Quaternary Research 58, 122129 (2002) doi:10.1006/qres.2002.

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Late Holocene Vegetation Change in the Sierra Madre Oriental of Central Mexico
Maria Elena Conserva1 and Roger Byrne
Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-4740 Received November 29, 2000; published online August 22, 2002

Past vegetation and climate changes reconstructed from a sediment core from Laguna Atezca, Molango, Mexico, provide new insights into the environmental and cultural histories of the Sierra Madre Oriental during the last 1700 yr. Pollen, microscopic charcoal, sediment chemistry, loss on ignition, and magnetic susceptibility indicate that three phases of human occupation, deforestation, and erosion (ca. A.D. 280890, ca. A.D. 10301420, and ca. A.D. 1680present) alternate with two phases of abandonment (ca. A.D. 8901030 and ca. A.D. 14201680). Forest composition of the two abandonment phases differed, with cloud forest taxa (Liquidambar, Ostrya/Carpinus, Ulmus, etc.) dominating the pollen record during the rst phase, and Quercus and Pinus pollen characterizing phase two. These differences may reect a climate change in which the second phase was drier than the rst; Alternatively, the increase in Pinus and Quercus may have been caused by a human-induced decline in soil fertility. The Laguna Atezca record also differs from several other Mesoamerican paleoenvironmental records in that it shows no evidence of drought at the end of the Classic Period, ca. A.D. 900. 2002 University of Washington. Key Words: Mesoamerica; Hidalgo; paleoecology; pollen analysis; late Holocene.
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INTRODUCTION

Recent studies suggest that climate change may have been an important factor in Mesoamerican prehistory (OHara et al., 1994; Hodell et al., 1995; Curtis et al., 1996). However, most of the paleoenvironmental evidence has come from lakes in lowland Mesoamerica (e.g., Laguna Chichancanab and Punta Laguna), whereas the climate history of the highlands is less understood. Most of the paleoenvironmental research in highland Mesoamerica has focused on major cultural centers, such as the Valley of Mexico and the P tzcuaro Basin, where human distura bance after 1500 B.C. tends to mask evidence of climate change (Watts and Bradbury, 1982; Gonz lez Quintero, 1986; Metcalfe a et al., 1991; Lozano Garca et al., 1993; Lozano Garca and Ortega Guerrero, 1998). Other studies remain undated or lack reliable chronologies (Brown, 1984; Straka and Ohngemach, 1989). A problem facing palynologists has been the dominance
1 To whom correspondence should be addressed. Fax: (510) 642-3370. E-mail: marlen@socrates.berkeley.edu.

of Pinus (pine) and Quercus (oak), because both genera include ecologically different species that cannot be distinguished in the fossil record (Lozano Garca and Xelhauntzi Lopez, 1997). Consequently, no consensus exists as to the nature of late Holocene climate change in highland Mexico. Metcalfe et al. (1994) interpreted a pulse in the Sr/Ca record from Lago de P tzcuaro as indicating a dry phase between 1200 and 1100 14 C a yr B.P. At the same site, Bridgwater et al. (1999) found evidence of a moist period between 1330 and 1120 14 C yr B.P. in the oxygen (18 O/16 O) and carbon (13 C/12 C) stable isotope records. At La Piscina de Yuriria, a hiatus in the diatom record and the presence of dewatered sediments indicate a desiccation sometime between 1400 and 900 14 C yr B.P. (Metcalfe et al., 1994; OHara et al., 1994). We present a 1700-yr record of environmental change from Laguna Atezca in the Sierra Madre Oriental of east-central Mexico. A multiproxy approach was used to infer past vegetation and climate change, including analysis of pollen, microscopic charcoal, sediment chemistry, organic content, and magnetic susceptibility. Four conventional radiocarbon dates provide chronological control. The site is of interest palynologically because it is located in a species-rich cloud forest, in which many of the dominant taxa are visible in the pollen record. The Atezca core also provides a means of testing the hypothesis that drought at the end of the Classic Period led to a southward retreat of the northern frontier of Mesoamerica (Armillas, 1969). Laguna Atezca is located approximately 100 km to the east of the A.D. 1500 frontier of Mesoamerica.
STUDY AREA

Laguna Atezca (20 48 22 N, 98 44 46 W; Fig. 1) is located near Molango, Hidalgo, at an elevation of 1500 m in the Sierra Madre Oriental. Its surface area is 2 km2 . Local topography and nearby stratigraphic exposures indicate that the lake was formed when a massive landslide dammed local streams. A radiocarbon date from the base of an 8.9-m core indicates that the landslide occurred shortly before ca. A.D. 280. Laguna Atezca is fed by ve intermittent streams and has a small outlet on the western side. The lake level has been raised ca. 1 m by a small dam. The settlement history of the Molango area is poorly understood. The town is scarcely mentioned in historical literature,
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0033-5894/02 $35.00 Copyright C 2002 by the University of Washington. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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FIG. 1.

Map of central Mexico including the study site, Laguna Azteca, after Armillas (1969) and Brown (1984).

and no archaeological work has been done in the local area. In late prehistoric times the region apparently was a transitional zone between the Huasteca to the north and east and the Aztec Empire to the south. In the A.D. 1579 Metztitl n Relaci n, the a o Molango area is described as cool and foggy with rivers full of sh and land yielding much fruit, corn and other grains, beans, and cotton (Acu a, 1986). n The local topography is deeply dissected by the Rio Claro and its tributaries. Tertiary basalt, the Atotonilco el Grande y Tarango formation, is exposed around the lake, and the hills to the east are underlain by intrusive volcanics of late Tertiary age (INEGI, 1992). The present climate is strongly seasonal. Precipitation is greatest between May and November, when the Bermuda High moves northward and the Trade Winds blow across the Sierra Madre Oriental. Orographic lifting and exposure to the elevated heat source of the central Mexican plateau trigger instability in upper air currents and produce rainfall (Mosi o Alem n and Garca, n a 1974). Mean annual precipitation is approximately 2000 mm with 80% coming in the summer months (Puig, 1991). The rainy season is interrupted by a midsummer drought, the cancula, caused by changes in the intensity and position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) (Maga a et al., 1999). n The dry season occurs during the winter as the Trades shift southward, and northern Mexico is subject to the Westerlies. Occasional winter rains are brought by the invasion of continental polar air masses into the Gulf region. These air masses, named nortes, gather moisture as they pass over the Gulf of Mexico and produce frequent precipitation and fog from December to February (Cavazos and Hastenrath, 1990). Additional winter moisture is delivered to the windward slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental by maritime tropical air masses. A cloud layer, formed between 1300 and 2400 m, creates

a zone of increased soil moisture, as water condenses on vegetation and drips to the ground. High atmospheric humidity and the deection of sunlight reduce evapotranspiration rates. This horizontal precipitation is not recorded by rainfall gauges and therefore is not included in precipitation statistics (Stadtm ller, u 1987). Vogelmann (1973) measured horizontal precipitation in a cloud forest ca. 200 km southwest of Laguna Atezca. He found that cloud formation increased soil water collection during the dry season by an average of 75%. Mean annual temperature at Laguna Atezca is approximately 18 C. Mean temperature in January is 10 C and 15 C in July (Mosi o Alem n and Garca, 1974). Winter minima, which n a range between 1 C and 5 C, give the Laguna Atezca area a few freezing days per year (Rzedowski, 1981).
MODERN VEGETATION

The present vegetation of the study area is a complex mosaic of tropical and temperate, evergreen and deciduous forest, the relative importance of which varies depending on soil, elevation, aspect, slope, and distance from the Gulf of Mexico. The dominant vegetation is cloud forest (Leopold, 1950; Miranda and Sharp, 1950), also known as bosque caducifolio h medo de monta a u n (Puig, 1991), or bosque mes lo de monta a (Rzedowski, 1981). o n Below ca. 1300 m, cloud forest grades into tropical evergreen forest as the coastal plain is approached. Above 2000 m, cloud forest gives way to Pinus/Quercus (pine/oak) forest on the central Mexican plateau (Fig. 2). Today much of the study area is used for small-scale livestock raising and rain-fed agriculture. Woodland remnants of the natural vegetation are conned to upland areas and streamsides. Cloud forest occupies 0.5% of the Mexican land surface but contains 10% of the plant species, making it the most diverse

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FIG. 2. Vegetation prole through the area near Laguna Atezca, following a 170-m-long transect (AA1 ) from the Gulf of Mexico to the Valle de Metztitl n, a after INEGI (1992) and Puig (1991); symbols after Martin (1958).

vegetation type per unit area within the country. The cloud forests of Mexico are dominated by temperate hardwoods and oak/pine complexes. Beneath the canopy layer, however, many tropical species and an extraordinary diversity of epiphytes and pteridophytes occur (Hietz and Heitz-Seifert, 1995). Miranda and Sharp (1950) recognized three cloud forest communities in the Molango area: mixed Quercus forest, Fagus (beech) forest, and Weinmannia pinnata forest. The mixed Quercus forest is characterized by temperate hardwoods, a luxuriant understory, and a canopy layer of bromeliads, orchids, and epiphytes. Quercus spp., Liquidambar styraciua, Symplocos jurgensenii, Prunus samydoides, Phoebe spp., Herbedenia penduliora, Gaultheria hirtiora, and Xolisma ferruginea are the most common taxa. The Fagus forest, consisting primarily of Fagus mexicana, occurs on steep slopes with northern exposures at altitudes of greater than 1800 m. The understory is dominated by Magnolia schiedeana, Weinmannia pinnata, Clethra spp., Quercus spp., Eugenia capuli, Turpinia pinnata, Sambucus mexicana, Quercus trinitatis, Microtropis schiedeana, Peperomia tenerrima, Deppea umbellata, Cleyera serrulata, and Tillandsia strobilifera. Several almost pure stands of Weinmannia pinnata are found in foggy areas at ca. 1800 m elevation.
METHODS

In 1998, two cores (6 and 8.9 m long) were recovered from the central area of the lake with a ve-cm-diameter Livingstone corer equipped with butyrate liners. Water depth was 11.5 m and 14.5 m, respectively. The sedimentwater interface was captured with plastic tubes tted with a piston. All subsequent analyses were performed on the long (8.9-m) core for which the recovery was greater than 90% for each core section except meters ve and seven, which were both 87%.

Prior to extrusion from the liners the core sections were scanned with a Bartington Magnetic Sensor MS2C at 1-cm intervals to assess magnetic susceptibility. The sections were then extruded and sampled at 1025 cm intervals for pollen analysis, loss-on-ignition (LOI), microscopic charcoal analysis, and trace element analysis. Pollen was extracted using standard procedures (Faegri and Iversen, 1989). Pollen counts were made on a Leitz Laborlux microscope with a 40 Planapochromat objective and a total magnication of 400. Pollen was identied with the aid of University of California Museum of Paleontology (UCMP) pollen reference collection and published keys (McAndrews et al., 1973; Lozano Garca, 1979; Roubik and Moreno, 1991). A minimum of 400 pollen grains and fern spores was counted for 35 samples (Conserva, 2000). Due to low pollen concentrations, a minimum of 300 pollen grains was counted on an additional 10 levels and 250 grains for four other samples. Pollen diagrams were created with CALPALYN. Zea mays was differentiated from other Poaceae pollen by size. The grains counted ranged from 58 to 123 m in diameter with a mean of 80 m. Grains smaller than 80 m may be teosinte (Zea mays ssp. mexicana) rather than maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) (Iltis and Doebley, 1984; Ludlow-Wiechers et al., 1983). There is no botanical evidence of teosinte in this region (Rzedowski, 1981; Puig, 1991), but it has been reported from archaeological sites in Tamaulipas, 250 km north of Laguna Atezca (Mangelsdorf et al., 1967). Microscopic charcoal analysis was performed with an automated scanner developed in the UCMP lab (Horn et al., 1992), which recognizes charcoal fragments by optical density relative to a dened grayscale threshold. Forty-four levels were scanned at 100 on slides which had also been used for pollen analysis. Seven size classes between 100 m2 and 10,000 m2 were

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recognized. Elemental composition was determined for thirty samples on a Spectrace 440 energy dispersive x-ray uorescence (XRF) system.
RESULTS

Chronology and Stratigraphy Four radiocarbon dates of bulk sediment (Table 1) were calibrated using CALIB 4.3 and following Stuiver et al., 1998 ages are presented in librated A.D. format. The basal date indicates that the core represents the last 1700 yr. Undated zone boundaries were assigned ages using a polynomial t to calibrated radiocarbon dates (Fig. 3). Approximate sedimentation rate is 0.34 cm/yr (zone 5), 0.46 cm/yr (zone 4), 0.67 cm/yr (zone 3), and 0.55 cm/yr (zones 1 and 2). The core is intermittently laminated with alternating bands of silt and clay. Individual lamina vary in thickness from ca. 1 2 mm to >10 cm. After extrusion and exposure to the atmosphere, the silty laminations range from dark grayish brown to dark brown (10 YR 3/2, 10 YR 4/2 on the Munsell chart). Clay bands are yellow brown (10YR 5/4 and 10YR 6/4). Pollen, Charcoal, LOI, and Magnetics The cloud forest pollen group (Fig. 4) includes Liquidambar, Celtis, Ulmus, Ostrya/Carpinus, Nyssa, Carya, Tilia, Juglans, and Corylus. The tropical group includes Urticales pollen other than Ulmus and Urticaceae. The diagrams are divided subjectively into ve zones based on the presence of agricultural indicators, especially Zea mays (corn), and on the changing distribution of arboreal taxa. Zone 5: ca. A.D. 280 to ca. A.D. 890 (8.626.52 m). The dominant pollen type is Alnus (alder; 2040%). Quercus, highspine Compositae, and Cyperaceae pollen percentages are also moderately high. Pollen of Pinus and the cloud forest group are consistently present at low values. Zea mays (12%) occurs in the lower portion of the zone. Charcoal and magnetic susceptibility increase dramatically from the middle to the upper portion of the zone. Organic concentration is generally low.

FIG. 3. Age versus depth curve for Laguna Atezca sediment core. The curve represents a best t polynomial to 14 C dates that have been calibrated to yr A.D. (Stuiver et al., 1998). Error bars indicate 1 sigma age range.

Zone 4: ca. A.D. 890 to ca. A.D. 1030 (6.515.88 m). Pollen of the cloud forest group and Quercus dominate. The former rises dramatically from 23% to 3540% at the 5/4 zone boundary. Quercus pollen reaches maximum value for the core. Alnus percentages decrease sharply from zone 5. Poaceae (grass), highspine Compositae, and Cyperaceae percentages are also lower as compared to zone 5. Zea mays is absent. Charcoal concentrations decrease from more than 100,000 mm2 /cm3 just before the 5/4 boundary to less than 20,000 mm2 /cm3 just after. Magnetic susceptibility decreases by 50% from levels in the upper half of zone 5. Zone 3: ca. A.D. 1030 to ca. A.D. 1420 (5.873.26 m). Highspine Compositae pollen (averaging 35%) replaces the cloud forest group and Quercus as the dominant taxa. Cyperaceae and Poaceae pollen percentages increases, and Alnus pollen remains low. Zea mays pollen reappears and attains its highest values (2 4%). Charcoal and magnetic susceptibility increase signicantly in the upper two thirds of the zone. Zone 2: ca. A.D. 1420 to ca. A.D. 1680 (3.251.60 m). Arboreal pollen, especially Alnus, regains importance. Alnus percentages rise steeply at the zone 3/2 boundary and progressively decrease toward the top. Pollen percentages of Quercus, Pinus, and the cloud forest group generally increase in the upper half of the zone. Poaceae, high-spine Compositae, and Cyperaceae values are low compared to the previous zone. Zea mays is present in two levels at the center of the zone. Charcoal concentration decreases sharply and maintains low values in the upper half of zone 2. Magnetic susceptibility levels decline on average, while organic concentration increases slightly. Zone 1: ca. A.D. 1680 to A.D. 2000 (1.590.00 m). Pinus is the dominant pollen type, averaging 2530%. Zea mays is relatively abundant (12%), and there is a steady increase in high-spine Compositae and Poaceae pollen. Charcoal concentration remains low, and organic concentration decreases slightly.

TABLE 1 Radiocarbon Dates from the Laguna Atezca Sediment Core

Radiocarbon age (14 C yr B.P.) 510 80 980 80 1150 70 1720 70 Calibrated agea (cal yr B.P.) 530 920 1060 16901680, 1610 Age range 1 sigma (cal yr B.P.) 620510 960790 1170970 17101540

Depth (m) 3.183.35 5.805.95 6.456.60 8.608.65

Lab no. Beta-141624 Beta-141625 Beta-141626 Beta-122600

a Radiocarbon dates and calibrated ages were calculated using the Calib 4.3 program (Stuvier et al., 1998).

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FIG. 4. Laguna Atezca selected pollen percentage diagram. The dotted lines represent sampling levels. The cloud forest group includes Liquidambar, Celtis, Ulmus, Ostrya/Carpinus, Nyssa, Carya, Tilia, Juglans, and Corylus. The tropical group includes Urticales pollen other than Ulmus and Urticaceae. Pollen percentages are based on a sum including all types except Cyperaceae and Isoetes.

Chemistry Although 36 elements were detected in the XRF analysis (Fig. 5), most of them show little variation with depth. SiO2 and Fe2 O3 values are out of phase with one another. SiO2 concen-

tration varies from 50 to 65% in zones 4 and 5. In zone 3, average concentration increases to 65%. Concentration decreases in zones 1 and 2 to 55% on average. Fe2 O3 concentration shows an inverse trend, with values being lower in zones 3 and 5 (averaging 810%) and higher in zones 1, 2, and 4 (averaging 1214%).

FIG. 5.

Selected geochemical indices from Laguna Atezca.

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DISCUSSION

The Laguna Atezca record provides clear evidence of human disturbance. Three phases of human occupation, deforestation, and erosion alternate with two phases of abandonment. Possible changes in climate are also indicated by the differing composition of the regrowth during the times of abandonment. Pollen zone 5 (ca. A.D. 280 to ca. A.D. 890) coincides with the Classic Period of Mesoamerican prehistory and contains evidence of agriculture and forest clearance. Zea mays pollen at the base of the core (ca. A.D. 280) indicates that the area was occupied soon after the landslide event. However, it is possible that agriculturalists were living in the area for several thousand years before the landslide because Zea mays samples from the Ocampo Caves of southwestern Tamaulipas, only 250 km to the north, have been dated to ca. 2500 B.C. (Smith, 1997). Zea mays was widespread in the highlands of Mexico by 1500 B.C. (Brown, 1985). Other indicators of human disturbance in zone 5 include high percentages of Poaceae and high-spine Compositae pollen, suggesting forest clearance (Vaughan, 1979; Rzedowski, 1981; Hansen, 1990). High microscopic charcoal concentrations imply frequent burning (Patterson et al., 1987), most likely a result of slash- and-burn agriculture. Charcoal concentrations are higher in the upper half of the zone, possibly reecting an increase in the area cultivated. High magnetic susceptibility values may reect increased soil erosion in the lake catchment (Thompson and Oldeld, 1986). The arboreal record is dominated by Alnus, a pollen type that cannot be identied to the species level in Mexico (Lozano Garca et al., 1995). Alnus jorullensis ssp. jorullen sis and/or Alnus acuminata ssp. arguta are the likely species represented by the pollen (Miranda and Sharp, 1950; Puig, 1991). Alnus jorullensis ssp. jorullensis is an important successional species on abandoned elds and in other disturbed habitats and may persist as an understory tree in forests dominated by Liquidambar, Pinus, or Quercus. Alnus acuminata ssp. arguta forms dense stands on poorly drained soils along river courses, but it is not important on well-drained sites. Alnus pollen percentages at the base of the core perhaps reect recent colonization of the landslide area adjacent to the lake by Alnus jorullensis ssp. jorullensis. Peaks in Zea mays pollen that coincide with decreases in Alnus pollen possibly indicate that nearby thickets of Alnus acuminata ssp. arguta were cleared for cultivation. Zone 4 (ca. A.D. 890 to ca. A.D. 1030) roughly corresponds to the Early Postclassic Period. Alnus pollen declines abruptly, whereas pollen percentages of Quercus, Pinus, and the cloud forest group all increase. The absence of Zea mays pollen and the marked reduction in microscopic charcoal both indicate that there was little if any agricultural activity during this period. A cool and/or humid climate is suggested by the dominance of the cloud forest pollen types and by the virtual absence of Cyperaceae pollen, the latter perhaps indicating persistently high lake levels. However, the Alnus pollen decline also could be the result

of succession following agricultural abandonment. Similar patterns of old eld succession have been documented in the eastern United States, where the Appalachian ora has been compared to the cloud forests of the Sierra Madre Oriental (Oosting, 1942). The importance of the cloud forest group in zone 4 suggests that climatic conditions were at least as humid as at present and perhaps even wetter. If this interpretation is correct, the implication is that abandonment of the area at the end of the Classic Period was not the result of drought. We might also note that it was during the Early Postclassic that Tula, located 100 km to the southwest of Molango, reached its peak population (Cobean and Mastache, 1989). Pollen zone 3 (ca. A.D. 1030 to ca. A.D. 1420) is roughly equivalent to the later part of the Early Postclassic and the Late Postclassic periods, the time of maximum human impact in the area around the lake. Forest clearance is evident in the abrupt decline in the cloud forest group and by the relatively low percentages of Quercus and Pinus pollen. Percentages of the last two taxa perhaps partially reect long-distance pollen transportation from upland areas to the south of the lake. Intensive farming is indicated by peaks of all disturbance indicators: Zea mays, Poaceae and high-spine Compositae pollen, microscopic charcoal, magnetic susceptibility, and sedimentation rate. Both Poaceae and high-spine Compositae pollen increase toward the end of zone 3, possibly because of an increase in cultivation. Consistently low Alnus percentages are also an indication of intensive, short-fallow agriculture. The Molango area has not yet been explored archaeologically and the cultural identity of the people who lived in the area during zone 3 is not known. On the basis of the 16th century historical evidence, a mixed population of Nahautl and Otom speakers likely lived in the region (Gerhard, 1993). At the time of Spanish contact in 1519, Molango was part of the Se orio of n Metztitl n, a political unit independent of the Aztec Empire. a The period represented by pollen zone 2 (ca. A.D. 1420 to ca. A.D. 1680) approximates the late Postclassic and early Spanish colonial period. The 14 C age estimate of A.D. 1330 to 1440 at the zone 3/2 boundary is based on a bulk sediment sample that was low in carbon and may have produced a date that is too old. Zone 2 is clearly a period of population decline and reduced agricultural activity. The frequencies of Zea mays pollen and of associated disturbance taxa, such as high-spine Compositae and Poaceae, are low as is the concentration of microscopic charcoal. Conversely, Alnus pollen increases in importance followed by pollen from Quercus, Pinus, and the cloud forest types. The sequence most likely represents old eld succession in areas no longer cultivated. Seasonally dry woodland ecosystems have a recovery time of 50200 yr following disturbance and secondary succession (Clark et al., 1989). Unlike zone 4, Pinus and Quercus have high pollen percentages and are more important than the cloud forest group in the later stages of the sequence. The reduced importance of the cloud forest pollen could indicate either a shift to relatively drier climate or the result of intensive agricultural activity in zone 3. Soil erosion and nutrient depletion

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would give Quercus and Pinus an advantage over the cloud forest taxa. The reduced agricultural activity in the area during zone 2 was undoubtedly a result of the dramatic decline in native populations in the century following the conquest (Borah and Cook, 1963; Crosby, 1972). According to Gerhard (1993), the population of the Metztitl n area, which included Molango, dropped a by nearly 90% between A.D. 1560 and A.D. 1688. The decline was due to warfare, forced labor, and, most important, the spread of Old World diseases. Pollen zone 1 (ca. A.D. 1680 to the present) is approximately equivalent to the late colonial and postcolonial periods. In the Molango area, as in most of Mexico, this has been a time of gradual population recovery. Renewed agricultural activity is indicated in zone 1 by increases in Zea mays, Poaceae, and highspine Compositae pollen. However, charcoal concentrations are low, perhaps reecting the abandonment of traditional slash-andburn agriculture and the adoption of European farming practices. The charcoal trend may also be partially due to the introduction of livestock and the subsequent reduction in burnable vegetation both in abandoned elds and the forest understory. The dominance of Pinus pollen in zone 1 contrasts sharply with the earlier periods of agricultural activity (zones 3 and 5). High Pinus levels perhaps indicate a progressive deterioration of soil fertility. This trend could also be due to local forest clearance and a consequent increase in the relative importance of long distance pollen dispersal. The pollen percentages of Alnus, Quercus, and the cloud forest group are all relatively low in zone 1.
CONCLUSION

the native population in the century following the arrival of the Spanish led to a dramatic reduction in cultivated area and the subsequent expansion of forests. These forests were dominated by Pinus and Quercus, unlike the cloud forest of the early Postclassic Period.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was partially supported by grants from Sigma Xi and the Stahl Archaeological Foundation. We thank David Wahl, Liam Reidy, Peter Schweikhardt, and James Johnstone for their assistance in the eld. David Wahl helped compile the data, Robert Dull assisted with pollen identication, and Peter Schweikhardt performed the magnetic susceptibility analysis. We also thank John Jones and an anonymous reviewer for their critical feedback on the manuscript.

REFERENCES
Acu a, R. (1986). Relaciones Geogr cas del Siglo XVI: M xico. Vol. 7. n a e Universidad Nacional Aut noma de M xico, Mexico City. [In Spanish] o e Armillas, P. (1969). The arid frontier of Mexican civilization. Transactions of New York Academy of Sciences 31, 697705. Borah, W., and Cook, S. F. (1963). The aboriginal population of central Mexico on the eve of Spanish conquest. Ibero-Americana 45. Bridgwater, N. D., Heaton, T. H. E., and OHara, S. L. (1999). A late Holocene palaeolimnological record from central Mexico, based on faunal and stableisotope analysis of ostracod shells. Journal of Paleolimnology 22, 383 397. Brown, R. B. (1984). Paleoecology of the Northern Frontier of Mesoamerica. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson. Brown, R. B. (1985). A summary of Late Quaternary pollen records from Mexico west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. In Pollen Records of the Late Quaternary in North American Sediments (V. M. Bryant and R. G. Holloway, Eds.), pp. 7293. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas. Cavazos, T., and Hastenrath, S. (1990). Convection and rainfall over Mexico and their modulation by the Southern Oscillation. International Journal of Climatology 10, 377386. Clark, J. S., Merkt, J., and M ller, H. (1989). Post-glacial re, vegetation, and huu man history on the northern alpine forelands, south-western Germany. Journal of Ecology 77, 897925. Cobean, R. H., and Mastache, A. G. (1989). The late Classic and early Postclassic chronology of the Tula region. In Tula of the Toltecs (D. M. Healan, Ed.), pp. 3448. Univ. of Iowa Press, Iowa City. Conserva, M. E. (2000). A Paleoecological Record from Laguna Atezca, Hidalgo on the Northern Frontier of Mesoamerica. Unpublished MA thesis, Univ. of California, Berkeley. Crosby, A. W. (1972). The Colombian Exchange. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. Curtis, J. H., Hodell, D. A., and Brenner, M. (1996). Climate variability on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) during the past 3500 years, and implications for Maya cultural evolution. Quaternary Research 46, 3747. Faegri, K., and Iversen, J. (1989). Textbook of Pollen Analysis. Blackwell Sci., London. Gerhard, P. (1993). A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain. Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman. Gonz lez Quintero, L. (1986). An lysis polnicos de los sedimentos. In a a Tlapacoya: 35,000 a os de historia del lago de Chalco (J. L. Lorenzo and n L. Mirabell, Eds.), pp. 160166. INAH, Mexico City. [In Spanish]

The alternating sequence of settlement and abandonment inferred from the Laguna Atezca record is in certain key respects different from sequences reported in other areas of highland Mexico. In the Atezca area, the early Postclassic Period may not have been a time of increased aridity as was apparently the case in the Yucat n (Curtis et al., 1996; Hodell et al., 1995). On the a contrary, the increased importance of cloud forest taxa during this interval suggests above-average precipitation, although the climatic interpretation is complicated by the possible inuence on the pollen record of human disturbance during the Classic Period. Similarly, agricultural decline and abandonment did not occur during the late Postclassic Period in the Atezca area. Relatively dense human occupation, perhaps denser than at any time before or since, occurred in the region at this time. The local increase in population density may reect movement from other parts of Mesoamerica, where conditions were becoming less favorable for agriculture. These observations do not undermine the validity of the Armillas model, but they do indicate that the cultural and environmental histories of the Sierra Madre Oriental differed in several important respects from that of highland Mexico. The Atezca record clearly documents some of the ecological consequences of the Spanish Conquest. The decimation of

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