SPECIAL RELATIVITY

A View of Einsteins Theory of Special Relativity Evan Dagg Professor Christian Hollmann PH 244 - H01: Physics II Confederation College Thursday, March 22, 2012

SPECIAL RELATIVITY Abstract

This paper explores the concepts underlying Albert Einsteins theory of special relativity and the significance to modern physics. In addition to considering basic precepts beneath our current understanding of relativistic effects, there is also a brief look into practical experimental proof of Einsteins theory.

SPECIAL RELATIVITY Table of Contents Abstract Introduction Basic Precepts Reference Frames Relativistic Effects Length Mass Time Lorentz Factor Experimental Proof KaufmannBuchererNeumann Theoretical Significance References Appendix

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SPECIAL RELATIVITY A View of Einsteins Theory of Special Relativity Albert Einstein (Fig.1) was a theoretical physicist born in Ulm, Wrttemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. Later on in 1905 Einstein produced four groundbreaking papers, one of which was his theory of special relativity and it brought him to the forefront of academic acclaim. Special relativity challenges the traditional assumptions of Newtonian/Classical mechanics and rectifies the divide between the behavior of classical objects and the physics of electromagnetic energy. Basic Precepts In order to understand relativity, one must accept two postulated assumptions about the laws of the universe. According to Einstein, the first is that The laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not affected, whether these changes of state be referred to

the one or the other of two systems of co-ordinates in uniform translatory motion. (1905, 2), or in other words: every physical law applies identically in any and all inertial frames of reference. The other precept of special relativity is that The speed of light in a vacuum has the same value in all inertial systems (Buffa, A., & Lou, B., Wilson, J., 2010) or rather to say that the velocity of light in empty space is constant regardless of the motions of either its source or observer. Reference Frames A reference frame is akin to a point of view. Every object and point in space has its own frame of reference, or in other words its own perspective (Fig.2). In special relativity there is no such thing as an absolute frame of reference, that is to say no impartial observer: Each and every position experiences events relative to their own frame of reference rather than absolutely as if outside the system of events. According to Einstein that meant there is no luminiferous ether or similar material through which light must propagate (1905).

SPECIAL RELATIVITY Relativistic Effects

There are many pronounced effects of relativity, some of which appear unusual or bizarre but are in fact easily explained. Practically unnoticeable at everyday velocities, these effects become emphasized and observable only as the speed of light is approached. Length. (Fig.3) Perhaps the relativistic effect that appears most alien to common ways of thinking is that as an object approaches the speed of light, it becomes measured as progressively shorter. Since the perception of an object moving parallel to the observer(s) is altered by the relative velocities of the object as well as the observers, one must conclude that an observer with identical speed and direction to the object in question would perceive it at its proper and full length. This is quantified by the equation: L = L/ where L is the perceived length, L is the original length of the object, and is the expression of relativistic velocity (Buffa, A., 2010). Mass. (Fig.4) Another aspect of near-lightspeed velocities is the apparent increase in observable mass. As an objects speed approaches that of light it requires exponentially increasing amounts of energy to accelerate. Eventually the object would achieve infinite kinetic energy, since velocity would be constant at the speed of light this would mean that mass must become infinite. A linked concept is that mass is in fact a form of energy (Einstein, 1905). As mass and velocity are essential in both kinetic energy as well as momentum; and just the same as that kinetic energy is equal to the square of the momentum divided by twice the mass of the object in question; as such momentum and energy are linked so both are affected by relativistic principles. Such relativistic momentum is represented by the formula p = mv (Taylor, E., 1992).

SPECIAL RELATIVITY Time. (Fig.5) Time, like other forms of measurement is likewise perceptibly modified by relativistic frames of reference with regards to near-light velocities. Objects approaching the speed of light experience time dilation: In other words, to an inertial observer it appears that time acts slower upon a moving object (Einstein, 1905). A hypothetical clock moving at 99% the speed of light would appear to tick only once every ~7 seconds. The reason for this is since the distance necessary for light to make a round trip from one object moving in relation to another and back again will increase in distance taken as their velocities differ. The speed of light in a vacuum is

taken as a constant, and because speed is the ratio of distance over time as the distance increases, time must also likewise increase in order for speed to remain the same. Lorentz Factor (Fig.6) The Lorentz factor is a mathematical expression originally written by Hendrik Lorentz, the Dutch physicist. This expression is the foundation of much of special relativity, and is the major link between Einsteins theory and the concepts of: time dilation, dimensional contraction, and is the base of mass-energy equivalence as well as the corrections made to classical mechanics regarding momentum and kinetic energy (Lorentz, 1904). The Lorentz factor is generally represented by the Greek symbol gamma, , and the formula is commonly written as:

*Where v is the relative velocity between the two frames. Without the Lorentz factor, its likely special relativity would not be so elegantly described, if at all. This factor is the link between velocity, the speed of light, and its effects.

SPECIAL RELATIVITY Experimental Proof (Fig.7)

Numerous experimental proofs have arisen in the wake of the theory of special relativity. Yet even now, over a century later there is still debate over it. Currently there is an experiment under way dealing with proposed Higgs-Boson particles in order to confirm Einsteins theory. While there are still critics, Albert Einstein himself put it best: If I were wrong, it would only have taken one [critic] (1931). Since the first sets of confirmation were produced, the special theory of relativity has been accepted as a whole by the scientific community. KaufmannBuchererNeumann. From 1901-1915 a series of cathode ray experiments were conducted, many of which primarily for their proof of special relativity. Electrons emitted by radioactive materials have high velocities, very close to the speed of light. The mass of an electron can be derived from the amount of deviation its path experiences passing through a magnetic field. The experiments were accordance to Einstein's prediction; the electrons' masses increased practically exactly as stated by his equation (Neumann, 1914). It is important to note that early cathode ray experiments left room for ambiguity, but over time as technology improved so the results clearly lined up with Einsteins predictions. Theoretical Significance Special relativity changed human understanding of the cosmos at its fundamental level. Now the universe is understood to have no absolute time, space, size, orientation, or even speed; Mass is energy, and what seems simultaneous to one observer, may not have even happened yet to another and may even be perceived in a different order. The concept of a luminiferous aether is long abandoned. All the laws of physics now apply to all situations, and humanity is one step closer to a grand theory of everything. Yet, the universe will never seem the same again.

SPECIAL RELATIVITY References Buffa, A., & Lou, B., Wilson, J., (2010), College Physics, Boston: Addison Wesley co, 8th edition, ISBN-13: 978-0321592705 Lorentz, H., (1904), "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam 6: 809831 Neumann, G., (1914). "Die trge Masse schnell bewegter Elektronen". Annalen der Physik 350 (20): 529579. Taylor, E., Wheeler, J., (1992), Spacetime Physics, second edition, New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, pp. 248249

SPECIAL RELATIVITY Appendix

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