L), and the area (A) using equation 2:
= R (A/L) .. eq. 2

33

Many materials can have the same resistivity that makes the resistivity
information insufficient to identify the material (Christensen, 2000). Even
after the resistivity distribution is determined, it is not possible to fit this
distribution into a subsurface geology model without having at least a
general idea about the local geology, since the resistivity of geological
materials exhibit one of the largest ranges in all physical properties. Large
differences in resistivities are clear between unweathered and weathered
rocks and also between water and frozen ground that prove the effect of the
age of a rock (Reynolds, 2005). Resistivity ranges of some common
geologic materials are presented in Figure (3.2),

Figure 3.2: Typical ranges of resistivities of earth materials (adopted from
Palacky, 1987).

34

Electrical resistivity surveying can be simply implemented using a circuit
composed of an electrical current source, four electrodes and appropriate
current and voltage measuring devices. The system introduces an electric
current of a specific value ( ) through two current electrodes (C1 and C2)
and then the device measures the voltage (V) between two potential
electrodes (P1 and P2), as shown in Figure 3.3. Potential at each electrode is
determined due to the current sources using these equations:

V
P1
= ( I \2 r
1
- I \2r
2
). (eq.3)

V
P2
= (I \2 r
3
- I \2r
4
) ...(eq.4)

where is the resistivity, I is current intensity, and r is electrode
separations.
The potential difference V = VP1 VP2 is estimated by:

V = I \2 (1\r
1
-1\r
2
-1\r
3
+1\r
4
) (eq.5)

The above equation can then be solved for the resistivity (). In a non-
homogeneous earth the resistivity which is measured is not actually the true
resistivity of the subsurface. For an earth with more than one layer, the
apparent resistivity (o) measured will be an average of the resistivities of
the additional layers. The apparent resistivity data needs to be interpreted in
35

terms of a subsurface model in order to determine the true resistivities of the
layers (Reynolds, 1998).

Figure 3.3: Electrical resistivity electrode field setup.

3.2.2 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT):
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) is a technique used to image
vertical and horizontal subsurface variation in resistivity. This can be
achieved by collecting large number of samples along a profile using a
given electrode interval. In order to sample a deep depth of penetration the
electrode interval is extended further (Figure 3.4).
Advanced multi-electrode resistivity meter systems, allows fast imaging of
vertical and horizontal variations of resistivity. It is easier using todays
instruments to acquire huge number of data points comprising 2D cross-
36

sections or profiles or a 3D data cube of resistivity data of the subsurface.
On the basis of the distribution of resistivity within measured profiles, an
accurate interpretation of the subsurface geologic setting can be made.
Figure (3.5) shows the arrangement of electrodes for 3D surveys.

Figure 3.4: ERT imaging sequence setup (adopted from Loke, 1994).

37

Figure 3.5: The arrangement of electrodes for 3-D survey (adopted from
Loke, 1994).

Different electrode configurations can be employed, which tend to vary in
their vertical and horizontal resolution limits, such as (Figure 3.6):
1- Wenner electrode configuration:
Assumes a constant equal electrode separation, where C1-P1, P1-P2, and
P2-C2 separations are kept fixed (a). Apparent resistivity can be
estimated as:
i
V
a
a
A
= t 2 ... (eq.6)
2- Schlumberger /gradient electrode configuration:
Assumes variable electrode separation where the separation between P1-
P2 is much less than C1-C2, such that C1-C2 is less than or equal to
5(P1-P2) interval. Apparent resistivity can be estimated for the Gradient
configuration as:
( )
i
V
x L
x L
l
a
A
=
2 2
2
2 2
2
t
... (eq.7)
Whereas for the Schlumberger configuration the equation can be written as:
i
V
L
l
l
L
a
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 2
1
2
t ... (eq.8)
3- Dipole-Dipole electrode configuration:
Assumes a fixed distance between C1-C2, and P1-P2 of (a), such that
C2-P1 is multiple of current or potential separations (na). Apparent
resistivity can be estimated as:
38

( )( )
i
V
n n an
a
A
+ + = 2 1 t ... (eq.9)
4- Pole-Dipole electrode configuration:
Assumes a fixed distance between P1-P2 of (a), such that C1-P1 is
multiple of current or potential separations (na), and that C2 is kept at a
distant location perpendicular to profile trend. Apparent resistivity can
be estimated as follows:
( )
i
V
n an
a
A
+ = 1 2t ... (eq.10)

Figure 3.6: Different electrode configurations of ERT (Reynolds, 1998).

39

For the purpose of this study, the electrode configurations of Wenner and
Schlumberger were adopted. The following subsections shed the light on
the characteristics of these types.
3.2.3 Wenner array
The Wenner array is a suitable array for the solving of vertical changes (i.e.
horizontal structures). Compared with the other arrays, the Wenner has a
moderate depth of investigation (Loke, 1999). For this array, the geometric
factor is 2a, which is smaller than the geometric factor for other arrays.
Among the common arrays, it has the strongest signal strength. It has the
highest signal-to-noise ratio. One disadvantage of Wenner for 2D survey is
the relatively poor horizontal coverage as the electrode spacing is increased.
This could be a problem if you use a system with a relatively small number
of electrodes. The Wenner array has three different variations fig. (3.7). The
normal Wenner array is actually the Wenner alpha array. The median depth
of investigation for Wenner array is approximately 0.5 times the spacing
used (Milsom, 2003).
41

Figure 3.7: The different variations of Wenner array. C1, C2 and P1, P2
denote the positions of the current and potential electrodes (adopted from
Loke,1999).

3.2.4 Schlumberger array
Schlumberger array represents a new hybrid between the Wenner and
Schlumberger arrays arising out of relatively recent work with electrical
imaging surveys. This array is moderatly sensitive to both horizontal and
vertical structures. The median depth of investigation for this array is about
10% larger than that for the Wenner array for the same distance between the
outer (C1 and C2) electrodes, but the signal strength for this array is smaller
than that for the Wenner array.
41

The Schlumberger array has a slightly better horizontal coverage compared
with the Wenner array. For Wenner array each deeper data level has 3 data
points less than the previous data level, while for the Schlumberger array
there is a loss of 2 data points with each deeper data level (Reynolds, 1998).
The horizontal data coverage is slightly wider than the Wenner array.fig.
(3.8).

Figure 3.8: Schlumberger array.C1, C2 and P1, P2 denote the positions of
the current and potential electrodes (adopted from Loke, 1999).

3.2.5 Resistivity Inversion Modelling of ERT:
Inversion in geophysics basically is the back calculation of subsurface
parameters by iteration of a computer generated ground model until the
model-predicted measurements fit the field measurements (pseudosection).
Figure (3.9) illustrates a general workflow for the inversion modeling
procedure.
42

Figure 3.9: The resistivity inversion procedure (Basokur, 2004).

After the data from the field were collected, gathered resistivity profiles
were modeled and interpreted using the inversion modeling RES2DINV
software. For the purpose of this study collected geoelectric data have been
processed by using the RES2DINV and RES3DINV (V. 3.55) inversion
modeling softwares (Loke, 2004).
These softwares are numerical inversion softwares that produce 2D or 3D
resistivity models of the subsurface using data extracted from electrical
resistivity tomography method (Griffiths and Barker, 1993). The true
subsurface resistivity model of the subsurface is estimated by inversion of
the measured apparent resistivity adopting 2D or 3D geoelectric data
inversion routines. The inversion routines are based on an iterative error
minimizing smoothness-constrained least squares method (deGroot-Hedlin
and Constable 1990; Constable et al. 1987; Sasaki 1989, 1992; Loke and
43

Barker 1996; Loke and Barker, 1996a; Loke and Barker 1996b; Tsourlos
1995). Figure (3.10) shows a general flowchart for the resistivity modeling
process.

Figure 3.10: Resistivity modeling process using RES2DINV software
(adopted from Loke, 2004).

The 2-D model used by this program divides the subsurface into a number
of rectangular blocks. The purpose of this program is to determine the
resistivity of the rectangular blocks that will produce an apparent resistivity
pseudo section that agrees with the actual measurements. The used
optimization method tries to reduce the difference between the calculated
and measured apparent resistivity values by adjusting the resistivity of the
model blocks. A measure of this difference is given by the root-mean-
squared (RMS) error. However the model with the lowest possible RMS
error can sometimes show large and unrealistic variations in the model
resistivity values and might not always be the "best" model from a
44

geological perspective. In general, the most prudent approach is to choose
the model at the iteration after which the RMS error does not change
significantly. This usually occurs between the 3
rd
and 5
th
iterations.
The data analysis and modeling procedure is explained as follows:
1. Calculation the resistivity values () for all readings and saving as
text or notepad file.
2. Input data file to the RES2DINV or RES3DINV software, which use
in interpretation as a notepad or text file.
3. Inspection of the resistivity data sets for presence of unreasonable
high and low (negative) resistivity values are also called " bad data
points " and remove of these bad data points that by "Exterminate bad
datum points " option as shown in figure(3.11).
4. Plotting the sensitivity of the blocks used in the inversion model by
displaying Model sensitivity option, shown in figure (3.12).
5. Displaying inversion result: in this option we can read data file, the
measured, calculated apparent resistivity pseudo-sections, and the
model section, figure(3.13).
6. Displaying inversion result after displaying the Robust model
inversion: in this option a model with sharp interfaces between
different regions with different resistivity values will be produced, as
shown in figure (3.14).
45

Figure 3.11: Exterminating bad datum points option,for inspecting the
resistivity data sets.

Figure 3.12:Model sensitivity option.

46

Figure 3.13: The apparent resistivity pseudo-section for data set.

Figure 3.14: Inversion results show the effect of the Robust inversion.

3.2.6 Instumentation and Field work
3.2.6.1 Instrumentation:
High resolution 2D electrical resistivity tomography profiles using ARES
imaging resistivity meter was employed to assess horizontal and vertical
variations in resistivity across the study area. The resistivity meter is
available at the Department of Earth & Environmental Science, Yarmouk
University. It is equipped with 48 electrodes that can be connected
simultaneously with an inter-electrode spacing of up to 5 meters
(Figure3.15).
47

Figure 3.15: ARES - Automatic Resistivity System having 4 passive
multielectrode cables with a total of 48 channel takeouts for electrical
resistivity tomography/imaging Surveys.

3.2.6.2 Field work:
Resistivity imaging profiles were carried out in the study area during June
2011. Both Wenner and Schlumberger resistivity arrays have been acquired
across the same profiles on different sides, orientations, and lengths across
the study area. This approach was found to be the most approperiate method
for solving the archaeological problems under consideration at the site.
Resitivity data acquisition including both types of measurements took
approximatly 2 hours to complete after cables and electrodes were laid out.
Each line required 4 cables, each with 12 electrode take-outs.
48

The field measurements of the resistivity tomography were taken as follows:
1. Electrical profiles were designed and lain down based on field
observations and minimum field obstacles. The total length of all
profiles was determined according to the required estimated depth
of current penetration.
2. The coordinates of each profile were determined by using GPS.
3. Forty eight electrodes were planted and cables were used to
connect them with the instrument, the Automatic Resistivity
System (ARES).
4. Each profile was measured using the Wenner and Schlumberger
tomography configurations.
5. The displayed measurements were recorded and multiplied by its
geometrical factor (depends on spacing) to obtain the apparent
resistivities, which were used later in the analysis and
interpretation, according to the (eq.6 & eq.8) for Wenner &
Schlumberger arrays, respectively.

49

Chapter Four

Results &
Discussion

51

4.1 Results and Discussion:
The following section will present the results and the interpretation of the
subsurface encountered within the study area by using the two geophysical
techniques. The study area was subdivided into four parts of interest; the
eastern side part, the western side part, the northern side part, and within
pool part (Figure 4.1). Accordingly, for each method the presentation of
results will be provided for each individual station.
: The Western Side Area
The western side Area, as shown in Figure 4.1, is delimited between
(772392.266 E-3277350.867 N) and (772403.007 E-3577351.286 N) in its
northern part and between (772386.965 E-3577259.499 N) and (772399.938
E-3577259.359 N), in its southern part of the area assuming the UTM, Zone
36 coordinate system.
A total number of 4 profiles (L1W-L4W) were collected where each of the
profiles has a length of 94m and all were running from north to south. The
1
st
profile is adjacent to the pool Located at 1m from its western edge. The
distance between collected profiles is 1m. The observed apparent resistivity
pseudosections for the collected data using Wenner & Schlumberger
techniques are shown in figures 4.2 and 4.3, respectively.

51

Figure 4.1: Illustrates the location of all stations in the area of the study, (Google
Earth, 2011).
52

Figure 4.2: The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected
data of(L1W-L4W) profiles by using Wenner.

53

data of(L1W-L4W) profiles by using Schlumberger.

The results of electrical resistivity tomographic using the two techniques are
shown in figures 4.4 and 4.5, respectively. The detailed inversion results are
given in appendix (A). The Schlumberger survey shows a deeper depth of
penetration when compared to Wenner pseudosections. However, these
subsurface models show a variation in their resistivity ranges from about (22.6
.m) to (324.m) for Wenner, and from about (18.5.m) to (397.m) for the
. Schlumberger
54

Pseudosections of Wenner and Schlumberger show variability in the distribution
of resistivity defining three zones of anomalies of high resistivity values (Figures
4.4 and 4.5). These anomalies are designated as Anomaly (A) located between
(18-25.5m), and Anomaly (B) located between (34-40m) and Anomaly (C)
located between (54-56.5m), from the beginning of the sections.
In figure 4.4, the resistive zone of Anomaly (A) is buried at 2m from the surface
and it extends down to a depth of 4.5m. Similarly, Anomaly (B) is located at a
depth of 2-5.5m, while Anomaly (C) is found at a depth of 1.5-3m from the
surface. However, it is important to mention that other small anomalies may
exist, but they show lower resistivity values or poor imaging.
To the east, the extent of these anomalies shows very slight variabilities, such
that the anomalies (A and B) are not well characterized relative to that shown as
we move to the west away from the western edge of the pool (Figures 4.4 and
4.5). This may suggest the fact that restoration activities took place during the
sixties of the last century, carried out by the Engineering Corps of the Armed
Forces did not take into consideration the possibilities of the existence of
adjacent components or elements to the pool body. Unfortunately,
documentation of the restoration activities is missing.

55

The results of the tomographic sections along the western area (figures 4.4 and
4.5), coupled with field observation indicated that the seen anomalous resistivity
values are greater than 200 and up to 397.m, may be interpreted as part of
ancient buried channels or supporting basins feeding or draining water out the
two water reservoirs. While the resistivity values range from 200.m to about
70.7.m are interpreted as weathered or fresh bedrock. The material of
resistivity values less than 70.7.m to 18.5.m may be associated with the
presence of a mixture of soils and conductive porous wet-alluvium surface
deposits.
In order to characterize the edges of the seen anomaly structures, the robust
inversion option was used. It has the ability to characterize abrupt high
resistivity contrasts between adjacent subsurface bodies due to any expected
sharp boundary (Claerbout and Muir, 1973). Figure 4.6 shows the inversion
result of Wenner resistivity tomography data for the 3
rd
profile (L3W) using the
robust inversion option. It is quit evident that the previously defined anomalies
are strongly associated with structures of straight edges existing at right angles.
.

56

Figure 4.4: Inverted resistivity data for the four parallel profiles (L1W-L4W) of
the western side area using Wenner. L1W is the closest line to the pool. The
letters (A, B, and C) highlight the highest resistivity values anomalies.

57

Figure 4.5: Inverted resistivity data for the four parallel profiles (L1W-L4W) of
the western side area using Schlumberger. L1W is the closest line to the pool.
The letters (A, B, and C) highlight the highest resistivity values anomalies.

Figure 4.6: The inversion result of Wenner resistivity tomography data of the 3
rd

line of the Western Side Area (L3W) using the robust inversion option. The high
contrasted bodies are selected by black rectangles.
58

Although the pseudosections can already give some information about the
locations of subsurface structures, their lateral extensions cannot be correctly
visualized. Thus, 3D inversions of the measured data using the RES3DINV
software was performed, by emerging all measured data sets, in order to obtain a
more realistic image of the expected man-made structures. Practically, the
subsurface was divided into several layers, and each layer was subdivided into a
number of rectangular blocks.
Figure 4.7, shows the extracted horizontal depth slices from the inverted data of
Wenner resistivity tomography survey by emerging all measured data sets of the
western side area. It was concluded that there is a need to run a 3D ERT
acquisition exercise to the western side of the pool to confirm these initial 3D
inversion results. Therefore, another 3D survey across this side area and centered
above the expected location of Anomaly (B) was carried out. The dimensions of
the survey were 18 x 8m, such that the cable was run in a zigzag pattern with
interelectrode spacing of 2m along each raw and with a spacing of 1m between
adjacent parallel rows (Figure 4.8). The survey is composed of a set of 9
Schlumberger profiles in the x dimension (N-S), each with 10 electrodes.
The inverted data confirms the location of Anomaly B. It shows an extent of
subsurface structure of high resistivity values (561-861ohm.m), from about 0.5m
to 3.5m. Another anomaly of high resistivity values was detected, denoted by N,
59

extending from about 1.5m to reach 2m (figure, 4.9). The expected subsurface
structures denoted by black rectangles are detected as a high resistivity values
anomalies (about 341ohm.m) and extend vertically to about 5m in layer 5.

Figure 4.7: The 3D-Wenner resistivity model of the western side area as
horizontal slices at varying depth using the RES3DINV software.

61

Figure 4.8: 3D Electrical Resistivity Survey at the Western Side Area
61

Figure 4.9: The Schlumberger electrical resistivity inverted slices obtained by
means of the application of RES3D software. Each slice refers to a layer with a
depth range. The expected subsurface structures are detected as high resistivity
values anomaly (561-861ohm.m), extending from about 0.5m to 3.5m in layer 7.
Another structure was detected by these inverted data denoted by N. It begins to
appear from about 1.5m to reach 2m.

62

Figure 4.10: Created subsurface model for the Western Side Area.

63

: The Northern Side Area
The northern side area is divided into two parts (A and B), as shown in Figure
4.1.
: The Northern Side Area A
Area A is delimited between (772386.635E-3577419.38N) and
(772444.065E-3577424.11N) in its northern part and between (772391.815E-
3577365.779N) and (772449.02E-3577368.707N) in its southern part
assuming the UTM, Zone 36 coordinate system.

Pair of profiles (L1-L2) runs from east to west were collected, and almost
normal to other three N-S profiles (L3-L5) running from north to south,
having a length of 48m. Slight shifts were done due to existing field obstacles.
A total spacing of ten meters is taking place between all measured lines. At
the southern edge of Area A, another 2 profiles (L6-L7) were run having a
length of 48m (shown in green color on figure 4.1).
The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected five normal
to each other profiles (i.e. brown and yellow lines shown in figure 4.1), using
Wenner & Schlumberger techniques, are shown in figures 4.11 and 4.12.
64

Figure 4.11: The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the
collected data of (L1-L5) of the Northern side area A by using Wenner .

65

Figure 4.12: The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the
collected data of (L1-L5) of the Northern side area A by using Schlumberger .

66

The results of electrical resistivity tomographic inversion using the two
techniques are shown in figures 4.13 and 4.14, respectively. The detailed
inversion results are shown in appendix (C). The Schlumberger survey shows
a deeper depth of penetration when compared to Wenner pseudosections.
Wenner and Schlumberger subsurface models show a variation in their
resistivity ranges from about (25.7 .m) to (269.m) for Wenner, and from
about (20.6.m) to (302.m) for the Schlumberger. They are characterized
with 5 distinct anomaly zones of higher resistivity values. In the N-S sections,
Anomaly (A) is located between 25.5 to 32m, and Anomaly (B) is located
between 36.5 to 41m, while in the E-W sections, Anomaly (C) is located
between 8 to 11m, and Anomaly (D) takes place between 27 to 31.5m, from
the start of each section (Figures 4.13, and 4.14). The fifth anomalous zone is
seen along the topmost part of the sections characterizing the uppermost part
of the section down to a depth of 0.5m. Additionally, these inverted sections,
show that the vertical extensions for these anomalies are delimited between
3.5 to 5.5m , 4 to 5m, 3 to 4m and 3 to 5.5m for the anomalies of A, B,C and
D, respectively.
The results of the inversion process are strongly supporting the conclusion
that attained 4 anomalies of high resistivity values ranging from greater than
130ohm.m to 302ohm.m (A, B, C and D) which can be potentially
interpreted as a part of a general infra structure of ancient man-made buried
channels or supporting basins feeding water to the two water reservoirs. These
67

structures are cut within existing limestone bedrock showing resistivity
ranging between 130ohm.m to 65.1ohm.m. This anomalous zone is buried
under a layer or slab of fill material characterized by much lower resistivity
values (less than 65.1ohm.m to 20.6ohm.m). Comparing the pseudosections
of the E-W and N-S profiles shows the compatibility between their results.
The anomaly (D) in the E-W profiles can be correlated with the anomaly (A)
in the N-S profiles.
On the other hand, the other high resistivity part that extends along the
topmost of the section s is interpreted as a 0.5 meter pavement floor. The fact
that this zone is characterized by a distinguished uniform lateral continuity
and elevated resistivity values, in addition to continuous fill layer material
laying below strongly supporting this conclusion (Figures 4.13, and 4.14).
Down to the south, another pair of E-W lines (L6 &L7) was collected using
both Wenner and Schlumberger techniques. Forty-seven meters profiles were
located parallel to the E-W pair of profiles.
The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected data using
Wenner & Schlumberger techniques are shown in figures 4.15, and 4.16,
respectively. The inverted data result (Figures 4.17, and 4.18) show the
continuity of the lateral extent of the pavement layer shown by the previous
inverted sections of the northern part of this area. The characteristic layering
is very similar to the previous sections, where a characteristic conductive fill
material is buried under the pavement layer for leveling purposes. The
68

pavement layer shows anomalous high resistivity values of more than 200
.m. Additionaly, a characteristic step was seen across the two sections
almost 32m from the start of the sections, suggesting that the elevation of the
northern part of this area was higher, where dwellers or visitors used to
descent or step down to the lake as they approach from North to south. The
inverted data of the L7 profile detect high resistivity values anomaly of more
than 200 .m (denoted by E) extending from 36 to 37m from the start of the
section.

Figure 4.13: Presents the resulting of Wenner inverted data for (L1-L5), of the
Northern side area A. The letters (A, B, C and D) highlight the highest
69

resistivity values anomalies. The two directions sets of profiles have a
crosscut points denoted by a small black circles shown in the figure.

Figure 4.14: Presents the resulting of Schlumberger inverted data for (L1-
L5), of the Northern side area A. The letters (A, B, C and D) highlight the
highest resistivity values anomalies. The two directions sets of profiles have a
crosscut points denoted by a small black circles shown in the figure.

71

data of the L6 profile. The upper section is by Wenner, and the lower one is by
Schlumberger.

data of the L7 profile. The upper section is by Wenner, and the lower one is by
Schlumberger.

71

Figure 4.17: The inverted resistivity data results of the L6 profile. The upper
section is by Wenner, and the lower one is by Schlumberger. The topmost part
of the upper section indicates to an expected pavement layer.

Figure 4.18: The inverted resistivity data results of the L7 profile. The upper
section is by Wenner, and the lower one is by Schlumberger. E is high
resistivity values anomaly. The topmost part of the upper section indicates to an
expected pavement layer.

72

Figure 4.19: Created subsurface model for the Northern Side Area A.

Figure 4.20: Electrical Resistivity Survey at the Northern Side Area A.

73

The Northern Side Area B:
Area B is delimited between (772400.824E-3577362.851N) and (772449.921E-
3577363.301N) in its northern part and between (772400.598E-3577358.572N)
and (772449.921E-3577359.247N) in its southern part of the area assuming the
UTM, Zone 36 coordinate system.

A total number of 3(L8-L10) profiles were collected each of the profiles has a
length of 47m running from east to west with an inter-line distances of one
meter. The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected data
using Wenner & Schlumberger techniques are shown in figures 4.21 and 4.22,
respectively.
The results of electrical resistivity tomography using the two techniques are
shown in figures 4.23 and 4.24, respectively. The detailed inversion results are
shown in appendix (D).
The inverted Wenner and Schlumberger sections show clear variability in the
distribution of resistivity values within the subsurface. The upper most part of
the sections show segregated zones of higher resistivity values400-854ohm.m on
figures 4.23 & 4.24. The fact that these zones are underlain by the same fill layer
material seen in previous sections, strongly suggest that these zones are relicts of
74

the ancient pavement floor surrounding the pool body. The zone of the image
with resistivity values ranging from 74.1ohm.m to less than 400ohm.m indicates
weathered and fresh bedrock. The zone of resistivity values from 13.4ohm.m to
less than 74ohm.m is a mixture of soils and conductive porous wet-alluvium
deposits.

data of (L8-L10) of the Northern side area B by using Wenner .
75

data of (L8-L10) of the Northern side area B by using Schlumberger .

76

Figure 4.23: The inverted resistivity data results of ( L8-L10) profiles, by using
Wenner. The anomalies A,B, and C highlight high resistivity values anomalies.

Figure 4.24: The inverted resistivity data results of ( L8-L10) profiles, by using
Schlumberger. The anomalies A and B highlight high resistivity values
anomalies.

77

Figure4.25: Created subsurface model for the Northern Side Area B.

Figure 4.26: Electrical Resistivity Survey at the Northern Side Area B.

78

: The Eastern Side Area
The eastern side area, as shown in Figure 4.1, is delimited between
(772449.056E-3577361.073N) and (772473.369E-3577361.333N) in its northern
part and between (772447.366E-3577266.164N) and (772475.449E-
3577266.164N) in its southern part of the area assuming the UTM, Zone 36
coordinate system.

A total number of 4 profiles (L1E-L4E) were collected, each of the profiles
having a length of 94m that runs from north to south. The 1
st
profile is adjacent
to the pool, located at 1m from its eastern edge. The spacing between the
collected profiles is 1m.
The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected data using
Wenner & Schlumberger techniques are shown in the figure 4.27 and 4.28,
respectively. The results of electrical resistivity tomography using the two
techniques are shown in the figures 4.29 and 4.30, respectively. The detailed
inversion results are shown in appendix (B).
The inversion results of the Wenner and Schlumberger surveys show number of
anomalies; Anomaly (A) occurring at 35-38 m, anomaly (B) located at 58-72m,
and anomaly (C) located at 80-94m, from the beginning of each section. The 3
79

anomalies are well characterized across the 4 lines, except for anomaly (A)
which is poorly distinguished across the 2 profiles (L3E & L4E).
These models draw variation of resistivity ranges from about 10.3.m to
377.m in Wenner and from 11.6.m to 384.m in Schlumberger. In figure
4.29, the resistive zones, on A of the image, is almost under 0.25m to reach 2m
in depth, about 2-4m on B & C. To east, the vertical extension of these
anomalies appears to be disparate. In figure 4.30, the anomaly zone on A of the
image is almost from 0.25m to 2m in depth, and it is about 1.5-4m on B&C. To
the east, the vertical extension of these anomalies appears to be disparate.

81

Figure4.27: The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected
data of (L1E-L4E) profiles of the Eastern side area by using Wenner .

81

Figure4.28: The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected
data of (L1E-L4E) profiles of the Eastern side area by using Schlumberger.

The inverted models are assumed to represent the same geology. The resulting of
Wenner tomographic image along the eastern side area is presented in figure
4.29. Similar to the western side area interpretations, field observation indicated
that the A, B, and C high resistive zones from 200.m -384.m may be
interpreted as ancient buried structure of channels or supporting basins feeding
or draining out the two water reservoirs. While the resistivity values ranging
from 50.m to less than 200.m can be interpreted as weathered-fresh bedrock,
82

materials having resistivity values less than 50.m can be interpreted as a mix of
soils and conductive porous wet-alluvium deposits.
The robust inversion technique was used due to its ability to show the high
resistivity contrast for different subsurface bodies and any expected sharp
boundary. Figure 4.30 shows the inversion result of resistivity tomography data
using the robust inversion technique.

Although the pseudosections can already give some information about the
locations of subsurface structures, their size, depth and extent cannot be correctly
estimated. Thus, 3D inversions of the measured data using the RES3DINV
software were performed, by emerging all measured data sets, in order to obtain
a more realistic image of the expected man-made structures. Practically, the
subsurface was divided into several layers, and each layer was subdivided into a
number of rectangular blocks. Figure 4.31, shows the extracted horizontal depth
slices from the inverted resistivity tomography data by emerging all measured
data sets of the eastern side area.

As seen across the figures 4.29 and 4.30, anomlay (B) can be considered as the
major structures taking place across the eastern side area, accordingly it was
imoport to test the E-W continuity of this anomaly. An intention of conducting
3D data directly by the ARES instrument to detect the shallow anomalous zone
83

with dimension of some meters detected previously in the 2D results was in
mind, but the amount of space was not available to layout this. Additionaly,
Existing field obsticales hindered our quest to rub 3D resititvy acquiztion,
therefore a dicision was made to run a typical 2D line runing normal to the three
N-S sections presented previously.
A perpendicular E-W line (L5E) of 23.5m long and 0.5m electrodes spacing was
run to predict the eastern extension of the main anomaly denoted by B. It's end
crosscuts other N-S line of 23.5m (L6E), at 7m. The observed apparent
resistivity pseudosections for the collected data using Wenner & Schlumberger
techniques and the results using the two techniques are shown in the figures 4.33
& 4.34, and, 4.35 & 4.36 for L5E and L6E respectively. The detailed inversion
results are shown in appendix (B).
The inverted data of L5E profile did not show any further extension of the
anomalous zone (B) after the first four meters from the eastern edge of the pool.
L6E's inverted data show two anomalies of high resistivity values, one at the first
4m, and the second is from about 8 to 10m from its start.

84

Figure 4.29: Parallel pseudosections of electrical resistivity values of the Eastern
side area using the Wenner tomography survey. L1E line is the closest to the
pool. A, B, and C, all highlight the highest resistivity values anomalies.

85

Figure 4.30: Parallel pseudosections of electrical resistivity values of the Eastern
side area using the Schlumberger tomography survey. L1E is the closest to the
pool. A, B, and C, all highlight the highest resistivity values anomalies.

Figure 4.31: The inversion result of Wenner resistivity tomography data of the
4
th
profile of the Eastern Side Area (L4E) using the robust inversion option. The
high contrasted body is selected by black rectangle.
i

Figure 4.32: The 3D-Wenner resistivity model of the eastern side area as
horizontal slices at varying depth using the RES3DINV software. The
expected subsurface structure denoted by a black rectangle are detected as
a high resistivity value anomalies (about 419 ohm.m) and begins
appearing at depth 3.4-4.99m in layer 5.

ii

Figure4.33:The observed apparent resistivity pseudosection for the
collected data of (L5E) at the upper part, and the inverted data result of
(L5E) at the lower part. By using Wenner.

(L5E) at the lower part. By using Schlumberger.

(L6E) at the lower part. By using Wenner.

iii

(L6E) at the lower part. By using Schlumberger.

Figure 4.37: Created subsurface model for the Eastern Side Area.

iv

Figure 4.38: Electrical Resistivity Survey at the Eastern Side Area.

Within the pool area
There was a need to survey the area within the pool area in order to have
an idea about the structure of the pool itself. Since the pool structure is
selected within the valley plain of Wadi AL-Dair, it was important to
know more about the foundation material of the pools. It was important
the understand whether pools body was cut into the bedrock, or was
there major earthworks to fill and level or possibly pave the bottom of the
two pools?

v

Figure 4.39: Electrical Resistivity Survey within the pool.

A total number of 4 profiles (LP1-LP4) were collected as two pairs
(Figure 4.1). The E-W pair of profiles (LP3-LP4) has a length of 42m and
runs from east to west with a line spacing of 16m. While the N-S pair of
profiles has a length of 47m and runs from north to south with line
spacing of 20m.
The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the collected data
using Wenner & Schlumberger techniques are shown in figures 4.40 and
4.41, respectively. The results of electrical resistivity tomography using
the two techniques are shown in figures 4.42 and 4.43, respectively. The
detailed inversion results are shown appendix (E).
vi

The inverted Wenner and Schlumberger section show an almost
continuous zone of anomaly of high resistivity values along the topmost
part of the sections. The resistive zone does not exceed a general depth of
1m.
The results of inversion indicates that this anomalous zone (>475 -
1106.m) gives rise to a realization that the bottom of the pond was
paved by a layer limestone pavement of a thickness of 1 meter. The
pavement is underlain by a thick sequence of wadi sediments and
sediment fill material, which is believed to be evenly leveled. However,
this conclusion keeps it open to think about the possibility that localized
outcrops may be present within the floor of the pools, which was
integrated within the intruded pavement material. Localized outcrops
were seen along the NW and SW corners of the pools floor (Figure
4.44). Therefore, the fill materials having resistivity values ranging from
13.3.m to about 46.9.m are a mixture of soils and conductive porous
wet-alluvium deposits.

vii

Figure4.40:The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the
collected data of (LP1-LP4). By using Wenner.

viii

Figure4.41:The observed apparent resistivity pseudosections for the
collected data of (LP1-LP4). By using Schlumberger.

ix

Figure 4.42: Pseudosections of electrical resistivity values of the within pool area
using the Wenner survey across the bottom of the northern pond showing a clear
pavement of 1m thick layer.

x

Figure 4.43: Pseudosections of electrical resistivity values of the within pool area
using the Schlumberger survey across the bottom of the northern pond showing a
clear pavement of 1m thick layer.

xi

Figure 4.44: Localized outcrop at the S-W edge within the pool.

xii

Figure 4.45: Created subsurface model within the Pool body.

conclusion: - Sub
After looking for what many authors said about the site of Al-Berktain
(e.g. Kraeling, 1938 & Segal, 1995), and what the results of this study
showed, doubtless the conscious policy from DoA and the ministry of
tourism is important to revive and protect this archaeological site from
neglect.
Al-Berktain was a main source for supplying the western part within the
wall of the ancient Jerash with water. "Ain Qarawan is a perennial spring
within the walls, but it lies too low in the valley to provide water for the
western part of the ancient Jerash. Water was, therefore, channeled from
xiii

Al-Berktain (two water reservoir)", (Kamash, 2009). This study gave an
idea about the ancient architecture of the site; the rectangle lake is almost
surrounded from E and W by water channels as inlets and outlets. The
elevation level of the northern part of the site was higher, where visitors
used to step down to the lake that gave the site a remarkable character.

xiv

Chapter Five

Conclusions &
Recommendation

xv

Conclusions 5.1
From the present study, it can be concluded that:
1- The combination applications of Wenner tomography and
Schlumberger tomography data produces stronger anomalies compared
to either method used individually.
2- By plotting the data sets on the same scale, the results produce
reasonable data correlations and interpretations; the combining of the
both methods data minimizes the ambiguities in the interpretation and
allows the location of possible buried archaeological remains in the
first meters of the subsoil. If only a single method to be used, Wenner
is best for detection the expected archaeological remnants due to its
greater signal strength, while Schlumberger gives deeper image of the
subsurface.
3- The proposed method of the 3D visualization confirms the
interpretation of the 2D sections, and allows the best recognition of
archaeological features.
4- The results proposed for each side area are as follow:
The Northern side A:
The results of the inversion process show that anomalous resistivity
values are interpreted as a part of a general infrastructure of ancient man-
made buried channels or supporting basins feeding water to the two water
xvi

reservoirs. This anomalous zone is buried under a layer of fill material.
The fill material is overlain by a continuous layer of pavement (i.e. of
0.5m thickness) that was seen along N-S and E-W intercrossing 2D ERT
profiles.
The Northern side B:
The results of the inversion process indicate the presence of an ancient
pavement floor surrounding the pools' body covering mixture of soils and
conductive porous wet-alluvium deposits and weathered and fresh
bedrock.
The Eastern Side Area:
The results of the inversion process interpret the highest resistivity values
as ancient buried structure of channels or supporting basins feeding or
draining out the two the water reservoirs, underlain by a mix of soils and
conductive porous wet-alluvium deposits, and weathered or fresh
bedrock.
The Western Side Area:
The results of the inversion process interpret the highest resistivity values
as part of ancient buried channels or supporting basins feeding or
draining water out the two water reservoirs underlain by a mix of soils
and conductive porous wet-alluvium deposits, and weathered or fresh
bedrock. The 3D survey carried out across the 2D seen resistivity
xvii

anomaly indicated the presence of a well-defined anomalous extension to
the west.
The in-Pool Side Area:
The results of inversion process show that a characteristic thin anomalous
zone of the highest resistivity values can be interpreted as a limestone
layer pavement of 1 meter thickness flooring the bottom part of the pools.
The pavement is underlain by a thick sequence of wadi sediments and
sediment fill material. Localized outcrops were seen along the NW and
SW corners of the pools floor, and show a zone of fill materials mixture
of soils and conductive porous wet-alluvium deposits.
Table 2 summarizes the results of this survey. The buried findings arrived
to 5.5meters under the surface located around the pool body. They are in
a relationship with the location of the pool body (figure 5.1)

xviii

Table 2: Summary of the results of the ERT survey at Al-Berktain site.
Resistivity
values
(ohm.m)
Thickness
(m)
Vertical
extension (m)
Lateral
extension (m)
Anomaly

200-397
7.5 2-4.5 18-25.5 A Western
side area
6 2-5.5 34-40 B
2.5 1.5-3 54-56.5 C

200-384
3 0.25-2 35-38 A Eastern
side area
14 1.5-4 58-72 B
14 1.5-4 80-94 C

130-302
6.5 3.5-5.5 25.5-32 A Northern
side area
(A)
4.5 4-5 36.5-41 B
3 3-4 8-11 C
4.5 3-5.5 27-31.5 D
About 0.5 m pavement floor, with resistivity values ranging 200-397 ohm.m
Segregated anomalies described as relicts of ancient pavement floor (0.6-1m), with
resistivity values ranging 400-854 ohm.m
Northern
side area
(B)
About one meter of pavement floor almost between 0.12m 1.1m, with resistivity
values greater than 200 ohm.m
Within
the pool

xix

Figure 5.1: Illustrates the predicted extensions of the A, B, and C buried
structures denoted by the red rectangles, and the relationship between the
location of these structures and the pool.

xx

Recommendations 5.2
The recommendations are drown as follows:
1- It is strongly recommended to conduct excavation works at Al-
Berktain taken into account the priorities:
- Dig three holes of 2m deep and 7.5m, 6m, and 2.5m wide above
the predicted locations of the anomalies A, B, and C, respectively, at
the western side of the pool body.
- Dig three holes of 2m deep and 3m, 14m, and 14m wide above the
predicted locations of the anomalies A, B, and C, respectively, at the
eastern side of the pool body.
- Dig one metre deep holes at the northern side and cross the bottom
of the pool to reach the predicted pavement floor.
- Dig three holes of 3m deep and 6.5m, 4.5m, 3m, and 4.5m wide
above the predicted locations of the anomalies A, B, and C,
respectively, at the northern side.

2- Based on the outcomes of the used geophysical techniques; it is
highly recommended to use the Wenner & Schlumberger electrical
resistivity tomography to expand the limits of the tested area, to survey
xxi

the area that stretches 1,200m from the northern gate of the roman city of
Jerash to give rise to a realization that the northern pond of Al-Berktain
was an important source that contributes to recharge the city of Jerash
with water.
3- It is recommended that given the resources, other geophysical
methods such as GPR and magnetic methods can be employed in
conjunction with the Electrical method to build on the results aiming to
define possible unexcavated archaeological features within the area.
4- The site was inhabited by several nations, for that it is necessary to
investigate the effect of urbanization activities to protect and maintain
existing uncovered ruins from distraction or urban pollution.

xxii

APPENDIX A
WESTERN SIDE AREA

A1: ERT survey using Schlumberger along L1W
xxiii

A2: ERT survey using Wenner along L1W


xxiv



xxv



APPENDIX B
xxvi

EASTERN SIDE AREA

B1: ERT survey using Schlumberger along L1E

B2: ERT survey using Wenner along L1E
xxvii



xxviii




xxix




xxx



xxxi

APPENDIX C
NORTHERN SIDE AREA A

C1: ERT survey using Schlumberger along L1
xxxii

C2: ERT survey using Wenner along L1


xxxiii



xxxiv



xxxv



xxxvi


APPENDIX D
NORTHERN SIDE AREA B

xxxvii

D1: ERT survey using Schlumberger along L8

D2: ERT survey using Wenner along L8
xxxviii



xxxix


APPENDIX E
WITHIN THE POOL

xl

E1: ERT survey using Schlumberger along LP1

E2: ERT survey using Wenner along LP1
xli



xlii



xliii

References:
- Abu-Jaber, N., al Saad, Z., and Smadi, N., 2009: The quarryscapes
of Gerasa (Jerash), Jordan. In Abu-Jaber, N. , Bloxam, EG. ,Degryse,
P. And Heldal, T. Quarryscape. Ancient stone quarry landscapes in
the Eastern Mediterranean, Geological survey of Norway special
publication, 12, 67-75.
- Alanen, M., 1995. Architectural Reuse at Jerash: A Case Study in
Transformations of the Urban Fabric, 100BC-750AD: Unpublished
Master Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles.
- Al Momani, Y., Malkawi, M., and Hazeem A., 2002. Report on Al
Berktain excavation project for 2002.
- Atlas Travel Tourist Agency, 2007. Decapolis league picture.
Retrieved from the world Wide Web:
http//www.atlastoures.net/jordan/decapolis.html
- Aubin, M., 1997: Jerash. In The oxford encyclopedia of
archaeology in the Near East, ed. E.M. Meyers, 3, 215-19. Oxford
and New York: oxford university press.
- Basha, S., 1978. Foraminifera from the Ajlun Group, of east
Jordan. J Geol. Soc. Iraq, 11, 67-91.
- Balawneh, M., and Malkawi, M., 2005. Report on Al Berktain
excavation project for 2005.
- Batayneh, A., Al-Zoubi A., Tobasi, U., Haddadin, G., 2001:
Evaluation of archaeological site potential on the Tall al-kharrar
area (Jordan) using magnetic and resistivity methods.
Environmental Geology, 41,54-61.
- Batayneh, A., Khataibeh, J., Alrshdan, H., Tobasi, U., and Al-
Jahed, N., 2007: The use of microgravity, magnetometry and
resistivity surveys for the characterization and preservation of an
archaeological at Umm er-Rasas, Jordan. Archaeological
prospection, 14, 1, 60-70.
xliv

- Batayneh, A., 2010: The use of magnetometry and pole-dipole
resistivity for locating Nabataean Hawar archeological site in
the SW-Jordan. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences,
2, 3, 151-156.
- Baker, G., and Ambrose, H., 2007: Ground penetrating radar
imaging of a 4th century Roman Fort, Humayma, Jordan ,
Advanced Ground Penetrating Radar, 2007 4th International
Workshop.
- Basokur, A., 2004. Dusey Elektrik Sondaji Verilerinin Yorumu.
Ankara, Turkey: Ankara University Department of Geophysical
Engineering. Retrieved
From World Wide Web:
http://80.251.38.220/download/ekitap/dustry_elekrik_sondaji.pd
f.
- Borgia, E., 2001. Jordan, past and present: Petra, Jerash, Amman.
Trans. Potter,A, from German. Vision, Roma, Italy.
- Claerbout, J. and Muir, F., 1973: Robust modeling with erratic
data. Geophysics, 38, 826-844.
- Boyce, J., Eduard, I., Reinhardt, G., and Beverly, N., 2009:
Magnetic detection of ship ballast deposits and anchorage sites
in king Herods Roman harbor, Caesarea Maritima, Israel:
Journal of Archaeological science, 36, 7, 1516-1526.
- Browning, I., (1982). Jerash and the Decapolis. Chatto and Windus
Ltd, London UK.
- Burdon, D., 1959. Handbook of the Geology of Jordan, to
accompany and explain the three sheets of 1:250,000 Geological
Map of Jordan East of the Rift. Benham, Golchester,36-37
- Burger, H., Sheehan, A., and Jones, C., 2006. Introduction to
applied geophysics. W.W.Norton& Company, Inc., New York.
- Chianese, D., Lapenna, V., Di Salvia, S., Perrone A., and Rizzo,
E., 2010: Joint geophysical measurements to investigate the
rossano of vaglio archaeological site (Basilicata region,
southern Italy). Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 2237-
2244.
- Christensen, N., 2000: Difficulties in Determining Electrical
Anisotropy in Subsurface Investigations, Geophysical Prospecting,
48, 1-19.
xlv

- Constable, S., Parker, R., and Constable, C., 1987: Occam
inversion: A practical algorithm for generating smooth models
from electromagnetic sounding data. Geophysics, 52, 289-300.
- Conyers, L., Ernenwein, E., and Bedal, L., 2002a. Ground-
penetrating radar (GPR) mapping as a method for planning
excavation strategies, Petra, Jordan. E-tiquity no. 1.
- Conyers, L., Ernenwein, E., and Bedal, L., 2002b: Ground-
penetrating radar discovery at Petra, Jordan. Antiquity, 76,
339-340.
- de Groot-Hedlin, C., and Constable, S.,1990: Occam's
inversion to generate smooth two dimensional models from
magnetotelluric data, Geophysics, 55, 1613-1624.
- Dilly, F., 1985. Gretaceous correlations in the Hamza Wells
1-5. NRA Palaeontological Report, 6.
- Drahor, M., Kurtulmu, T., Hartmann, M., and Speidel, M.,
2008: Magnetic imaging and electrical resistivity
tomography studies in a Roman military installation found in
Satala archeological site , northeastern Anatolia , Turkey:
Journal of Archeological Science, 35, 259-271.
- Ekinci, Y., and Kaya, M., 2007: 3D resistivity imaging of
buried tombs at the Parion necropolis (NW Turkey).Journal
of the Balkan Geophysical society, 10, 2, 1-8.
- Eppelbaum, L., Khesin, B., and Itkis, S., 2009:
Archeological geophysics in arid environments: Example
from Israel: Journal of Arid Environment, 74, 849-860.
- Fernando A. Monteiro Santos, Sultan A. Sultan, 2008: The
3-D inversion of vertical electrical soundings: Application to
the South Ismailia area-Cairo desert road, Cairo, Egypt.
Journal of Applied Geophysics 97,2,65,110.

- Griffiths, D., and Barker, R., 1993: Two dimensional
resistivity imaging and modeling in areas of complex
geology. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 29, 211-226.
- Harding, L., 1973. Jerash: A brief history and some
photographs. Jordan Distribution Agency, Amman, Jordan.
- Kamash, Z., 2009. Water Supply and Management in the
East 63BC-AD636: PhD Thesis, University of Oxford,USA,
p. 161-163
xlvi

- Karavul, C., Zehra, D., Ayhan, K., Gunay, B., and Askin, D.,
2010: Magnetic and electrical resistivity image survey in a
buried Adramytteion ancient city in Western Anatolia,
Turkey, International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 5(6),
876-883.
- Khouri, R., 1995. Jerash glass corpus: glass excavation in
1982-1983, by the Australian and British teams. Master
Thesis, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan.
- Khouri, R., 1986. Jerash: A frontier city of the Roman East.
Longman Group Ltd, London and New York.
- Khouri, R., (1988). Jerash A brief guide to the antiquities. Al
Kutba, Amman, Jordan.
- Kraeling, C., (1938). Gerasa: City of the Decapolis.
American Schools of Oriental Research, New Haven.
- Loke, M., 1999. Electrical imaging survey for environmental
and engineering studies. Technical Notes
(http://www.terrajp.co.jp/lokenote.pdf)
- Loke, M., 2004. Tutorial: 2D and 3D electrical imaging
surveys. 128pp. Available at www.geoelectrical.com .
- Loke, M., and Barker, 1996a: Rapid least-squares inversion
of apparent Resistivity Pseudosections by a quasi-Newton
method. Geophysical Prospecting, 44, 499-524.
- Loke, M., and Barker, 1996b: Practical techniques for
3Dresistivity surveys and data inversion. Geophysical
Prospecting, 44, 499-524.
- Malkawi, M., 2006. Report on Al Berktain excavation
project for 2006 .
- Masri, M., 1963. Report on the geology of the Amman-
Zarqa area, (Unpublished). Central Water Authority.
Amman, Jordan, 30-33
- Milson, J., (2003). Field Geophysics, the Geophysical field
guide series, p. 97-108
- Myers, D., Smith, S., and Shaer, M., 2010. A Didactic Case
Study of Jerash Archaeological Site, Jordan: Stakeholders
and Heritage values in Site Management. Department of
Antiquities of Jordan.
xlvii

- Oleson, J., Gregory, S., Baker, Andrew, Sherwood, N., Erik
de Bruijn, M. Barbara Reeves, and Heather M. Ambrose.
Reports on the Humayma excavation project for 2002, 2003,
and2004. Retrieved from World Wide Web:
http://web.uvic.ca/~jpoleson /
- Palacky, C.,1987: Resistivity characteristics of geological
targets, in Electromagnetic methods in applied geophysics,
Vol. 1 theory, edited by M. N. Nabighian, SEG,
Investigations in geophysics,3, 53-129.
- Qazaq, A., 1995. The Application of geophysical magnetic
method for the investigation of the selected burial at Yasileh
archeological site Northern Jordan. M.S. thesis, Yarmouk
University, Irbid, Jordan.
- Quennell, A., 1951. The geology and mineral resources of
(former) Transjordan. Colon Geol Min Resource, 2, 85-115,
London.
- Rimawi, O., 1985. Hydrochemistry and isotope hydrology of
groundwater and surface water in the north-east of Mafraq,
Dhuleil, Hallabat, Azraq basin. PhD. Thesis. Technical
University, Muenchen, 240 pp.
- Reynolds, J., (2005). An introduction to applied and
environmental geophysics,2
nd
edition John Wiley and Sons
Ltd. Chichester, p.796.
- Reynolds, J., (1998). An Introduction to applied and
Environmental Geophysics, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Chichester, p.418-448.
- Sharma, P., (1997). Environmental and engineering
geophysics, Cambridge University Press 1997, United
Kingdom,P. 207-228.
- Segal, A., (1995).Theatres in Roman Palestine & Provincia
Arabia, p.79-83.
- Sasaki, Y., 1989: Two dimensional joint inversion of
magnetotelluric and dipole-dipole resistivity data.
Geophysics, 54, 254-262.
- Sasaki, Y., 1992: Resolution of resistivity tomography
inferred from numerical simulation. Geophysical
Prospecting, 40, 453-464.
xlviii

- Storz, H., Storz, W., and Jacobs, F., 2000: Electrical
resistivity tomography to investigate geological structures of
the earths upper crust. Geophysical Prospecting, 48, 455-
471.
- Tsourlos, P., 1995. Modeling, Interpretation and Inversion of
Multielectrode Resistivity Survey Data: PhD. Dissertation,
Department of Electronics, University of York, Toronto,
Canada .
- Witten, A., Thomas, E., Russell, B., Adams, I. 2000:
Geophysical Survey in the Jebel Hamrat Fidan, Jordan,
Geoarcheology, 15, 135-150 .
- Weinstein-Evron, Mina, Alex, B., and Michael, E., 2003:
Geophysical investigations in the service of Mount Carmel
(Israel) prehistoric research Journal of Archeological
Sciences: 30, 10, 1331-1341.
- Wetzel, R., and Morton, D., 1959. Contribution ala Geologie
de la Transjordanie, Inl Dubertret (ed), Notes et Memoirs sur
Le Moyen Orient, VII, 95-191.
- Wikipedia, 2011. Decapolis, Retrieved date 17 June
2011from World Wide Web:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decapolis.
- Yaliner C., Bano, M., Kadioglu, M., Karabacak, V.,
Meghraoui, M., and Altunel, E., 2008: New temple
discovery at the archaeological site of Nysa (western
Turkey) using GPR method, Journal of Archaelogical
science, 36, 8, 1680-1689.
- Zayadine, F., (1988). Jerash Archaeological Project 1984-
1988. Department of Antiquities, Amman.

Integrated Application of Geophysical Methods in Archaeology

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Integrated Application of Geophysical Methods in Archaeology

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

i

Вам также может понравиться