Donnareport

Intercultural Communication Competence: The State of Knowledge Report prepared for CILT The National Centre for Languages
By Donna Humphrey Development of NOS in intercultural Skills Project 26th May 2007
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Introduction....................................................................................................................... 3 Intercultural Research: The current state of knowledge .............................................. 5 Social science approach .................................................................................................. 5 The critical approach....................................................................................................... 6 The interpretive approach ............................................................................................... 6 Other approaches ............................................................................................................ 7 Overview of Current Approaches to IC Research......................................................... 8 Essentialism vs. Non-essentialism .................................................................................. 9 Interpersonal Communication in an Intercultural Setting......................................... 18 Spitzbergs notion of communicative competence ....................................................... 19 Rubens seven dimensions of communication ............................................................... 22 Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity ....................................................... 24 The Council of Europe.................................................................................................. 27 Individual Intercultural Competence ............................................................................ 29 Constructs of ICC ......................................................................................................... 30 Elements Related to Intercultural Communication Competence.................................. 33 A summary of the components of intercultural competence ........................................ 37 Intercultural Communication Competence Standards and Criteria......................... 40 The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) .......................................................... 40 Intercultural Competence Assessment.......................................................................... 41 Intercultural competence for professional mobility (ICOPROMO) ............................. 43 The international Profiler (TIP) .................................................................................... 44 The Intercultural Competence Framework ................................................................... 47 The Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC)..................................................................... 50 Process Communication Model (PCM) ........................................................................ 55 Language On-Line Portfolio Project (LOLIPOP)......................................................... 57 A Framework of International / Intercultural Competencies........................................ 60 International Management Assessment (IMA)............................................................. 68 The ProGroups Tolerance Scale .................................................................................. 71 Intercultural Communication b.v. ................................................................................. 72 Discovery Personal Profile ........................................................................................... 74 The Eight Primary Types .............................................................................................. 74 The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence................................. 76 The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) ..................................................... 77 Appendix A: A List of Alternative Terms for ICC..................................................... 79 Appendix B: Assessment Tools of Intercultural Communicative Competence ........ 80 Appendix C: Additional Reading .................................................................................. 89
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Introduction
The first part of the report presents an overview of current approaches to the study of intercultural and cross-cultural communication. It will identify the main research paradigms and theoretical approaches that are currently defining this field of study. This understanding is important as the assessment tools and standards, which have been developed to assess intercultural communication competence (ICC), are based on how the nature of culture and intercultural communication is viewed. The report will then provide in tabular form, taken from Holliday, Hyde and Kullman (2004), the main differences between the two views of how culture is perceived and thus the approaches to intercultural communication research. Like all dichotomies this is not representative of reality in which views range between the two extremes. It has been presented in this manner for the purpose of accessibility and easy understanding. A list of further reading and websites is provided at the end of part one. The second part of the report will provide a review of some of the main theories of intercultural communication competence and interpersonal communication competence, which have been influential within the field of ICC competence. A summary of the components of intercultural competence and a list of further reading and websites is provided at the end of part two. In addition a list of alternative terms for ICC (Fantini, 2006) is provided in Appendix A and a summary of assessment tools of intercultural communicative competence (Fantini, 2006) is available in Appendix B.
The third part of the report will present a representative range of assessment tools and standards taken from the field of intercultural communication studies, business psychology, education, and interpersonal communication skills. The aim is to present a rounded picture of developments in Intercultural communication competence occurring across sectors, which could inform practice. A list of further reading and websites is provided at the end of part Donna Humphrey Page 3 Page 3 of 95 7/25/2007
three.
Finally, the report will provide a representative bibliography of some of the major works in this area in Appendix C.
Note - Any opinions expressed in this report are not necessarily those of author.
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Part One Intercultural Research: The current state of knowledge
There are three main conceptual perspectives to the study of intercultural and cross-cultural communication: the social psychological perspective, the critical perspective, and the interpretive perspective.
Social science approach Traditionally, the study of intercultural communication has been approached primarily from a social psychological perspective (also called the social science approach). Landmark research has been done by Hall (1966. 1976), Hofstede (1983 and 1994), Gudykunst, Kim, and Ting-Toomey and their associates. These influential scholars have charted the way for realizing the possibilities of intercultural communication. They have also provided an understanding of the dynamics of and the problems associated with cultural encounters as well as to understanding communication from a cross-cultural perspective. In the 1980s and early 1990s, many of these researchers employed interpersonal
communication theories and constructs in their examinations of communication within intercultural contexts. This approach is evident in cross-cultural interpersonal communication books and mainstream journal articles in the last decade.
The main criticism of traditional communication theory and research is that it has been implicitly ethnocentric, patriarchal and uses overly simplistic categorization bordering on stereotyping. This is because the study of intercultural communication is based on the assumptions that (1) there is a describable, external reality, (2) human behaviors are predictable, and (3) culture is a variable that can be measured. The main critics of this approach (Straub, 2002) state that IC research nearly always assumes that an individual living in a particular place and time belongs to a single culture. That is to say that someone living in Egypt is automatically classified as being a member of the Egyptian culture, or, more Donna Humphrey Page 5 Page 5 of 95 7/25/2007
broadly, the Arab culture. They also argue that it is very possible that much IC/cross-cultural research could be rightly accused of advancing an "ecological fallacy" by not recognizing the individual makeup of persons with respect to culture. This approach aims to identify and explain cultural variations in communication and to predict future communication. Although this perspective has yielded many important ideas about intercultural communication, other perspectives may also contribute to our understanding of intercultural communication. One such approach is the critical and interpretive approach.
The critical approach The critical approach is a meta-theoretical approach that includes many assumptions of the interpretive approach (see below) but focuses more on macro-contexts, such as the political and social structures that influence communication. Scholars pay attention to the influence that context, including socio-historical context, and ideological aspects of power, oppression, and emancipation in society may have on our intercultural interaction. Issues such as the ideological discourses of race, class, and gender that suppress differences, preclude or devalue the expression of certain identities, and limit cultural diversity are acknowledged in this approach. Self-reflexivity is another issue addressed in this approach.
The interpretive approach Recently, another line of scholarship has begun to emerge that challenges the definition of culture and the ideological nature of intercultural communication research. Scholars of this approach argue that there is a need to recognize the complexity of the subject matter being addressed as opposed to adopting a simplifying process that seems more typical of the research being conducted. The belief is that most mainstream intercultural communication studies, like a large percentage of interpersonal communication research as a whole, examine intercultural interactions, not as a life-span process, but rather as a still-life snapshot. Donna Humphrey Page 6 Page 6 of 95 7/25/2007
In reality, relationships are complex processes and should be approached as such. The interpretive approach to intercultural communication aims to understand and describe human behavior within specific cultural groups based on the assumptions that (1) human experience is subjective, (2) human behavior is creative rather than determined or easily predicted, and (3) culture is created and maintained through communication. The interpretive approach also suggests that each individual is influenced by a milieu of cultures and sub-cultures. An individual's social identity represents that amalgamation of cultures across boundaries (national, organizational, professional, familial etc.), which fuse together to create one's overall culture. The combination is unique to each individual. In order to understand an individual one would have to establish the salient cultures in each individual's background, the composition of these cultures, and then include these different cultures as independent variables in positivist research. In qualitative research, there would need to be an equally rigorous assessment of the cultural identifiers of each individual. This approach, it is argued has the advantage of explicitly recognizing that these different layers of culture can intertwine in complex ways. Therefore, a particular behavior may be more influenced by a given layer of culture than others, implying that the layers do not have a fixed sequential position.
Other approaches Since the late 1980s, a shift from an "Anglo-centered" to a "multi-centered" model of IC has been taking place. In the 1960s and 1970s, much of the influential study of communication took place in mid-western American universities. It was only by the late 1980s that studies based on other parts of the US had become more numerous and since then scholars from other parts of the world are also contributing their viewpoints. These contributions based on alternative research paradigms traditions help to broaden the field, provide alternative perspectives and new communication models.
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Overview of Current Approaches to IC Research
The conceptualization of culture has undergone considerable change in the field of IC scholarship. The terms 'Non-essentialism' and 'essentialism' are used in this report in the following table to describe the differences in current views on the nature of culture and approaches to Intercultural communication research. The table is adapted from Holliday, Hyde and Kullman (2004), 'Non-essentialism' and 'essentialism' are terms used by social scientists in their discussion about the nature of culture (e.g. Keesing 1994). The dichotomies described in the following table are extreme and in reality views range between the two extremes. However, it is important that the approaches should be presented in such a manner to allow the differences to be clearly identifiable and easily accessed as they provide the driving force behind many of the standards and criteria presented in the third part of this report.
Essentialism presented on the lefthand side of the table provides more simplistic formulaic approaches to understanding culture than the entries on the right-hand side of the table (for non-essentialism), which represent more complex and possibly more obscure ideas than those on the left-hand side.
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Essentialism vs. Non-essentialism Table 1 Essentialist view How people talk Non-essentialist of-culture about it view of culture How about it people talk
Nature
i 'A culture' has a 'I
visited
three ii
Culture
is
a 'There was something different of the
physical entity, as cultures while on social force which culturally though place, it is a holiday. They is evident where it about Spain, is and Society complex, characteristics, which are difficult to pin down. each
which were
significant. countries I visited.' is with
people can visit. It Morocco is homogeneous in Tunisia.' that perceived
traits are spread evenly, giving the sense of a simple society. Place iii It is associated 'Japanese with a country and culture', a language, which 'European has an onion-skin culture', relationship with culture',
iv It is associated with a value, and can relate equally 'Hindu to any type or size 'Black of group for any
'There
is
more
homogeneous culture of food in Japan than in Britain.' 'Schools in Britain have a more
larger continental, culture', religious, ethnic or 'Japanese
period of time, and can be
evident culture of sport than schools in Japan:
racial cultures, and secondary school characterized by a smaller subcultures. culture.' discourse as much as by a language.
Relation
The
world
is 'When into from
crossing vi
Cultures
can 'There is more of a
divided
Japanese flow,
change, culture o XYZ in China cut than in India', 'Schools and throughout the world one have a lot of cultural similarities. ' of
mutually exclusive culture to Chinese intermingle, national People culture cultures. culture in one 'People .. .', across from through
are Egypt cannot ... another,
essentially different when they arrive regardless from people in in French culture.' national
frontiers,
another.
and have blurred boundaries.
Membership
vii People belong 'No matter how viii
People to
can 'I
feel
most
British
exclusively to one long she lives in belong national culture Italy, she belongs move to
and when I travel abroad to a places where that is meaningful.
through
and one language.
Austrian complex
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culture', culture originally
'Which multiplicity do you cultures
of both A sense of Iranian
come within and across culture from my family and upbringing comes into play when I listen to Iranian music, speak the language and think of global politics.
from?' 'One can societies. never totally learn a second culture.'
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Behaviour
A culture behaves German like minded with a a
culture People by of
are At the moment the or strongest cultural force a in my life comes from of the women's which I international group to
single- believes that XYZ influenced person 'In Middle Eastern make use
specific, culture there is no multiplicity concept of XYZ', cultural forms.
exclusive personality.
belong,
In People's behaviour culture, is defined and XYZ',
Chinese people 'She to
through journals
conferences, and email
contact. These are the people to whom I feel culturally closest. The people I find most
constrained by the belongs culture they live. in which Norwegian
culture, therefore she XYZ'
culturally strange are my children's friends and the village where I was a child. My
Iranian-ness
enriches
my perceptions of and participation in British society, and vice
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versa.' Communication xi To communicate 'When you want xii with someone who to is foreign greet To 'What you have to
a communicate with understand about her who is that she does not to the
or Swedish business anyone
different we must man, you need to belongs to a group conform first understand the know details or , Swedish that
in with whom we are stereotype of Middle we Eastern women that to we see in the media, the which she considers
culture unfamiliar, have understand
stereotype of their xyz.' culture.
complexity of who false and ignorant. In she is. reality she is different to what we expected.'
Intercultural Communication. Routledge, 2004 by Adrian Holliday, Martin Hyde and John Kullman.
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Additional Reading Introduction to Culture and Intercultural Communication
Asante, M.K., & Gudykunst, W.B. (Eds.). (1989). Handbook of international and intercultural communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Baldwin, J.R., & Lindsley, S.L. (1994). Conceptualizations of culture. Tempe: Urban Studies Center, Arizona State University..
Bochner, S. (1982). Cultures in contact: Studies in cross-cultural interaction. New York: Pergamon Press.
Brislin, R.W. (1987). Cross-cultural encounter: Face to face interaction. New York: Pergamon Press.
Brislin, R.W. (1993). Understanding culture's influence on behavior. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
Chen, G-M., & Starosta, W.J. (1998). Foundations of intercultural communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Condon, J. & Yousef, F. (1985). An introduction to intercultural communication. New York: Macmillan. Holliday, A., Hyde, M. & Kullman, J. (2004). Intercultural Communication: London: Routledge.
Kroeber, A.L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. New York: Vintage.
Singer, M. (1968). The concept of culture. In International encyclopedia of the
social sciences, V3 Colo to Cult (pp. 527-543). MacMillan Company and Free Press.
Singer, M.R. (1987). Intercultural communication: A perceptual approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. HM258 .S487 1987 Straub, D. (2002). Toward a theory-based measurement of culture. Journal of Global Information Management: Online Journal Ting-Toomey, S., & Korzenny, F. (1989). Language, communication, and culture. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Introduction to the Social Science Approach Dodd, C.H. (1997). Dynamics of intercultural communication (5th ed.) Dubuque: Brown-Benchmark.
Gudykunst, W.B., & Kim, Y.Y. (2003). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Books.
Hall, E.T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York: Anchor Books.
Hall, E.T. (1959). The silent language. New York: Anchor Books.
Hofstede, G. H. (1998). Masculinity and femininity : the taboo dimension of national cultures. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (1994). Cultures and organizations : software of the mind : intercultural. London, HarperCollins.
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Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences : international differences in workrelated. Beverly Hills, Sage Publications.
Holden, N. (2002). Cross-cultural management : a knowledge management perspective. Harlow, Financial Times Prentice Hall.
Porter, R.E., & Samovar, L.A.. (1994). An introduction to intercultural communication. In L.A. Samovar & R.E. Porter (Eds.)., Intercultural
communication: A reader (7th ed.) (pp. 4-26). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Introduction to the Interpretive Approach Applegate, James & Sypher, Howard (1983):A Constructivist Outline, in Gudykunst, William B. (ed.): Intercultural Communication Theory - Current Perspectives. International and Intercultural Communication Annual, vol. VII. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Applegate, James & Sypher, Howard (1988):A Constructivist Theory of Communication and Culture, in Kim, Young Y. & Gudykunst, William B. (eds.): Theories in Intercultural Communication. International and Intercultural
Communication Annual, volume XII. Newbury Park: Sage. Baumann, Gerd (1999): The Multicultural Riddle Rethinking National, Ethnic, and Religious Identities. New York and London, Routledge.
Berger, Peter & Luckmann, Thomas (1966): The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Penguin Books, London.
Collier, M. J. (1988). A comparison of conversations among and between Donna Humphrey Page 16 Page 16 of 95 7/25/2007
domestic cultural groups: How intra- and intercultural communication competencies vary. Communication Quarterly, 36, 122-.
Collier, M.J., & Thomas, M. (1988). Cultural identity: An interpretive perspective. In Y.Y. Kim & W.B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 99-122). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Orbe, M. P. (1996). Laying the foundation for co-cultural communication theory: An inductive approach to studying non-dominant communication strategies and the factors that influence them. Communication Studies, 47, 157-176.
Introduction to the Critical Approach Best, S., & Kellner, D. (1991). Postmodern theory: Critical interrogations. New York: Guilford. [selected reading].
Chautauqua: The case for and against Critical Theory. Includes articles by Pollock & Cox, Conquergood, Strine, Hanna, Ellis, & Huspek.
Razack, Sherene H. (1998): Looking white people in the eye Gender, race and culture in courtrooms and classrooms, Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press.
Rosenau, P.M. (1992). Post-modernism and the social sciences: Insights, inroads, and intrusions. [Introduction]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Vol. 58, No. 2, Communication Monographs.
Wetherell, Margaret & Potter, Jonathan (1992): Mapping the Language of Racism. Discourse and the legitimation of exploitation. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf. unication. London: Sage.
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Part Two Interpersonal Communication in an Intercultural Setting
The term intercultural competence is now widely used in the field of intercultural communication. However, it is still not widely understood, nor do interculturalists agree upon a common definition. In the following section, the report provides an account of some of the main theories of (intercultural) interpersonal communicative competence that have influenced standards and criteria. For a more in-depth account of the main theories in this field of study refer to Intercultural Communication Competence by Richard Wiseman and Jolene Koester (1993), Sage Publications and/or Intercultural Communication
Competence by Richard L. Wiseman, published in W. Gudykunst & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural and International Communication, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 2001.
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Spitzbergs notion of communicative competence

According to Wiseman (2001), in the last two decades there has been a growing consensus on a conceptualization of ICC competence. It appears that a growing number of communication scholars have embraced Spitzbergs (1988) notion of communicative competence. Spitzbergs defines competent communication as behaviours that are regarded as effective and appropriate.
Competent communication is interaction that is perceived as effective in fulfilling certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also appropriate to the context in which the interaction occurs (p. 68).
Effective communication suggests that people are able to achieve desired personal outcomes and are able to control and manipulate their social environment to obtain those goals. Competent communicators are able to identify their goals, assess the resources necessary to obtain those goals, accurately predict the other communicators responses, choose workable communication strategies, enact those communication strategies, and, finally, accurately assess the results of the interaction. Appropriate communication entails the use of messages that are expected in a given context, and actions that meet the expectations and demands of the situation. This criterion for communication competence requires the interactant to demonstrate an understanding of the expectations for acceptable behavior in a given situation. Appropriate communicators must recognize the constraints imposed on their behavior by different sets of rules avoid violating those rules with inappropriate (e.g., impolite, abrasive, or bizarre) responses and enact communication behaviors in an appropriate manner. The two criteria of effectiveness and appropriateness combine to influence the quality of the interaction. For a recent formulation on ICC competence see Spitzberg (2000). Donna Humphrey Page 19 Page 19 of 95 7/25/2007
Knowledge, Skill and Motivation Spitzberg and Cupach (1984) believed that there are three necessary conditions that must exist before we are consciously and consistently competent in our intercultural interactions: knowledge, motivation, and skills. If an interactant is lacking one of these conditions, the likelihood of competent intercultural communication is significantly diminished. The component model of competence is not a theory about communication, but rather a model that sets the framework for what makes someone a competent communicator. The component model has been used as the basis for many other models of competence because of its breadth. The model can be easily applied to the criteria of effectiveness and appropriateness that make up a competent communicator.
Knowledge is an awareness of what behavior is best suited for a given situation. This involves information about the people, the communication rules, the context, and the normative expectations governing the interaction with the member of the other culture. Motivation is having the desire to communicate in an effective and appropriate manner and refers to the set of feelings, intentions, needs, and drives associated with the anticipation of or actual engagement in intercultural communication. Skill is the actual performance of the behaviours and having the ability to apply effective and appropriate behavior in the given communication context. For Spitzberg (2000), skills must be repeatable and goal-oriented.
Reference Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1984). Interpersonal communication competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Spitzberg, B. H. (2000). A model of intercultural communication competence. In L. Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (9th ed., Donna Humphrey Page 20 Page 20 of 95 7/25/2007
pp. 375-387). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Further reading Duran, R. L., & Spitzberg, B. H. (1995). Toward the development and validation of a measure of cognitive communication competence. Communication Quarterly, 43, 259-86.
Spitzberg, B. H. (1989) Issues in the development of a theory of interpersonal competence in the intercultural context. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 24168.
Spitzberg, B. H. (2006). Preliminary development of a model and measure of computer-mediated communication (CMC) competence. Journal of ComputerMediated Communcation, 11(2), article 12.
Wiseman, R. L., (2001). Intercultural Communication Competence in W. Gudykunst & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural and International Communication, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,
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Rubens seven dimensions of communication
The notion of communication competence was conceptualized by Ruben (1976) as the ability to function in a manner that is perceived to be relatively consistent with the needs, capacities, goals, and expectations of the individuals in ones environment while satisfying ones own needs, capacities, goals, and expectations (p. 336). Based on this definition of communication competence, Ruben identified seven behavioral elements that make individuals function effectively in intercultural settings. The seven elements are: display of respect, interaction posture, orientation to knowledge, empathy, role behaviors, interaction management, and tolerance of ambiguity. 1. Display of respect: the individual indicates a deep respect for the worth of others as persons of high potential and worth. 2. Interaction posture: the ability to respond to others in a descriptive, non-judgmental manner. 3. Orientation to knowledge: the ability to view one's own knowledge and perceptions as personal and not universally valid. 4. 5. Empathy: the ability to put one self in another's shoes. Role behaviour: this dimension refers to an individual's ability to function in task and relational roles within a group setting. 6. Interaction management: the ability to manage interactions in which one is taking part. 7. Tolerance for ambiguity: the ability to react to unexpected or ambiguous situations without excessive discomfort. Based on the seven elements, Ruben (1976) developed the Intercultural Behavioral Assessment Indices (IBAI) for the measurement of intercultural communication competence.
Reference Ruben, B. D. (1976). Assessing communication competency for intercultural adaptation. Group & Organization Studies, 1, 334 54. Donna Humphrey Page 22 Page 22 of 95 7/25/2007
Further reading
Ruben, B. D. (1976) Assessing communication competency for intercultural adaptation. Group & Organization Studies, 1, 334 54 .
Ruben, B. D. (1977) Guidelines for cross-cultural communication effectiveness. Group & Organization Studies, 2, 47079.
Ruben, B. D. (1989)The study of cross-cultural competence: Traditions and contemporary issues. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 22940.
Ruben, B. D., & Kealey, D. J. (1979) Behavioral assessment of communication competency and the prediction of cross-cultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 3, 1547.
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Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
DMIS provides a structure for understanding how people experience cultural differences. Six stages of perspectives describe how a person sees, thinks about, and interprets events happening around them from an intercultural difference perspective. Since DMIS indicates what a person sees and thinks, it also suggests what they do not see or think. DMIS, therefore, highlights how a persons cultural patterns both guide and limit their experience of cultural difference. DMIS theory says that cultural sensitivity and cultural differences represent a potential obstacle or benefit in developing relationships and communicating effectively with other people. There are six stages of development in the DMIS model, which represent a set of perspectives. With each successive stage individuals gain a greater ability to understand and have a more positive experience of cultural difference. In brief, the characteristics of each stage are: Denial represents being comfortable with the familiar. Not anxious to complicate life with cultural differences. Not noticing much cultural difference around you. Maintaining separation from others who are different. Defense is a strong commitment to ones own thoughts and feelings about culture and cultural difference. Some distrust of cultural behavior or ideas that differ from ones own. Aware of other cultures around you, but with a relatively incomplete understanding of them and probably fairly strong negative feelings or stereotypes about some of them. Minimization. People from other cultures are pretty much like you, under the surface. There is an awareness that other cultures exist all around you, with some knowledge about differences in customs and celebrations. Not putting down other cultures. Treating other people as you would like to be treated. Acceptance means being aware of your own culture(s). You see your own culture as just one of many ways of experiencing the world. There is an understanding that people from other cultures are as complex as yourself. Donna Humphrey Page 24 Page 24 of 95 7/25/2007
Their ideas, feelings, and behavior may seem unusual, but you realize that their experience is just as rich as your own. You are curious about other cultures, seeking opportunities to learn more about them. Adaptation is recognizing the value of having more than one cultural perspective available to you. You are able to take the perspective of another culture to understand or evaluate situations in either your own or another culture. You are able to intentionally change your culturally based behavior to act in culturally appropriate ways outside your own culture. Integration. To varying extents, you have integrated more than one cultural perspective, mindset, and behavior into ones identity and worldview. You are able to move easily among cultures. The first three stages are considered ethnocentric in that ones own culture is seen as the only culture or to varying extents the better culture. The last three stages are considered ethnorelative in that ones own culture is seen as equal among many other cultures. The ethnorelative stages are characterized by a positive mindset about cultural difference. These stages are indicative of a person who will tend to make more inclusive decisions and actively seek to build a diverse workforce and an inclusive work environment.
Further reading Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (2nd ed., pp. 2171). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Bennett, M. J., & Deane, B. R. (1994). A model for personal change: Developing intercultural sensitivity. In E. Y. Cross, J. H. Katz, F. A. Miller, & E. W. Seashore (Eds.), The promise of diversity: Over 40 voices discuss strategies for eliminating discrimination in organizations (pp. 286293). Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin. Donna Humphrey Page 25 Page 25 of 95 7/25/2007
Bennett, M. J. (2000). High profile: Dr. Bennett revitalizes the model for intercultural sensitivity. Cultural Diversity at Work, 12(3).
Bennett, M. J. (2004). Becoming interculturally competent. In J. Wurzel (Ed.), Toward multiculturalism: A reader in multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 62 77). Newton, MA: Intercultural Resource Corporation.
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The Council of Europe
Throughout Europe, recent research in foreign language education has focused on intercultural aspects. The concept of communicative competence has been transformed into the concept of intercultural communicative competence (ICC). This concept is being incorporated into the work of the Council of Europe (a transnational body which provides education policy guidelines for member states), and is perhaps most clearly described in English in a book entitled Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence, which was written by an advisor to the Council of Europe committee on foreign language education, Mike Byram (1997). Basically, ICC requires that students acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and critical cultural awareness necessary to communicate interculturally. The components of intercultural competence are knowledge, skills and attitudes, complemented by the values a person holds as a part of belonging to a number of social groups. These values are also representative of a persons social identities. Intercultural attitudes (savoir tre): curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about ones own This means a willingness to relativise one's own values, beliefs and behaviours, not to assume that they are the only possible and naturally correct ones, and to be able to see how they might look from an outsider's perspective who has a different set of values, beliefs and behaviours. This can be called the ability to 'decentre'. Knowledge (savoirs): of social groups and their products and practices in ones own and in ones interlocutors country, and of the general processes of societal and individual interaction So knowledge can be defined as having two major components: knowledge of social processes, and knowledge of illustrations of those processes and products; the latter includes knowledge about how other people are likely Donna Humphrey Page 27 Page 27 of 95 7/25/2007
to perceive you, as well as some knowledge about other people. Skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre): ability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents or events from ones own Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire): ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time communication and interaction. Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire): ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time communication and interaction. Critical cultural awareness (savoir s'engager): an ability to evaluate, critically and on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and products in ones own and other cultures and countries.
Based on article: Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching: a practical introduction for teachers by Michael Byram, Bella Gribkova and Hugh Starkey. Available from website: www. lrc.cornell.edu/director/intercultural.pdf
Reference Byram, M. 1997, Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
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Individual Intercultural Competence
According to Dirk van den Boom (2003), individual intercultural competence is the result of the development of interpersonal skills that arise from the following: the motivation to communicate effectively with someone from a different culture; being prepared to learn the skills needed for effective communication; the ability to put this knowledge into use. http://efbsrv005.ze.uni-sb.de/AHOI/Lima/Base/Chapter3.htm - 3.3Van den Boom asserts that there are two (2) preconditions for individual intercultural competence. These are: 1 the willingness to allow our attitudes to be challenged, recognizing that others have the freedom and the right to be different, and 2 being nonjudgmental. In communicating with a someone from another culture, we must be aware of the fact that they just like us are making an interpretation of what is being communicated to them and that they will never have the full picture. (ibid, adapted from van den Boom, 2003, )
So what is intercultural competence? Van den Bloom provides us a definition: Intercultural competence is the overall capability of an individual to manage key challenging features of intercultural communication: namely, cultural differences and unfamiliarity, inter-group dynamics, and the tensions and conflicts that can accompany this process. (ibid,http://efbsrv005.ze.uni-sb.de/AHOI/Lima/Base/ Chapter3.htm#3.3)
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Constructs of ICC ICC is often described with a variety of traits in at least five dimensions, and may be viewed as a developmental process. Each of these areas is summarised below. The information is taken from the article: A Central Concern: Developing Intercultural Competence by Alvino E. Fantini, where the five dimensions are explored in greater detail.
Traits Intercultural abilities are often evidenced through behavioral manifestations or traits. Commonly cited attributes include: respect, empathy, flexibility, patience, interest, curiosity, openness, motivation, a sense of humor, tolerance for ambiguity, and a willingness to suspend judgment, among others. That is, when describing the profile of an interculturally successful individual, these are among the most commonly mentioned descriptors (see e.g., Kealey 1990, p. 5; Kohls 1979, p. 72) and are often found in cross-cultural inventories as well (e.g., Kelley and Meyers 1992).
Dimensions In this construct of ICC, there are also five dimensions. These are awareness, attitudes, skills, knowledge (A+ASK), and proficiency in the host tongue. It is important to note that awareness appears to be of a different order from the other three. Many interculturalists see awareness (of self and others) as the keystone on which effective and appropriate interactions depend. Writers from various disciplines have long been intrigued with awareness and explored its role further. Stevens (1971), Curle (1972), and Gattegno (1976), among others, cite awareness as the most powerful dimension of the A+ASK quartet. The important works of Paulo Freire (1970, 1973, 1998) reinforce this thinking and, as a result, the Portuguese word concientizao (signifying critical consciousness or awareness) is now internationally recognized. Freire reinforces this notion with several other important observations (1970, 1973, 1998): Donna Humphrey Page 30 Page 30 of 95 7/25/2007
concientizao is awareness of selfhood concientizao is a critical look at the self in a social situation it can produce a transformation of the self and of ones relation to others it can lead to dealing critically and creatively with reality (and fantasy) it is the most important task of education.
A Developmental Process While acknowledging that contact and experience with people of other languages and cultures in a positive setting provide excellent opportunities to provoke and foster ICC development, it is also clear that once the process has begun, ICC development is an on-going lifelong process. YOGA form (Your Objectives, Guidelines, and Assessment) The YOGA form is used to assess intercultural competence (Fantini 1995, 1999) that addresses areas of A+ASK plus language proficiency at four developmental levels. The term YOGA stands for Your Objectives, Guidelines, and Assessment form. This form may be used as a self-evaluation guide. It is designed to help examine the development of an individuals intercultural communicative competence
For further information on the five dimensions and the YOGA form go to Fantinis article available from website: www.sit.edu/publications/docs/competence.pdf
References Curle, Adam. 1972. Mystics and Militants. London: Tavistock Publications.
Freire, Paulo. 1998. Teachers As Cultural Workers: Letters to Those Who Dare Teach. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. . 1973. Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: Continuum. . 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.
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Gattegno, Caleb. 1976. Educational Solutions Newsletter: On Knowledge. Vol. 5, New York: Schools for the Future.
Kealey, Daniel J. 1990. Cross-Cultural Effectiveness : A Study of Canadian Technical Advisors Overseas. Hull, Quebec: Canadian International
Development Agency.
Kelley, Colleen and Judith Meyers. 1992. The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Kohls, L. Robert. 1979. Survival Kit for Overseas Living. Chicago: Intercultural Network/SYSTRAN Publications.
Stevens, John O. 1971. Awareness: Exploring, Experimenting, and Experiencing. Moah, Utah: Real People Press.
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Elements Related to Intercultural Communication Competence
According to Chen (1992), a number of elements essential to communication competence are specified by scholars from different disciplines. Those major elements include: Self-disclosure (Bochner & Kelly, 1974). Self-disclosure refers to the process of revealing personal information to ones partners who are not likely to know from other sources. According to Bochner and Kelly (1974), self-disclosure is one of the main elements in communication competence. However, self-disclosure must be regulated by the norm of
appropriateness in which individuals judge the degree of disclosure for a given situation. Self-consciousness (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984) is the ability to know or to monitor oneself. Self-consciousness can help individuals to implement conversationally competent behaviors in interaction (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984) and to adjust better in other cultures (Brislin, 1979; Gudykunst, Hammer, & Wiseman, 1977; Triandis, 1977a). Social relaxation (Wiemann, 1977) refers to low levels of communication anxiety. It is assumed that an individual would experience anxiety crises during the initial period of sojourning in a new culture (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988; Hammer, 1989). Spitzberg and Cupach (1984) indicated that socially relaxed persons are those who are able to get rid of behaviors such as undue perspiration, shakiness, postural rigidity, self and object adapters, and minimal response tendencies when communicating with other persons. Wiemann (1977) also indicated that competent persons must know how to handle behaviors such as rocking movements, leg and foot movements, body lean, speech rate, speech disturbances,
hesitations, and nonfluencies, and how to manipulate objects. Behavioral flexibility (Martin, 1987) is the ability to behave appropriately in different situations (Bochner & Kelly, 1974). This is similar to) creativity and flexibility dimension. An individual must demonstrate ability to be Donna Humphrey Page 33 Page 33 of 95 7/25/2007
accurate and flexible in attending to information, to be flexible in the response repertoire, and to be flexible in selecting strategies in order to achieve personal goals in communication (Parks, 1976, p. 16). Wheeless and Duran (1982) also proposed adaptability as one of the dimensions of communicative competence. According to them, communication
adaptability focuses on the variety of individual experiences and the ability to be flexible and feel comfortable with a variety of people (p. 55). Interaction involvement (Cegala, 1981) is the ability to be attentive, responsive and perceptive in interaction. Cegala (1981) found that interaction involvement is one of the dimensions of communication competence. The dimension mainly emphasizes individual empathic and other-oriented ability in interaction. The abilitiy to deal with social difficulties in the host culture (Furnham & Bochner, 1982) is one way to help sojourners psychologically acclimate to a new environment. According to Furnham (1986, 1987) and Furnham and Bochner (1982), psychological adaptation is typically associated with personal ability to deal with situations such as frustration, stress, alienation, and ambiguity caused by the host culture. That is, psychological adaptation indicates how individuals deal with the so-called social difficulties.
References Bochner, A. P., & Kelly, C. W. (1974) Interpersonal competence: Rationale, philosophy, and implementation of a conceptual framework. Speech Teacher, 23, 279301.
Brislin, R. W. (1979) Orientation programs for cross-cultural preparation. In A. J. Marsella, R. G. Tharp, & T. J. Ciborowski (Eds.), Perspectives on cross-cultural psychology (pp. 287303). New York: Academic Press.
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Cegala, D. J. (1981) Interaction involvement: A cognitive dimension of communicative competence. Communication Education, 30, 109 21. Chen, G-M. (1992) A Test of Intercultural Communication Competence Intercultural Communication Studies II:2
Furnham, A. (1986) Cultural shock: Psychological reactions to unfamiliar environments. New York: Methuen. -----------(1987) The adjustment of sojourners. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Cross-cultural adaptation: Current approaches (pp. 4261). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Furnham, A., & Bochner, S. (1982) Social difficulty in foreign culture: An empirical analysis of culture shock. In S. Bochner (Ed.), Cultures in contact: Studies in cross-cultural interaction. New York: Pergamon Press. Gudykunst, W. B., Hammer, M. R., & Wiseman, R. L. (1977) An analysis of an integrated approach to cross-cultural training. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 8, 110. Hammer, M. (1989) Intercultural communication competence. In M. K. Asante & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Handbook of international and intercultural
communication (pp. 24760). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Martin, J. N. (1987) The relationships between student sojourner perceptions of intercultural competencies and previous sojourn experience. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 11, 33755 . Parks, M. R. (1976) Communication competence. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Francisco. December.
Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1984) Interpersonal communication Donna Humphrey Page 35 Page 35 of 95 7/25/2007
competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Triandis, H. C. (1977) Subjective culture and interpersonal relations across cultures. In L. Loeb-Adler (Ed.), Issues in cross-cultural research. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 285, 41834. Wheeless, E. W., & Duran, R. L. (1982) Gender orientation as a correlate of communicative competence. Southern Speech Communication Journal. 48, 51 64. Wiemann, J. M. (1977) Explication and test of model of communication competence. Human Communication Research, 3, 195213.
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A summary of the components of intercultural competence Scheitza has assembled various "ingredients" of intercultural competence from various sources. These are categorised under the personal attributes of attitude, knowledge, communication, self-confidence and social relationships. Attitudes Knowledge Communication Self-manifestation Social relationships
motivation and interest in intercultural contacts positive attitude towards different culture, acceptance of differences realistic expectations
common knowledge about and awareness of cultural differences knowledge of the (foreign) country and its social organisation
ability to establish ability to communicate, good acceptable identities for both sides mastering of the language calm and controlled behaviour facing difficulties
ability to establish fruitful and supportive relationships
awareness of and knowledge about different models of verbal and nonverbal communication knowledge of the identification and effective use of norms, patterns and conventions different styles of communication, of the foreign adaption of way of culture speaking knowledge of the rules for interaction and communication ability to start and maintain a useful dialogue with someone from a
ability and readiness to accept third culture perspectives
respect towards values and behaviours of the other culture
ability to recognise the needs and wishes of the other
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different culture politeness, friendliness, diplomacy openness and flexibility in dealing with foreign ideas and thoughts patience and tolerance initiative, selfesteem and endurance ability to cope with psychical stress, maintenance of motivation social intelligence cognitive complexity (ability to accept ability to avoid and clear misunderstandings ability to ask back and get information effectively reflection of stereotypes
flexibility and adaptability
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preliminary explanations for foreign behaviour) Information based on website: www.uni-saarland.de/z-einr/efb/AHOI/Lima/Base/Chapter3.htm For more information on Alexander Scheitza got to website http://www.radius-team.com/english/team/office/
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Part Three Intercultural Communication Competence Standards and Criteria
The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) Dr. Milton Bennett of the Portland-based Intercultural Communication Institute Bennett created the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (See "Experience of Difference"), which shows a progression of stages people may go through in developing intercultural competency. Since then, he has partnered with Dr. Mitch Hammer of American University to develop the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI). The inventory is a set of statements that allows an individual to assess his/her developmental stage of intercultural sensitivity according to the DMIS. Both IDI and the underlying DMIS theory-based model are culture-general in nature. DMIS addresses cross cultural difference independent of the type of difference. Cultural difference stemming from national, regional, societal, family, organization, and individual characteristics all come within the scope of DMIS. IDI as a tool is seen as valuable because it measures people's ability to experience difference in relatively complex ways. Unlike many other instruments, it does not compare a person to typical behaviors and it does not analyze behavioral reactions. IDI operates at the worldview level of how a person feels and thinks about cultural difference. This deeper level of ones cognitive experience is what guides and limits behavior. The IDI aids individuals in learning to understand and develop their intercultural competence, which will generate behavioral change. The IDI is a scientifically valid and reliable psychometric instrument.
Full details about the design are available in, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Special Issue on Intercultural Development, Volume 27, Number 4, July 2003. The entire issue dedicated to DMIS and IDI. Information based on Website: http://www.workforcedevelopmentgroup.com
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Intercultural Competence Assessment
The INCA project, funded by Leonardo da Vinci II, has developed a framework and a suite of assessment tools, including INCA on-line, and a portfolio for the assessment of intercultural competence linked to language and subject knowledge competence. The framework was designed to underpin training and assessment in this field and to provide an effective and efficient diagnostic tool to support assessment, benchmarking, recruitment and employee development.
The INCA Products were developed and tested first in the engineering sector, where the need for interculturally competent managers for the future was seen as most acute. The project partners and contributors were experts in the field of intercultural learning theory, diagnostic testing, "culture shock" etc.
This project aims to link Byram's (1997) Framework for Intercultural Competence Learning to the needs of industry, and produce thereby a framework for delivery and assessment suitable for use in promoting intercultural awareness and understanding as part of a vocational languages programme. The INCA project is based on the theoretical work of Mike Byram, Torsten Khlmann, Bernd MllerJacquier and Gerhard Budin
For detailed information on the INCA competence tool go to websites:
http://www.incaproject.org/index.htm INCA On-line (http://www.incaproject.org/incaonline/)
Further reading Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Mulitilingual Matters.
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Byram, M./ Nichols, A./ Stevens, D. (2001). Developing intercultural competence in practice. Clevedon : Multilingual Matters.
Khlmann, T.M. (1996). Die Diagnose interkultureller Fhrungskompetenz bei Fhrungskrften: Entwicklung und Erprobung eines Assessment-Centers. In H. Mandl (Hrsg.), Bericht ber den 40. Kongre der Deutschen Gesellschaft fr Psychologie. Mnchen: Diskettenfassung.
Khlmann, T.M./ Stahl, G.K. (1996). Fachkompetenz allein gengt nicht Interkulturelle Assessment Center untersttzen die gezielte Personalauswahl. Personalfhrung Plus 96, S. 22-24.
Khlmann, T.M./ Stahl, G.K. (1998). Diagnose interkultureller Kompetenz: Entwicklung und Evaluierung eines Assessment-Centers. In C.I. Barmeyer & J. Bolten (Hrsg.), Interkulturelle Personal-organisation (S. 213-224). Sternenfels: Verlag fr Wissenschaft und Praxis.
Mller- Jacquier, Bernd. (2000). Linguistic Awareness of Cultures-Grundlagen eines Trainingsmoduls. In: Bolten, Jrgen (Hrsg.) (2000). Studien zur internationalen Unternehmenskommunikation. Leipzig: Popp.
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Intercultural competence for professional mobility (ICOPROMO)
The ICOPROMO project recognizes that employees are increasingly faced with intercultural encounters in their professional contexts. The project focuses on strategies directed towards intercultural sensitivity and on mediation
competencies closely linked with language learning and the professional world. The ICOPROMO project builds upon the Common European Framework and the European Language Portfolio and supplements their recommendations with some guidelines and materials for foreign language/culture education that are more focused on professional training. The project build upon the results of previous projects carried out under the auspices of the ECML, such as ODYSSEUS and others, and of the European Union, such as COST, INCA and ORACLE.
The rationale of the ICOPROMO project (Intercultural Competence for Professional Mobility) is to develop competencies that allow a more flexible and critical workforce that is more attentive to the subtleties of intercultural communication and interaction. Special focus of the project is on intercultural competence in professional contexts and in multicultural teams. In practice, the project objective is to develop a model of intercultural competence and a number of training activities to enhance professional mobility among the European workforce (employees and managers).
Final Outcome of the project will be a publication that will contain a thorough explanation of the main concepts underlying ICOPROMOs Transformational Model on the Development of Intercultural Competence. A CD ROM will include a set of sample training activities designed to develop intercultural competence in multicultural teams. For further information go to Websites: http://www.ecml.at/mtp2/ICOPROMO/html/ICOPROMO_E_pdesc.htm http://www.ces.uc.pt/icopromo/index.php Donna Humphrey Page 43 Page 43 of 95 7/25/2007
The international Profiler (TIP)
The International Profiler is a questionnaire and feedback process that has been developed to help managers and professionals reflect on where their skills are (and where they may be lacking skills) in working internationally. It also helps raise awareness of potential areas in which they may require future development, and suggest actions they can take to fill the gaps.
WorldWork Ltd. has developed a set of 10 competencies (with 22 associated skills, attitudes and areas of knowledge) that define the special capabilities required to transfer leadership, managerial and professional skills to an international context. The competencies have been derived from research in the multi-cultural field and the practical experience of people working in international roles. The International Profiler is a psychometric questionnaire that provides individuals with structured feedback in terms of the energy, emphasis and attention they typically bring to each of the competency sets. The Profiler feedback provides: Awareness of potential gaps in a persons international competence Linkage to individual roles, required working style and appropriate attitudes and approaches The rationale for development and initial action steps for meeting development needs
The International Profiler is aimed at individuals who need to build adaptive skills for working in a multi-national environment. They may wish to review their present international experience and extend the skills they bring to the task. They may have a present or imminent need to transfer their technical and managerial skills more extensively into the international arena.
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Description of International Competencies
1. Openness New thinking - receptive to new ideas, and typically seeks to extend understanding into new and unfamiliar fields. Likes to work internationally as they are exposed to ideas and approaches with which they are unfamiliar. Welcoming strangers - keen to initiate contact and build relationships with new people, including those who have different experiences, perceptions, and values to themselves. Often takes a particular interest in strangers from different and unfamiliar cultural backgrounds. Acceptance - not only tolerates but also positively accepts behaviour that is very different from their own. In an international context they rarely feel threatened by, or intolerant of, working practices that conflict with their own sense of best practice.
2. Flexibility Flexible behaviour adapt easily to a range of different social and cultural situations. Have either learned or are willing to learn a wider range of behaviour patterns. Ready to experiment with different ways of behaving to find those that are most acceptable and most successful. Flexible judgements - avoid coming to quick and definitive conclusions about the new people and situations that they encounter. Can also use each experience of people from a different culture to question assumptions and modify stereotypes about how such people operate. Learning languages - motivated to learn and use the specific languages of important business contacts, over and beyond the lingua franca in which they conduct their everyday business activities. Ready to draw on key expressions and words from the languages of these international contacts to build trust and show respect.
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3. Personal autonomy Inner purpose to hold strong personal values and beliefs that provide consistency or balance when dealing with unfamiliar circumstances, or when facing pressures that question judgement or challenge sense of worth. Such values also give importance and credibility to the tasks that they have to perform. Focus on goals - set specific goals and tasks in international projects, combined with a high degree of persistence in achieving them regardless of pressures to compromise, and distractions on the way. Believe they have a strong element of control over their own destiny, and can make things happen in the world around them.
4. Emotional strength Resilience - usually tough enough to risk making mistakes as a way of learning. Able to overcome any embarrassment, criticism or negative feedback they may encounter. Have an optimistic approach to life and tend to bounce back when things go wrong. Coping - able to deal with change and high levels of pressure even in unfamiliar situations. They remain calm under pressure, and have well-developed means of coping even without their normal support networks. Have the personal resources necessary to deal effectively with the stress from culture shock. Spirit of adventure - ready to seek out variety, change and stimulation in life, and avoid safe and predictable environments. Push themselves into
uncomfortable and ambiguous situations, often unsure whether they have the skills required to be successful.
WorldWork Limited
For detailed information on the competencies go to website http://www.worldwork.biz/legacy/www/docs2/competencies.phtml
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The Intercultural Competence Framework
The intercultural competence framework was developed by partners involved in intercultural communication from Flanders and the Netherlands. The final framework was based on research into and adapation of competence profiles from a range of sources.
For more information Contact Paul.Catteeuw at paul.catteeuw@kdg.b). Master in Germanic philology at Karel de Grote Hogeschool in Antwerp
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FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES Paul Catteeuw Basic = knowing Advanced = understanding Proficiency = applying
1. 2.
1 Critical awareness Can deal critically and consciously as an individual with the society in which he/she lives Notices that he/she lives in a changing society Dares to question the society in which he/she lives Recognizes prejudices, racist feelings and attitudes within oneself and others and knows the cultural stereotypes Can make prejudices, racist feelings and attitudes within oneself and others subject of discussion and understands the origin of stereotypes
Is aware of and has a critical approach to the society in which he/she lives Can prevent oneself and others from prejudices, racist feelings and attitudes and can see through the cultural stereotypes
2 Openness - right to differ - respect for otherness Can deal with ambiguous situations, is open to others and can accept and respect possible differences 3. 4. Recognizes other cultures and cultural diversity Tolerates other cultures and cultural diversity Accepts otherness Functions within other cultures and cultural diversity
5.
Recognizes otherness (culture, class, gender, age, Functions according to the principles of equality health, sexual inclination, ethnicity, appearance, ) Recognizes culture shock within oneself and others Knows how to deal with the problems of culture shock Effectively overcomes the problems of culture shock when in contact with a different culture 3 Flexibility and empathy Can be flexible when dealing with realistic situations and demands and can understand intuitively what other people think and feel in realistic situations Is aware of past experiences Is willing to learn the partners language: CEF - A Notices that business partners can react differently Learns from past experiences Is willing to learn the partners language: CEF - B Understands that business partners can react differently Adapts to the actual situation Is willing to learn the business partners language: CEF C Accepts the other as a coherent individual with different reactions and deals tactfully
6. 7. 8.
9.
4 Communicative skill Can communicate effectively and correctly with others in realistic situations Recognizes the intercultural background and possible Understands the intercultural background and possible problems in written, oral and non-verbal communication problems in written, oral and non-verbal communication
Can prevent possible intercultural problems in written and oral communication and in non-verbal communication
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10. 11.
5 Solution oriented attitude Can think and act in a solution oriented way in realistic situations Recognizes misunderstandings and conflicts, possibly Understands the origin of misunderstandings and conflicts, related to the cultural background possibly related to the cultural background In individual situations, makes an extra effort to learn from misunderstandings and conflicts. As a rule makes an extra effort to learn from misunderstandings and conflicts.
Can prevent misunderstandings and conflicts Will purposely seek out situations in which can be learned from living, working or studying with people from different cultures or with a different background
6 Cultural knowledge Can acquire knowledge of a different culture and can use this knowledge in actual situations 12. 13. Knows the concepts relating to interculturality Recognizes the problems of neglected target groups: immigrants, asylum seekers, the underprivileged, whom he/she has to deal with in his/her working environment (subordinates, colleagues) Recognizes the sociocultural conventions of target groups he/she comes into contact with: companies, expats, Can see a link between professional situations and the concepts relating to interculturality Knows how to deal with and understands the problems of neglected target groups Can apply the concepts relating to interculturality in professional situations Effectively deals with people from neglected target groups in a spontaneous way
14.
Understands the sociocultural conventions of the target groups he/she comes into contact with
Incorporates the sociocultural conventions of the target groups he/she comes into contact with
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The Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC) The Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC) is a tool to measure four dimensions of intercultural competence: Intercultural Sensitivity: Sensitivity to the perspective of others based on sensitivity to cultural norms and values and sensitivity to signals from others. Intercultural Communication: Ability to take into account the information needs of listeners and to be flexible in how one communicates. Building Commitment/ Enhancing Collaboration: Ability to stimulate collaboration between people and to take the lead while keeping others on board. Preference for Certainty: Degree of preference for new and unpredictable situations and perspectives. The IRC is used to: To assess people's training needs To determine the right level of training content and process To help clients understand the intercultural learning needs of their staff To better understand the level of competence of the client organization
Feedback on the basis of the IRC helps trainer and respondents to get a better grasp of the intercultural skills the respondents needs to work on in general, and in particular within the international context of their organization. Testing the IRC The IRC is a 60-item questionnaire, which takes approximately 15 minutes to answer to assess the four dimensions of intercultural competence. The IRC was tested by combining it with another questionnaire, the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), which assesses five personality traits (Cultural Empathy, Open-mindedness, Flexibility, Social Initiative, Emotional Stability):
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The IRC has been tested for validity and reliability in collaboration with Professor Karen van der Zee, University of Groningen. A paper comparing the IRC with the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire ( van der Zee & van Oudenhoven) has been submitted to the International Journal of Assessment and Selection.
For further more detailed information on the competencies go to website http://www.ibinet.nl/cat.htm#top
(The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire: Reliability and Validity of Self- and Other Ratings of Multicultural Effectiveness The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire is a multidimensional instrument aimed at measuring multicultural effectiveness Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on self- and other ratings for an original set of 138 items revealed five reliable factors underlying the questionnaire: Cultural Empathy, Openmindedness, Emotional Stability, Social Initiative, and Flexibility)
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GLOBAL INTELLIGENCE
Global Intelligence is defined as the capacity to recognize our own cultures and those of others (1) for increasing personal and professional effectiveness, (2) for creating efficiency and productivity in the global workplace, and (3) for promoting harmony and humanity in the world. Global intelligence consists of seven pillars: 1. Global Literacy means world knowledge and to be able to: Understand the elements of culture and Understand the framework for differentiating cultures Recognize the impact of culture on life and work Understand the diversity of the world and people Be aware of differences in values and assumptions Develop a working knowledge of international relations, economics, and cross-cultural differences in countries and among peoples they deal with. 2. Global Mentality means to be open-minded and flexible Rethink their boundaries beyond national borders See the benefit of working with global diversity Be aggressively curious about other culture Check their assumptions about the world far away Shift their paradigms as necessary Acknowledge cultural differences Accept cross-cultural conflicts as natural
3. Global Identity Know their own cultural identity Reflect on the various aspects of their own identity (e. g.: national, regional ethnic, religious, generational, gender, economical, educational,
professional, individual identity) Be aware of their cultural tendency and preference Feel secure with themselves and feel secure with anyone, anywhere Page 52 Page 52 of 95 7/25/2007
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Be open and continue to explore their changing identity Challenge prejudices and intolerance See themselves as a part of the whole of humanity
4. Global Competency contains skills and ability to be able to Utilize different cultural adaptors for host countries Challenge the negative cultural influence on the status quo Integrate strengths of various cultures by thinking in both/and rather than either/or Adopt policies and practices that will contribute to global effectiveness and empowerment Seek a global network of advisors, colleagues and partners Be able to persuade and negotiate across cultures
Global Competency in Communication means: Choose the right media/ channel to create the right tone Share information to clarify directions and priorities Learn or practice foreign languages Use international English Listen with empathy (with eyes, ears and whole heart) Understand the context and read nonverbal factors Use humor discreetly and find humor in any situation
5. Global Technology Have command of information system and technology Use technologies to help their intercultural effectiveness Know the availability and preference of technologies in host countries Integrate the use of technology with local cultural values Use technology to enhance humanity, not to diminish
6. Global Integrity Emphasize the importance of ethics and characters. For example, the commitment to Responsible business conduct, managements leadership and trust in Page 53 Page 53 of 95 7/25/2007
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employees. 7. Global Humanity Means compassion and generosity. In a new economy profit (Li) and principle (Yi) must be combined. The eastern wisdom for integrity and humanity teaches: Respect the divine and love the human. Details taken from is an author of seven books and numerous guides on business and cross-cultural communication, including Dr. Kim, E.Y., (1996) Global Intelligence: Seven Pillars for New Global Leaders, A Cross-Cultural Reference of Business Practices in a New Korea : Quorum Books For further information contact: Eun Y. KIM, Ph.D. cross-cultural management consultant and author of six books, CEO International, www.yinyangamerica.com, Austin, Texas, USA
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Process Communication Model (PCM)
The PCM was founded in the 1970s by American Psychologist Taibi Kahler and is based on scientific studies. Following the tradition of Transactional Analysis, it describes a model of different personality adaptations/styles. The PCM is a system for Personal improvement Client assessment Personnel development Team building
In the Intercultural Training field PCM can be designed to: Understand different culture-based behaviours and stress patterns Develop a "landscape" of communication patterns for oneself and colleagues Help to develop one's own personality, leadership skills and management styles, International business collaborations, multicultural team building and project management Reduce pressure as a result of mis-communication and
misunderstandings The personality adaptations described in the PCM are not connected to any culture, age group or educational background. Nevertheless different cultures show their communication channels, psychological needs and driver behaviours with different relative intensity. Assumptions: Humans show 6 different personality types (Workaholic, Reactor, Persister, Dreamer, Rebel, Promoter) Each person carries inside ALL personality types but to a different distinction One persons strongest personality type defines their character strengths, Page 55 Page 55 of 95 7/25/2007
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psychological
needs,
perception
preferences,
management
style,
communication channel, traits and distress sequences. Examples: Personality Type: Workaholic (Thinker) Reactor (Feeler) Character strengths: Responsible, logical, organized Compassionate, sensitive, warm Psychological needs: Appreciation of work, time, structure Appreciation of person Perception preferences: Thinks first, categorizes people and things Feels first, loves harmony Management style: Democratic Benevolent Communication channel: Requestive, Carrying Traits: Ability to think logically Ability to nurture, be empathic Distress sequences: Expects himself to be perfect, over controls, over adapts, invites criticism, rejects others, gets rejected.
Based on article by Katalin GEIS, KaleidosGlobe Training & Consulting and Relocation Services Hamburg For further information go to website:
http://www.taibikahlerassociates.com/PTMvsPCM.phtml
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Language On-Line Portfolio Project (LOLIPOP)
LOLIPOP (Language On-Line Portfolio Project), with the School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies, Dublin City University (DCU) as lead partner, involves 12 partners across 8 countries (Austria, France, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Norway, Poland and Spain). Its aim is the development of a multilingual, on-line, interactive version of the (European Language Portfolio) ELP with an enhanced intercultural dimension. The project is due for completion in September 2007. The project defines intercultural competence as follows: Knowledge Skills Behave appropriately and effectively Acquire and operate knowledge Compare and interpret cultures Culture-general and culture specific Products and practices of own and other culture How social groups and identities function How intercultural interaction works
Attitudes Curiosity Tolerance Ability to decentre
The project members believe that in order to assist the learner in becoming interculturally competent, a framework needs to be created within which learners can assess their current stage of development and determine what it is they need to do in order to progress to the next stage. The project members are considering the development of a set of descriptors for intercultural competence and a corresponding set of I can do statements perhaps based on the levels of Donna Humphrey Page 57 Page 57 of 95 7/25/2007
intercultural competence presented in Table 1 (see below). These intercultural Can do statements would help the learners to self-assess their intercultural competence, set objectives and they would be able to display evidence of their intercultural progress in the Dossier section of the European Language Portfolio (ELP). The intercultural competence would be thus fully integrated into the ELP, with activities for classroom practice to support such an approach. TABLE 1: Example of possible Indicators of Intercultural Competence Intercultural competencies Awareness competencies I can describe other cultures. I can notice and record similarities and differences between I can identify the factors of intercultural
influencing my attitudes towards other cultures. I can assess my own abilities as an intercultural communicator.
cultures. I can explain similarities and differences between cultures. I can understand and accept aspects of other cultures which are surprising/new to me. I can reflect on the sometimes challenging/enriching nature of intercultural encounters. I can empathise with members of other cultures. Donna Humphrey Page 58
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For further information contact: Dr. Jennifer Bruen, Ms. Veronica Crosbie, Ms. Juliette Pchenart
Lecturers in German, ESOL and French respectively in the School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies, Dublin City University. Details of the project are available at website:
http://www.isoc.siu.no/isocii.nsf/projectlist/116998
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A Framework of International / Intercultural Competencies
The School of Management at The George Mason University, identifies the following competencies as necessary for graduate students to develop if they are to be successful in their graduate global residencies.
Knowledge Knowledge of world geography, conditions, issues, and events Awareness of the complexity and interdependency of world events and issues Understanding of historical forces which have shaped the current world
system Knowledge of ones own culture and history Knowledge of effective communication including knowledge of a foreign
language, intercultural communication concepts, and international business etiquette Understanding of the diversity found in the world in terms of values, beliefs,
ideas, and worldviews
Attitudes Openness to learning and a positive orientation to new opportunities, ideas, and ways of thinking Tolerance for ambiguity and unfamiliarity, Sensitivity and respect for personal and cultural differences Empathy or the ability to take multiple perspectives Self awareness about own identity and culture and well developed self-
esteem
Skills Technical skills to enhance the capacity of students to learn about the world Page 60 Page 60 of 95 7/25/2007
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Critical and comparative thinking skills including the ability to think creatively
and integrate knowledge, rather than uncritical acceptance of knowledge Communication skills including ability to use another language effectively and interact with people from other cultures Coping and resiliency skills in unfamiliar and challenging situations
Specifically, each experience should be orchestrated by the faculty to enhance the development of each competency as described below:
Knowledge Political Knowledge = this includes knowledge of ones own political system,
players, and events as well as international systems, leaders, and events. It also includes a knowledge of geography, institutions and processes, and economics (Caprini and Keeter).
State of the Planet Awareness = understanding of prevailing world
conditions, developments, and trends associated with world issues such as population growth, economic conditions, inter-nation conflicts etc (Hanvey) (CAFLIS). The Knowledge Dimension in the ETS study includes awareness of such topics as trade arrangements, energy, human rights, and population issues (ETS).
Foreign Language Acquisition = knowledge of another language as a way
to increase ones understanding of another culture (Bonham et. al. ).
Knowledge of International Etiquette = understanding of appropriate
international etiquette in situations with colleagues to cover greetings, thanking, leave taking, gift-giving, and paying and receiving compliments (BBCAI).
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Knowledge of Global Dynamics = comprehension of the hidden complexity
that can alter the interpretation of world events (systems thinking) (Hanvey) (CAFLIS) Linked to critical thinking skills (Mestenhauser)
Knowledge of Global and National Interdependence = knowledge of key
elements of interdependency (Bonham)
Awareness of Human Choices = awareness of the problems of choice
confronting individuals, nations, world. (Hanvey)
Perspective Consciousness = awareness that she or he has a view of the
world that is not universally shared distinction between opinion and perspective (worldview) (Hanvey)
Knowledge of Self = understanding ones own culture and place. Also known
as Personal Autonomy = awareness of identity and includes taking responsibility for ones actions, understanding own beliefs and values (Kelley and Meyers)
Cross-Cultural Awareness = awareness of the diversity of ideas and
practices found in the world (Hanvey)
Knowledge Acquisition from a Multiple Perspective = knowledge selected
to represent the variety of cultural, ideological, historical, and gender perspectives present in the world (Lamy)
Exploration of Worldviews = review of the values, assumptions, priorities,
and policy orientations which are used to interpret both public and private issues (Lamy)
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Attitudes Movement towards Empathy = seeing others as they see themselves, given
their conditions, values etc... (Hanvey) Goes past sympathy (ethnocentric thinking to ethnorelativist thinking) to a fuller view that focuses on the other instead of the self (Bennett). Also reflected in the Concern Scale which is described as feelings of empathy and kinship with people from other nations and cultures (ETS, p. 136).
Emic thinking (Mestenhauser) Intercultural Perspective taking (Steglitz) or
Allocentrism, the ability to take a multiplicity of perspectives (Heath)
Reflective Attitude = reflect on the impact of decisions, choices, and
behavior of self and others (Fantini)
Learning Attitude = willingness to learn from others / engage others
(Fantini). Also termed as Flexibility / Openness on Kelley and Meyers CCAI Scale (Kelley and Meyers) similar to Positive Orientation to Opportunities (Brislin) or Dynamic Learning (Dinges)
Tolerance for ambiguity and respect for others (Fantini et. al.)
Personality strength = well developed self-esteem and positive self-concept
(Brislin) similar to idea of Integration = a growing coherence and increased synthesis of personality (Heath)
Global understanding = the affective component of the ETS study which
aims to measure attitudes such as interest about international developments, expression of empathy, feelings of kinship about others, and degree of comfort in foreign situations (ETS)
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Skills Technological Skills = enhance and increase capacity as consumers of
information utilize technology to gain a better understanding of the world
Second Language Proficiency Skills = the ability to use another language
to accomplish basic communication tasks (ETS). The BBCAI notes language skills to include the ability to understand a newspaper, technical reports, and everyday instructions (BBCAI).
Critical Thinking Skills = the ability to expand thinking to recognize issues,
solutions, consequences not ordinarily considered holistic thinking. Includes ability to synthesize and integrate knowledge rather than uncritical acceptance of knowledge, metalearning (Mestenhauser)
Comparative Thinking Skills = similar to above in that ability to critically
compare and contrast (Mestenhauser)
Skills for Understanding = skills to enable students to critically analyze and
evaluate information from diverse sources (Lamy)
Manage Stress when Dealing with Difference (Hammer) Also termed as
Emotional Resilience = ability to maintain a positive state, self-esteem, and confidence when coping with ambiguity and the unfamiliar (Kelley and Meyers). The BCCIE terms this as Resilency and Coping Skills and includes psychological preparedness and leaderships skills in diverse situations (BCCAI).
Strategies for Participation and Involvement = strategies to allow students
to connect global issues with local concerns and take action in the context of their own lives (Lamy)
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Self-monitoring techniques = ability to self-monitor behaviors and
communication and take responsibility for self (Spitzberg). Similar to Autonomy = autonomous self-regulation of actions (Heath)
Effective Cross-Cultural Communication Skills = ability to alter ones
communication and responses to reflect anothers communication style and build relationships (Hammer) Also termed as Perceptual Acuity = attentiveness to verbal and nonverbal behaviors and interpersonal relationships, understanding the context of communication (Kelley and Meyers). This could also include
concept of Potential for Benefit = includes an openness to change and the ability to perceive and use feedback as well as motivation to learn about others. (Brislin)
Enhancing Accurate Communication Skills = the ability to communicate
with a minimal loss or distortion of the meaning (Fantini)
Review of the Literature used to Develop the Framework Bennett, Milton. J. (1986). Towards Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. In R.M. Paige (ed.), Cross-Cultural Orientation: New Conceptualizations and Applications (pp. 27-70). Lanham: University Press of America.
Bonham, G. (1980). Education and the Worldview. Change, 12(4), 2-7.
Brislin, R.W. (1981). Cross-cultural Encounters. NY: Pergamon.
Carpini, Michael X.D. and Scott Keeter. (1989). What Americans Know about Politics and Why it Matters. CT: Yale University Press.
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Dinges Norman G. (1983). Intercultural Competence. In D. Landis and R. Brislin (eds.). Handbook of Intercultural Relations: Theory and Practice (pp. 176-202). NY: Pergamon.
Educational Testing Service. (1981). College Students Knowledge and Beliefs: A Survey of Global Understanding. New York: Change Magazine Press.
Fantini, Alvino. (1997). New Ways of Teaching Culture. VA: TESOL.
Groenning, S. and D.S. Wiley (Eds.). (1990). Group Portrait: Internationalizing the Disciplines. New York: The American Forum.
Hammer,
Mitchell
R.
(1987).
Behavioral
Dimensions
of
Intercultural
Effectiveness. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 11, 65-88.
Hammer, Mitchell R., and Milton J. Bennett. The Intercultural Development Inventory Manual. Portland OR: Intercultural Communication Institute, 1998.
Hanvey, Robert G. (1979). An Attainable Global Perspective. New York: Global Perspectives in Education, Inc.
Kelley, Colleen and Inventory.
Judith Meyers. (1987).
The Cross-Cultural Adaptability
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. .
Klasek, C.B. (1992). Bridges to the Future: Strategies for Internationalizing Higher Donna Humphrey Page 66 Page 66 of 95 7/25/2007
Education. Carbondale, IL: Association of International Education Administrators.
Lamy, S. (1987). Defining Global Education. Educational Research Quarterly. 8(1), 920.
Mestenhauser, Joesef A. (1998). Portraits of an International Curriculum: An Uncommon Multidimensional Perspective. In Josef A. Mestenhauser and Brenda Ellingboe (eds.) Reforming the Higher Education Curriculum: Internationalizing the Campus (pp. 1-39). AZ: The American Council on Education and Oryx Press.
Spitzberg, Brian H. (2000). A Model of Intercultural Communication Competence. In L.A. Samovar and R.E. Porter (eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (pp. 375-387). New York: Wadsworth Publishing.
Stanley,Dale. (1997). International Learning Outcomes: Report for the BC Centre for International Education. British Columbia, Canada: The British Columbia Centre for International Education.
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International Management Assessment (IMA)
The IMA (International Management Assessment) is a development centre tool to assist organisation in the identification and preparation of candidates for international assignments. It was developed in conjunction with Thry International Management (TIM) in France. The IMA originally was designed from the experience of international assignments with large French companies, taking into account the specific profiles and aptitudes required of international managers. The IMA, developed with the support of research studies, defines the main criteria to be observed in the behaviour desirable for managers working on international assignments. The objectives of the IMA is to enable the potential international manager:
(1) To know their own strengths and weaknesses regarding the aptitudes which are essential for working in an international context. The ones particularly focused on in the IMA are: analysis of a complex situation, where partners, value systems and mental systems are different, and where information is presented in another form and/or is unclear or uncertain making decisions in an uncertain context, when the manager has to decide based on information which is incomplete or uncertain, and has to be ready to support the consequences of that choice (for instance, to sign an agreement abroad) readiness for learning, having an open mind and curiosity, a listening attitude, and also the ability to recognise and learn from mistakes when implementing new solutions adaptability, being able to face unusual situations and partners with values different from yours, and to stick to the objective even though the means to reach it have to be changed diplomacy, knowing how to give a message in such a way that the 7/25/2007
counterpart can understand and accept it Donna Humphrey Page 68 Page 68 of 95
negotiation, how to identify what may be won or lost by you and your counterpart, and to plan and implement an appropriate strategy conflict management, how to deal with conflicting situations in a non aggressive way.
(2) To know their own working style and their own preferences regarding the main cultural differentiation criteria, which have been documented by writers such as Hofstede, Hall and Hall, DIribarne, Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner and others, and which enable us to position various countries according to the following criteria: hierarchical relations, high power distance vs partnership relations within the company, individualism vs sense of community relations within the team, assertiveness and competition, or looking for harmony and consensus time management, doing one thing at the same time with a sequential and planned schedule, or being more spontaneous and flexible. attitude to information, formal and explicit communication, or informal and implicit attitude to status, status which is merited and based on achievement, or status by ascription (according to your background and where you come from)
This analysis enables every manager concerned to realise why and where their ways of working and cultural preferences may fit with the culture of some countries, and why and where they will need to make an effort - and what kind of effort - to adapt to the national culture encountered.
(3) To assess a persons suitability or likely level of success in assignments to specific countries Donna Humphrey Page 69 Page 69 of 95 7/25/2007
(4) To define their own action plan for progress, in particular for training and coaching
Based on article by Adrian Pilbeam and Benoit Thery. This article is based on an article which first appeared in Language and Intercultural Training, Volume 17, No 3, published by LTS Training and Consulting.
For more detailed information on the IMA criteria and rationale go to website: www.synergy-associates.com/sub/LTS-IMARationale.pdf how to choose international managers? (PDF) Or contact: Adrian PILBEAM, LTS Training & Consulting, Bath Website: http://www.lts-training.com/consult.html
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The ProGroups Tolerance Scale
The ProGroup tolerance scale rates attitudes toward differences: the impact of different value systems on interactions in the workplace. In The ProGroups Tolerance Scale model, there exist five different 'levels' of reactions people have to differences: Appreciation: "Difference is positive": I enjoy and choose to be around this person. Acceptance: "Difference doesn't matter": I pay attention to this person and ignore the way he/she is different, the difference is not an issue. Tolerance: ''Difference doesn't make me feel completely comfortable": I treat the other person respectfully, but would prefer not to deal with them if I had a choice. Avoidance: "Difference makes me clearly feel uncomfortable": I try to avoid the other person. Repulsions: "This difference is not normal": Contact with these persons causes me a lot of discomfort.
Based on article by Shannon Murphy Robinson, Senior Consultant Pro Group, Inc., Minneapolis; Minnesota, USA and David WALSH, Openminds, Dublin, Ireland.
For further details contact: http://www.progroupinc.com/site/page/pg1682.html www.diversity.ie
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Intercultural Communication b.v.
Intercultural Communication b.v. works with associate consultants, trainers and interculturalists located in 35 countries across the world. The following five intercultural competencies are seen by intercultural communication b.v. as an essential part of every employees skill set.
Competence 1: Intercultural Sensitivity Intercultural sensitivity is the ability to recognize multiple perspectives on an event or behavior, to recognise ones own cultural values and those of others, and to pick up on verbal and nonverbal signals. Competence 2: Intercultural Communication This is defined as the ability to adjust ones communication style to the communicative needs of people from other cultures. Competence 3: Building Commitment Building commitment is the ability to stimulate interaction and cooperation between people, and to take the lead while at the same time keeping others on board. It involves sensitivity to the dynamics within larger groups of people inside and outside the organization, an understanding of these dynamics and the ability to benefit from them.
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Competence 4: Managing Uncertainty This is the ability to manage the greater uncertainty of intercultural and international situations and the ability to respond flexibly and work effectively with new people in intercultural situations. Competence 5: International orientation This is defined as the ability to see the world as a workplace. To accept extra efforts and set-backs when working in other cultures as a matter of course and to actively search for international business and explore international markets. It also involves the ability to come to business in various countries in a relatively short period of time.
For further information go to Website: http://www.intercultural.nl/html/intercultural_competencies.html
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Discovery Personal Profile
Insights Learning & Development Is involved in people and organisational development. The Insights Discovery System is a model based on the
personality profiling work of Carl Jung. The psychologist Dr Carl G Jung further developed four broad types of personality identified by other philosophers. He suggested that all four personality traits or energies are present in all of us, and the different balances between them make us unique. The Insights Discovery Personal Profile is believed to be a highly accurate and validated system for measuring those balances.
The Insights Discovery System profiles the uniqueness of each individual and illustrates the ways in which individual can recognise and value these differences. Each Profile includes a Foundation Chapter comprising key pages such as: Personal Overview, Strengths and Weaknesses, Value to the Team, Communication, Possible Blind Spots, Opposite Type and Suggestions for Development. The information contained within the Foundation Chapter can be extended through Discoverys supplementary chapters. These support ongoing development in specific areas.
The full range of psychological types can be depicted on a circle called the Insights Discovery Wheel. At its simplest it identifies four groups or quadrants: Fiery Red, Sunshine Yellow, Earth Green and Cool Blue. All individuals have one of these 'colour energies' as their dominant, preferred style of thinking, working and interacting with others. The Eight Primary Types The Observer: Cool Blue, Introverted Thinking Observers are precise, cautious and disciplined. The Coordinator: Earth Green/Cool Blue, Introverted Sensation Coordinators tend to be independent and objective, usually possessing a strong value system. Donna Humphrey Page 74 Page 74 of 95 7/25/2007
The Supporter: Earth Green, Introverted Feeling Supporters are affable, amiable, steady individuals who get on well with others. The Helper: Sunshine Yellow/Earth Green, Feeling Helpers are warm, understanding and sociable individuals who strive for positive relationships with people both at work and at home. The Inspirer: Sunshine Yellow, Extraverted Feeling Inspirers are outgoing and enthusiastic, seeking favourable social environments where they can develop and maintain networks and contacts. The Motivator: Fiery Red/Sunshine Yellow, Extraverted Intuition Motivators have the ability to value results and people equally. The Director: Fiery Red, Extraverted Thinking Directors are forceful, decisive and dominant people who tend to be strong individualists. The Reformer: Cool Blue/Fiery Red, Thinking Evidencing gifts of both extraversion and introversion, Reformers are creative and abstract thinkers who can suffer from unpredictable brilliance in strategic decision-making.
For further more detailed information go to website: http://www.insights.com/core/English/TheDiscoverySystem/default.shtm
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The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence
The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence (BASIC), identifies certain skills valuable in intercultural communication. They include the following competencies: Display of respect: Acting respectfully, although specific words and body language differ from culture to culture. Orientation to knowledge: Understanding that our knowledge of others is framed by our cultural experiences; our personal attitudes and opinions are not universal facts. Statements that allows for no qualifiers, such as "This entire class . . ." or "All Muslims are . . . ," are examples of cultural bias. Empathy: Communicating our awareness of the feelings and thoughts of others. Interaction management: Taking turns and regulating conversations. Task role behaviors: Welcoming ideas in group problem-solving activities. Relational role behavior: Building relationships with group members by encouraging participation and mediating conflicts. Tolerance for ambiguity: Responding to new situations with comfort, without defensiveness or judgment. Interactive posture: Responding in nonevaluative ways about others attitudes, beliefs and values.
The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication Effectiveness, Jolene Koester and Margaret Olebe, International Journal of Intercultural Relations 12 (1998): 23346.
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The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI was developed to provide a tool for self-assessment of cross-cultural effectiveness. This instrument, which was originally created in 1987, was revised in both 1989 and 1992. The instruments authors, Colleen Kelley and Judith Meyers, created both the original and the revised versions of the instrument. Designed to be used as a single assessment or as part of a multi-assessment training program, the CCAI was developed in response to the need for a self-assessment instrument designed to measure cross-cultural adaptability (Kelley & Meyers, 1999). The authors stated that this instrument is applicable to all cultures assuming that anyone who was adapting to a new culture would share the same types of feelings and experiences (Kelley & Meyers, 1995a).
The manual for the CCAI (Kelley & Meyers, 1995a) presents a limited description of the history of the development of the instrument. Specifically, after a review of the literature, the authors created a Cross-Cultural Readiness checklist of the characteristics cited in the literature as being important for cross-cultural adaptability. A panel of experts then rated the significance of each characteristic on the checklist in respect to adapting to other cultures. The characteristics with the highest ratings were then grouped into four categories (flexibility/openness, emotional resilience, perceptual acuity, and personal autonomy). Based on information from the cross-cultural adaptability literature, the authors then added a fifth category (positive regard for others). To restate, the emotionally resilient person is resourceful and able to deal with stressful feelings in a constructive way, can cope with ambiguity and bounce back from emotional setbacks. Flexibility and openness are characterized by accepting other ways of doing things, a lack of rigidity, and an ethnorelative perspective (Brislin & Yoshida, 1994, p. 90). People with these skills enjoy interacting with people who think differently from themselves and spending time in new and unfamiliar surroundings. Perceptual acuity refers to the degree of sensitivity individuals
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have in terms of verbal and nonverbal messages, as well as to interpersonal relations in general (Brislin & Yoshida, 1994, p. 90). People with perceptual acuity are sensitive to others, and are attentive to verbal and non-verbal behavior, to the context of communication, and to interpersonal relations (Kelley & Meyers, 1995, p. 15). Personal autonomy refers to individuals abilities to maintain their personal beliefs and values when challenged in a new culture. People with personal autonomy have a strong sense of self, and do not need to rely on cues from their surroundings to make decisions or form their identity.
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Appendix A: A List of Alternative Terms for ICC
Transcultural communication
Cultural Sensitivity
Cross-cultural communication
Cultural Competence
Cross-cultural awareness
Communicative Competence
Global competitive intelligence
Intecultural Cooperation
Global Competence
Ethnorelativity
Cross-cultural adaptation
Biculturalism
International Competence
Multiculturalism
International communication
Plurilingualism
Intercultural interaction
Metaphoric Competence
Intercultural sensitivity
Effective Inter-group Communications
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Appendix
B:
Assessment
Tools
of
Intercultural
Communicative
Competence
Alvino E. Fantini, Brattleboro, VT 2006 American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Proficiency Scale This scale assesses the level of language attainment achieved. (Liskin-Gasparro, 1982) Assessment of Intercultural Competence (AIC) This selfassessment tool, designed in a YOGA Format (self- and other assessment) charts the development of intercultural sojourners over time, and provides normative, formative, and summative indicators. (See preliminary version at <www.sit.edu/publications> in the SIT Occasional Papers Series, Inaugural Issue, Spring 2000, scroll down to pp.25-42, A Central Concern: Developing Intercultural Competence) For a more complete and updated version, 2005, contact: alvino.Fantini@sit.edu. Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ASLPR) This scale, developed by Ingram and Wylie in 1982, groups various components of language use together in a single band descriptor to assess second language proficiency. Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication (BASIC) Olebe, M., & Koester, J. (1989). Exploring the cross-cultural equivalence of the Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13(3), 333-347. Eight scales; validated with 263 university students. Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI) Craig N. Shealy, PhD. James Madison University shealycn@jmu.edu Designed to identify and predict a variety of developmental, affective, and attributional processes and outcomes that are integral to Equilintegration Theory (ET), which seeks to explain the processes by which beliefs, values, and worldviews are acquired and maintained, why their alteration is typically resisted, and how and under what circumstances their modification occurs. In context of EI theory, the BEVI would appear to be highly suitable for the assessment of international learning. Ultimately the BEVI is designed to determine whether, how and to what degree people are (or are likely to be) open to various transformational experiences such as international education. http://www.acenet.edu/programs/international/fipse/PDF/BEVI_Abstract.pdf Counseling Inventory: A self-report measure of multicultural competencies Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41(2), 137-148. Developed for the counseling milieu. Emphasizes behaviors. Four factors. Large sample. Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) Dr. Colleen Kelley & Dr. Judith E. Meyers. CCAI is designed to help participants understand the qualities that enhance cross-cultural effectiveness, whether or not to work in a culturally Donna Humphrey Page 80 Page 80 of 95 7/25/2007
diverse company, whether or not to live abroad, and how to prepare to enter another culture. Measurement: The CCAI measures 4 variables: Emotional Resilience, Flexibility and Openness, Perceptual Acuity, and Personal Autonomy. Intercultural Press 1.800.370.2665 The Cross-Cultural Assessor A personal navigator for successful communication across cultures. This multimedia program measures, builds and manages cross-cultural skills and characteristics, through the use of exercises and questionnaires. http://www.promentor.fi/cca/ Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory LaFromboise, T. D., Coleman, H. L., & Hernandez, A. (1991). "Development and factor structure of the Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory--Revised." Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 22(5), 380-388. Developed for the counseling milieu. Cross-Cultural Sensitivity Scale (CCSS) Pruegger, V. J., & Rogers, T. B. (1993). "Development of a scale to measure cross- cultural sensitivity in the Canadian context." Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 25(4), 615-621. Normed on undergraduate students. Cultural Competence Self-Assessment Instrument This instrument helps identify, improve and enhance cultural competence in staff relations and client service delivery. (Washington, D.C., Child Welfare League of America Publications; 1993; Catalogue number 5065) Cultural Competence Self-Assessment Questionnaire (CCSAQ) Mason, J. L. (1995). Portland State University. Instrument designed to assist service agencies working with children with disabilities and their families in self- evaluation of their cross-cultural competence. Intended for US domestic use. Culture-free Scale This instrument, developed by Chen and Starosta, measures intercultural sensitivity. The Cultural Orientations Indicator (COI) TMCs COI is a web-based cross-cultural assessment tool that allows individuals to assess their personal cultural preferences and compare them with generalized profiles of other cultures. The COI provides respondents with a personal cultural profile based on ten dimensions that have particular application in the business world. The understanding gained from the personal profile, which is based on TMCs Cultural Orientations Model (COM), can be applied to the development of specific business, management, sales, marketing, negotiation and leadership skills, among others, when applied in multicultural situations. A validated report is available upon request. http://www.tmcorp.com Cultural Self-Awareness Test This simple three-question test helps identify high and low-context characteristics in those who take it. (The Management Center, Graduate School of Business, University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis, MN). The Culture in the Workplace Questionnaire is derived from the work of G.Hofstede, and enables you to learn your own cultural profile and how that might compare to others. http://www.itapintl.com/ITAPCWQuestionnaire.htm
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Development Communication Index (Developed from Kealy study) This field instrument was used to assess the quality of communication and the accuracy of perception between Canadian advisors and their national counterparts working on a development project. This index represents 30 scenarios related to such issues as project progress and adaptation skills. Instrument also designed as a problem-solving tool. http://www.tamas.com/samples/source-docs/ROI-Briefings.pdf Dogmatism Scale Milton Rokeach, 1960 Educoas, Editorial February 2002 Maintains the premise that the Internet holds great promise as a tool to foster intercultural communication to create responses to development needs in the Hemisphere. http://www.educoas.org/eng/editorial_feb.asp European Language Portfolio This tool, developed by the Council of Europe in collaboration with the Common European Framework, uses three parts (a passport, a language biography and a dossier) to self-assess intercultural competence (Karen-Margrete Frederiksen, Foreword: Intercultural Competence). Expatriate Profile (EP) - Park Li Group. (1996). Expatriate profile workbook. (Second ed.). New York: Author. Expatriate Profile is a computer-based crosscultural competence self-assessment instrument for international professionals. Foreign Assignment Success Test (FAST) Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(2), 277-294. Six scales. Validated on 67 American managers in Japan. Fuld & Company, Inc. Competitive Intelligence (CI)CI Learning Center &Tools http://www.fuld.com/ciStrategiesResources.html GAP Test: Global Awareness Profile J. Nathan Corbitt. The GAP measures how much world knowledge a person has concerning selected items about international politics, economics, geography, culture, etc. Intercultural Press, ISBN 1-877-864-55-2 P.O. Box 700 Yarmouth, ME 04096 USA (866)-372-2665 http://www.interculturalpress.com/shop/gaptext.html Global Behavior Checklist Hett, 1991 Global Interface Licensed to administer and interpret the following assessment tools: --Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI) A self-response questionnaire that examines 14 attitudes and attributes correlated with successful cross-cultural adjustment and performance. Used together with a behavioral interview, the OAI provides essential input to the expatriate selection process and helps expatriates raise their awareness of a number of important adaptation issues. --Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) Designed to provide useful and valid information regarding respondents' orientation toward cultural differences and their readiness for intercultural training and development. Used in conjunction with training, the IDI is a highly reliable, valid, cross-cultural measure of intercultural sensitivity applicable to a variety of groups of people from different cultural backgrounds. -Trompenaar's Seven Dimensions of Culture and Corporate Culture Profiles: By Donna Humphrey Page 82 Page 82 of 95 7/25/2007
means of a questionnaire developed by Dr Alfons Trompenaars, individuals receive their own cultural profile on each of seven dimensions of culture that then can be compared with the cultural profile of any other group or individual in an expanding database of over 35,000 managers. --Objective Job Quotient System (OJQ) A computer-assisted tool that provides cross-culturally appropriate 360 feedback to evaluate and rank employee performance. The OJQ uses multiple raters and ""scaled direct comparisons"", providing greater reliability and validity. http://www.globalinterface.com.au/how_we_do_it.html Global Literacy Survey National Geographic Survey Global Mindedness Scale Hett, 1991 The Global Team Process Questionnaire (GTPQ), a proprietary instrument developed by ITAP International, helps global teams improve their effectiveness and productivity. http://www.itapintl.com/gtpq.htm Grove and Associates Cross Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) A selfassessment questionnaire that measures an individual's adaptability in four dimensions that may affect his or her ability to have a successful experience in another culture. These are Emotional Resilience, Flexibility/Openness, Perceptual Acuity, and Personal Autonomy. http://www.grovewell.com Hogan Assessment System Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) Personality analysis http://www.hoganassessments.com Individual-Collectivism Scale Insights Discovery System There are 72 types positioned on the Insights Wheel, which at its simplest divides into four quadrants: Fiery Red, Sunshine Yellow, Earth Green and Cool Blue. The wheel is divided further into the eight Primary Insights Types. Search for both your color and type, and learn how different personalities can interact with each other. http://www.insightsworld.com/ The Intercultural Competence Assessment (INCA) Project A 3 year Leonardo da Vinci Project which aims to develop a framework, diagnostic tool and record of achievement for the assessment of intercultural competence linked to language competence and subject knowledge competence. Mag. Gabriela Dorn & Mag. Alexandra Cavalieri Kochlbcnet@aon.at www.lbcnet.at Intercultural Competence Questionnaire Test your intercultural competence with this questionnaire (www.7d-culture.nl/Content/cont053b.htm ). Intercultural Competency Scale Elmer, M. I. (1987). Intercultural effectiveness: Development of an intercultural competency scale. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, MI. Designed with missionaries and foreign students. The Intercultural CONFLICT Style Inventory Mitchell R. Hammer, Ph.D. Hammer Consulting Group, 267 Kentlands Blvd. PMB # 705 North Potomac, MD 20878 USA Phone: 301-330-5589 Fax: 301-926-7450. dihammer@msn.com Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) Uses a 44-item inventory based on the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) to assess the extent of an individual's intercultural development along a continuum that ranges from Donna Humphrey Page 83 Page 83 of 95 7/25/2007
extreme ethnocentrism to what Bennett calls "ethnorelativism." Ethnorelativism is the ability to function at a high level of relational and social involvement in a nonnative culture. Developed by Drs. M.J. Bennett & M. Hammer. The IDI is a statistically reliable, valid measure of intercultural sensitivity. The IDI was constructed and tested over a 3-year time period by Mitch Hammer at American University and was piloted successfully by Milton Bennett in both corporate and educational settings. The IDI instrument and IDI analysis services are available through ICI only to those people who have completed a qualifying seminar. The 3-day seminars prepare people to explain and implement the IDI in corporate, academic, and other organizational settings. +1 (503) 297-4622 8835 SW Canyon Lane, Portland, OR 97225 http://www.intercultural.org Intercultural Orientation Resources (IOR) Predictive Index (PI), Personality analysis, Voluntary checklist http:/www.iorworld.com Intercultural Perspective Taking instrument Steglitz, 1993 Michigan State University Intercultural Living and Working Inventory Living and Working Overseas Predeparture Questionnaire: Keasley, D.J. (1998). Intended as a Professional development tool to help individuals identify the intercultural skills that needs improvement prior to undertaking an international assignment. The ILWI can also be used in the personnel selection process to help interviewers do a more targeted selection interview by focusing on the areas of weakness and risk identified in the ILWI test results. http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cfsi-icse/cil-cai/ilwi-ici-en.asp The Intercultural Project Module: Acquiring Intercultural Competence. The Interculture Project is a threeyear study (1997-2000), which, within the context of students in higher education in the UK, is looking at periods of residence spent abroad. It aims to map the obstacles which hinder students intercultural competence while there and to define how they might best be prepared and supported. http://www.lancs.ac.uk/users/interculture/mod.htm Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC, Intercultural Business Improvement) The IRC is an ideal tool for assessing participants intercultural skills in the areas of intercultural sensitivity, communication, leadership and management of uncertainty. Clients can fill in the IRC online to prepare for an assignment, a project or training. IRC licensees have full online support and client management tools. Visit our site for more information about the IRC and the next licensing course. http://www.ibinet.nl Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory (ICSI) Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (1992). "The measurement of intercultural sensitivity using the concepts of individualism and collectivism." International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16(4), 413-436. Validated with 46 undergraduate and 93 graduate students. Focuses on sensitivity to individualism versus collectivism differences. Interultural Sensitivity Index Olsen & Kroeger, 2001 Intercultural Sensitivity Survey Towers, K. L. (1991). Intercultural sensitivity survey: Construction and initial validation. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Donna Humphrey Page 84 Page 84 of 95 7/25/2007
University of Iowa. Validated with students. Intercultural Specialists Ranking Table taken from Training for the Multicultural Manager by Pierre Casse; copyright 1982 published by Intercultural Press. Table ranks selfunderstanding, understanding others, interacting with others and general skills. International Assignment Profile.Tel. (713) 539-0669 Internationalism Scale Lutzker, 1960 ITIM: Culture and Management Consultants ITIM has developed a number of tools, which are unique in their precision and accuracy. They are all based on the research results of Hofstede and others, which we have translated and adapted to be of practical assistance in your real life work situation. The research results of Hofstede are used as the framework in which all other information can be neatly analyzed, stored and retrieved. http://www.itim.org/4ab.html Living and Working Overseas Predeparture Questionnaire Kealey, D. J. (1988). Explaining and predicting cross-cultural adjustment and effectiveness: A study of Canadian technical advisors overseas. Hull, Quebec, Canada: Canadian International Development Agency. Developed for the Canadian International Development Agency. Meridian Resources Associates GlobeSmart, Meridian's leading edge, webbased tool that provides detailed knowledge on how to conduct business with people from around the world. http://www.meridianglobal.com/demoregistration.html________________________________________________________________ ___________ Model of Intercultural Communication Competence. Further Testing, Arasaratnam, L.A. Spring 2006, in Communication Resource Reports. 23(2), pg.93-99. A new model of intercultural communication was proposed and empirically tested (Arasaratnam, 2004; Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005). The present study further tested the model and addressed limitations of the previous test. Survey data were collected from 400 participants and analyzed using regression analyses. The results mostly supported the previous model. These results plus some new findings in the relationship between empathy and intercultural communication competence are discussed. Multicultural Counseling Awareness Scale (MCAS) J. G. Ponterotto et al. (1991) Developed for the counseling milieu. Emphasizes beliefs. Multicultural Counseling Inventory (MCI) Sodowsky, G. R., Taffe, R. C., Gutkin, T. B., &Wise, S. L. (1994). New Left Scale Christie, Friedman, and Ross, 1969 Nipporica Associates Use: Models (Communicating Across Difference, Four Phase Model for Leveraging Difference, Diverge/Converge Method of Decision Making), Tools (Common Ground, Group Norms, Assessment and Diagnostic Tools, Cultural Pinwheels), Skills (Paraphrasing, Remaining Objective and Involved, Red Flags, Calling Behavior), and Simulation (Ecotonos, Redundancia, Barnga) to develop their abilities to make decisions and solve problems using the Donna Humphrey Page 85 Page 85 of 95 7/25/2007
expertise and insight of all concerned with the issue at hand. http://www.nipporica.com/services.htm Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI) A self-response questionnaire that examines 14 attitudes and attributes correlated with successful cross-cultural adjustment and performance. Used together with a behavioral interview, the OAI provides essential input to the expatriate selection process and helps expatriates raise their awareness of a number of important adaptation issues. http://www.performanceprograms.com/pdf/oai/PDF Objective Job Quotient System Computer-assisted tool that provides cross culturally appropriate 360-degree feedback to evaluate and rank employee performance. PARTNERS Program Model program in Philadelphia, which builds on the elements of both contact theory and intercultural competence theory. Helps students to engage in positive cross-cultural experiences with same age peers across city-suburban, racial and cultural boundaries. Perceptions of US Scale Marion, 1980 Perceptions of Host Country Scale Marion, 1980 Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) Uhes, M. J., & Shybut, J. (1971). "Personal orientation inventory as a predictor of success in Peace Corps training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55(5), 498-499. Validated with 92 Peace Corps trainees. Personal Cultural Perspective Profile (PCPP) - Ramsey, M. (1994). Use of a Personal Cultural Perspective Profile (PCPP) in developing counselor multicultural competence. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 17(4), 283-290. Developed for the counseling milieu. 14 scales. PCAT: Peterson Cultural Awareness Test PCSI: Peterson Cultural Style Indicator Dr. Brooks Peterson, Owner/President of Across Cultures, Inc. Both of these assessment tools are accessible on-line with a password from Across Cultures, Inc. and are highly reliable and valid instruments for measuring crosscultural effectiveness and awareness of cultural differences (i.e. individualism versus group oriented cultures). These tools are educational and relevant preand post- indicators of intercultural learning before/after training and also promote global business success. Prospector Spreitzer, G. M., McCall, M. W., & Mahoney, J. D. (1997). Early identification of international executive potential. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(1), 6-29. Prudential Intercultural Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI), Selfassessment tool, Behavioral analysis, Long Track Record. +1-800-257-4092 www.oaionline.com www.prudential.com/prm Questions, Comments, Concerns (QCCs) This student tool monitors and evaluates progress for the day or for a current task (www.netc.org/classrooms@work/classrooms/peter/assessing ). Donna Humphrey Page 86 Page 86 of 95 7/25/2007
Radicalism-Conservatism Scale Nettler and Huffman, 1957 SAGE Paula Caligiuri, tel: +732-828-8250, paula@caligiuri.com Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) This survey will provide information concerning the compatibility of a candidates cultural orientations and the expected dominant cultural orientations of the target region or country of the assignment. The SVS profile may also provide information about the different value orientations with a multicultural team and their effects on the teams work. http://www.imo-international.de/englisch/html/svs_info_en.htm School For International Training (SIT) YOGA form A self-assessment tool that aids students in charting their own development. It was developed by Alvino Fantini for SIT graduate students. http://www.sit.edu/news/features/feature_08.html Selection Research Intl (SRI) International Assignment Exercise (IAE), Selfassessment tool, Analysis of situational readiness. +1 (314) 567-6900 www.sri2000.com Social Distance Scale Social Interaction Scale Bogardus, 1928 Sociocultural Checklist Developed as an initial screening tool for educators in American Public schools who are concerned about the learning and behavior of a specific student from a culturally or linguistically diverse background. Success Factors Chart This chart can be a valuable tool in the selection process when evaluating candidates for intercultural assignments. www.highcontext.com/Articles/srp/Chapter5EffectivenessofCr.php Survey of Opinion of International Competencies Designed to elicit opinion from senior persons in selected Canadian private and public sector corporations and institutions. Team Management Systems- TCO International Australia. TMS categories are oriented to the work place and use non-psychological, non-hierarchical categories. They also have a lot of cross-cultural data to support their model. A set of 10 international competencies which describe in a clear professional context what is required by highly effective operators to transfer skills from a domestic to an international context: openness, flexibility, personal autonomy, emotional resilience, perceptiveness, listening, orientation, transparency, cultural knowledge, influencing synergy. http://www.tcointernational.com/competencies.asp Teaching Tolerance bias test and tips. http://www.tolerance.org/hidden_bias/index.html Test of Intercultural Sensitivity (TICS) David E. Weldon, D. E. Carlston, A. K. Rissman, L. Slobodin, Harry C. Triandis (1975) Tucker International www.tuckerintl.com International Candidate Evaluation (ICE). Personality analysis. Optional 360 Donna Humphrey Page 87 Page 87 of 95 7/25/2007
feedback. The OAI (Overseas Assignment Inventory)- a validated assessment that predicts expatriate candidates potential for success if sent on an international assignment. Dr. Michael Tucker is the author of the OAI. Available on-line. The ICE (International Candidate Evaluation) - a validated assessment that takes the expatriate selection process to a higher level by involving the candidates supervisor. Available on-line. The IMA (International Mobility Assessment) - an interactive, on-line, selfassessment tool designed to help employees assess their readiness and mobility for an international assignment. Available on-line. The EED (Evaluation of Expatriate Development) and the SEED (Supervisory Evaluation of Expatriate Development) - A safety net for existing expatriates. The EED and SEED are used to evaluate expatriate adjustment to living and working in the country of assignment. Their results are incorporated into an Expatriate Evaluation and Development Guide, which is given to the expatriate to provide feedback and use as a tool to enhance their ongoing international experience. Windham International Windham International Cultural Model Self-assessment tool Counselor analysis +1 (212) 647-0555 www.windhamworld.com Window on the World Expatriate Profile Inventory (EPS) Self-selection tool; Personality analysis +1 (612) 338-3690 www.windowontheworldinc.com Workstyle Patterns (WSP ) Inventory The McFletcher Corporation. 1999. Worldmindedness Scale Sampson and Smith, 1957
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Appendix C: Additional Reading
Abe, H., & Wiseman, R. L. (1983).
A cross-cultural confirmation of the
dimensions of intercultural effectiveness. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 7, 53-67.
Bourhis, R. Y., MoVse, L. C., Perreault, S., & SenJcal, S. (1997). Towards an interactive acculturation model: A social psychological approach. International Journal of Psychology, 32, 369-386.
Bradford, L., Allen, M., & Beisser, K. (2000). An evaluation and meta-analysis of intercultural communication competence research. World Communication, 29, 28-51.
Bradford, L., Kane, K. A., & Meyers, R. A. (1996, November). Using focus group interviews to investigate Latino expectations of communication competence. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Diego, CA.
Braithwaite, D. O. (1991). Viewing persons with disabilities as a culture. In L. Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (6th ed., pp. 136-142). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Cargile, A. C., & Giles, H. (1996). Intercultural communication training: Review, critique, and a new theoretical framework. In B. Burleson (Ed.), Communication yearbook 19 (pp. 385-423). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1996). Intercultural communication competence: A synthesis. In B. Burleson (Ed.), Communication yearbook 19 (pp. 353-383). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Chen, G. M. & Starosta, W. J. (1997). A review of the concept of intercultural sensitivity. Human Communication, 1, 1-16.
Chen, G., M., & Starosta, W. J. (1998). A review of the concept of intercultural awareness. Human Communication, 2, 27-54.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication, 3, 2-14.
Chen, G. M., & Tan, L. (1995, April). A theory of intercultural sensitivity. A paper presented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Communication Association, Philadelphia.
Coker, D. A., & Burgoon, J. K. (1987). Trait versus state: A comparison of dispositional and situation measures of interpersonal communication
competence. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 47, 364-379.
Collier, M. J. (1988). A comparison of conversations among and between domestic culture groups: How intra- and intercultural competencies vary. Communication Quarterly, 36, 122-144.
Collier, M. J. (1989). Cultural and intercultural communication competence: Current approaches and directions for future research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 287-302.
Collier, M. J. (1996).
Communication competence problematics in ethnic
friendships. Communication Monographs, 63, 314-336.
Collier, M. J., & Thomas, M. (1988). Identity in intercultural communication: An interpretive perspective. In Y. Kim & W. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories of
intercultural communication (pp. 99-120). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Donna Humphrey Page 90 Page 90 of 95 7/25/2007
Cupach, W. R., & Imahori, T. T. (1993).
Identity management theory:
Communication competence in intercultural episodes and relationships. In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 112131). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Dean, O., & Popp, G. E. (1990). Intercultural communication effectiveness as perceived by American managers in Saudi Arabia and French managers in the U.S. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 405-424.
Fantini, Alvino E., Ferando Arias-Galicia, & Daniel Guay. 2001. Globalization and 21st Century Competencies. Working Paper No. 11. Boulder, CO: CONAHEC (Consortium for North American Higher Education Collaboration.
Fantini, Alvino E. Spring 2000. A Central Concern: Developing Intercultural Competence, in SIT Occasional Papers Series. Brattleboro, VT.
<www.sit.edu/publications>
Fox, S. A., & Giles, H. (1993). Accommodating intergenerational contact: A critique and theoretical model. Journal of Aging Studies, 7, 423-451.
Gao, G., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1990). Uncertainty, anxiety, and adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 301-317.
Gudykunst, W. B. (1992). Being perceived as a competent communicator. In W. Gudykunst & Y. Kim (Eds.), Readings on communicating with strangers (pp. 382-392). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gudykunst, W. B. (1993). Toward a theory of effective interpersonal and intergroup communication: An anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM)
perspective. In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 33-71). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Donna Humphrey Page 91 Page 91 of 95 7/25/2007
Gudykunst, W. B. (1995).
Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory:
Current status. In R. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 858). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gudykunst,
W.
B.
(1998).
Bridging
differences:
Effective
intergroup
communication (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Shapiro, R. B. (1996). Communication in everyday interpersonal and intergroup encounters. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 19-46.
Hammer, M. R., Nishida, H., & Wiseman, R. L. (1996). The influence of situational prototype on dimensions of intercultural communication competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 267-282.
Herek, G., M., & Giles, H. (2000, June).
New directions in intercultural
communication competence: The process model. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Acapulco, Mexico.
Hwang, J. C., Chase, L. J., & Arden-Ogle, E. (1985, May). Communication competence across three cultures: In search of similarity. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Honolulu, HI.
Infante, D. A., Rancer, A. S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building communication theory (3rd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Kealey, D. J. (1989). A study of cross-cultural effectiveness: Theoretical issues, practical applications. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 397428.
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Kim, M. S. (1993).
Culture-based interactive constraints in explaining In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.),
intercultural strategic competence.
Intercultural communication competence (pp. 132-152). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kim, Y. (1995). Cross-cultural adaptation: An integrative theory. In R. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 170-193). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kim, Y. (2001). Becoming intercultural. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kowner, R., & Wiseman, R. L. (2000, June). Cultural patterns of status-related behavior: Japanese and American perceptions of behavior in asymmetric dyadic interaction. Paper resented at the annual meeting of the International
Communication Association, Acapulco, Mexico.
Langer, E. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Li, H. Z. (1999). Grounding and information communication in intercultural and intracultural dyadic discourse. Discourse Processes, 28, 195-215.
Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (1999). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.
Lustig, M. W., & Spitzberg, B. H. (1993). Methodological issues in the study of intercultural communication competence. In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 153-167). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and self. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. Donna Humphrey Page 93 Page 93 of 95 7/25/2007
Martin, J. N. (Ed.) (1989).
Special issue: Intercultural communication
competence. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13 (3), 229-428.
Martin, J. N. (1993). Intercultural communication competence: A review. In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 1632). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Martin, J. N., & Hammer, M. R. (1989). Behavioral categories of intercultural communication competence: Everyday communicators perceptions.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 303-332.
Milhouse, V. H. (1993).
The applicability of interpersonal communication
competence to the intercultural communication context. In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 184-203). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Morreale, S. P., Spitzberg, B. H., & Barge, J. K. (2001). Human communication: Motivation, knowledge, and skills. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Neuliep, J. W., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The development of intercultural and interethnic communication apprehension scales. Reports, 14, 385-398. Communication Research
Nishida, H., Hammer, M. R., & Wiseman, R. L. (1998). Cognitive differences between Japanese and Americans in their perceptions of difficult social situations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29, 499-524.
Spitzberg, B. H. (2000). A model of intercultural communication competence. In L. Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (9th ed., pp. 375-387). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Donna Humphrey Page 94 Page 94 of 95 7/25/2007
Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1989). competence research. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Handbook of interpersonal
Ting-Toomey, S., & Kurogi, A. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face-negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 187-226.
Wiseman, R. L., & Koester, J. (Eds.) (1993). Intercultural communication competence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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Intercultural Communication Competence: The State of Knowledge Report prepared for CILT The National Centre for Languages

Part One Intercultural Research: The current state of knowledge

Overview of Current Approaches to IC Research

i 'A culture' has a 'I

a 'There was something different of the

significant. countries I visited.' is with

people can visit. It Morocco is homogeneous in Tunisia.' that perceived

larger continental, culture', religious, ethnic or 'Japanese

period of time, and can be

evident culture of sport than schools in Japan:

is 'When into from

can 'There is more of a

are Egypt cannot ... another,

and have blurred boundaries.

vii People belong 'No matter how viii

and when I travel abroad to a places where that is meaningful.

and one language.

culture', culture originally

'Which multiplicity do you cultures

of both A sense of Iranian

from?' 'One can societies. never totally learn a second culture.'

A culture behaves German like minded with a a

specific, culture there is no multiplicity concept of XYZ', cultural forms.

In People's behaviour culture, is defined and XYZ',

Chinese people 'She to

conferences, and email

constrained by the belongs culture they live. in which Norwegian

culture, therefore she XYZ'

my perceptions of and participation in British society, and vice

or Swedish business anyone

culture unfamiliar, have understand

stereotype of their xyz.' culture.

Additional Reading Introduction to Culture and Intercultural Communication

Singer, M. (1968). The concept of culture. In International encyclopedia of the

Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Books.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications.

communication: A reader (7th ed.) (pp. 4-26). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Part Two Interpersonal Communication in an Intercultural Setting

Spitzbergs notion of communicative competence

pp. 375-387). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Rubens seven dimensions of communication

Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

The Council of Europe

Individual Intercultural Competence

Elements Related to Intercultural Communication Competence

competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

ability to establish fruitful and supportive relationships

ability and readiness to accept third culture perspectives

respect towards values and behaviours of the other culture

ability to recognise the needs and wishes of the other

flexibility and adaptability

Part Three Intercultural Communication Competence Standards and Criteria

Intercultural Competence Assessment

For detailed information on the INCA competence tool go to websites:

http://www.incaproject.org/index.htm INCA On-line (http://www.incaproject.org/incaonline/)

Intercultural competence for professional mobility (ICOPROMO)

The international Profiler (TIP)

Description of International Competencies

For detailed information on the competencies go to website http://www.worldwork.biz/legacy/www/docs2/competencies.phtml

The Intercultural Competence Framework

For further more detailed information on the competencies go to website http://www.ibinet.nl/cat.htm#top

Process Communication Model (PCM)