Wireless Personal Communications (2006) 37: 387420 DOI: 10.

1007/s11277-006-9077-y

Springer 2006

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication

M. K. LAKSHMANAN and H. NIKOOKAR
International Research Center for Telecommunications Transmission and Radar (IRCTR), Department of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 4, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands E-mails: m.k.lakshmanan@ewi.tudelft.nl, h.nikookar@irctr.tudelft.nl

Abstract. Wavelets have been favorably applied in almost all aspects of digital wireless communication systems including data compression, source and channel coding, signal denoising, channel modeling and design of transceivers. The main property of wavelets in these applications is in their exibility and ability to characterize signals accurately. In this paper recent trends and developments in the use of wavelets in wireless communications are reviewed. Major applications of wavelets in wireless channel modeling, interference mitigation, denoising, OFDM modulation, multiple access, Ultra Wideband communications, cognitive radio and wireless networks are surveyed. The conuence of information and communication technologies and the possibility of ubiquitous connectivity have posed a challenge to developing technologies and architectures capable of handling large volumes of data under severe resource constraints such as power and bandwidth. Wavelets are uniquely qualied to address this challenge. The exibility and adaptation provided by wavelets have made wavelet technology a strong candidate for future wireless communication. Keywords: wavelets, wireless communications, multi carrier modulation, OFDM, CDMA, cognitive radio, ultra wideband communication, wireless networks Abbreviations: ARQ, Automatic Retransmission Query; AWGN, Additive White Gaussian Noise; BER, Bit Error Rate; BPSK, Binary Phase Shift Keying; CDMA, Code Division Multiple Access; CP, Cyclic Prex; CR, Cognitive Radio; CWT, Continuous Wavelet Transform; DFT, Discrete Fourier Transform; DS-CDMA, Direct Sequence CDMA; DWT, Discrete Wavelet Transform; FCC, Federal Communications Commission; FDM, Frequency Division Multiplexing; FDMA, Frequency Division Multiple Access; GI, Guard Interval; HiperLAN, High Performance Radio Local Area Network; ICI, Inter-Carrier Interference; IOTA, Isotropic Orthogonal Transform Algorithm; IR, Impulse Radio; ISI, Inter-Symbol Interference; LDPC, Low-Density Parity-Check; MANET, Mobile Ad hoc Networks; MB-OFDM, Multi-Band OFDM; MC-CDMA, Multicarrier CDMA; MC-DS-CDMA, Multicarrier Direct Sequence CDMA; MCM, Multicarrier Modulation; OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing; OWDM, Orthogonal Wavelet Division Multiplexing; PAM, Pulse Amplitude Modulation; PAPR, Peak-to-Average Power Ratio; PR, Pseudo Random; PR-QMF, Perfect Reconstructed Quadrature Mirror Filter; PSWF, Prolate Spheroidal Wave Functions; PSD, Power Spectral Density; PSK, Phase Shift Keying; QAM, Quadrature Amplitude Modulation; QMF, Quadrature Mirror Filters; QoS, Quality of Service; QPSK, Quadrature Phase Shift Keying; SCDMA, Scale Code Division Multiple Access; S-CDMA, Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access; SNR, Signal-toNoise Ratio; SSA-UWB, Soft Spectrum Adaptation UWB; STCDMA, Scale Time Code Division Multiple Access; TDM, Time Division Multiplexing; TDMA, Time Division Multiple Access; TDOA, Time Difference Of Arrival; UWB, Ultra Wideband; V-BLAST, Vertical Bell Laboratories Layered Space Time; WP, Wavelet Packet; WPM, Wavelet Packet Modulation; WDM, Wavelet Division Multiplexing; WDMA, Waveform Division Multiple access; WPDM, Wavelet Packet Division Multiplexing; WPT, Wavelet Packet Transform

1. Introduction The Wavelet transform is a way of decomposing a signal of interest into a set of basis waveforms, called wavelets, which thus provide a way to analyze the signal by examining the

388 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar coefcients (or weights) of wavelets. This method is used in various applications and is becoming very popular among technologists, engineers and mathematicians alike. In most of the applications, the power of the transform comes from the fact that the basis functions of the transform are localized in time (or space) and frequency, and have different resolutions in these domains. Different resolutions often correspond to the natural behavior of the process one wants to analyze, hence the power of the transform. These properties make wavelets and wavelet transform natural choices in elds as diverse as image synthesis, data compression, computer graphics and animation, human vision, radar, optics, astronomy, acoustics, seismology, nuclear engineering, biomedical engineering, magnetic resonance imaging, music, fractals, turbulence, and pure mathematics. A thorough review of the application of wavelets in these elds can be found in [1, 2]. Recently wavelet transform has also been proposed as a possible analysis system when designing sophisticated digital wireless communication systems, with advantages such as transform exibility, lower sensitivity to channel distortion and interference and better utilization of spectrum [35]. Wavelets have found benecial applicability in various aspects of wireless communication systems design including channel modeling, transceiver design, data representation, data compression, source and channel coding, interference mitigation, signal de-noising and energy efcient networking. Figure 1 gives a graphical representation of some of the facets of wireless communication where wavelets have been used. In this paper we attempt to collate the latest advancements and developments in the use of wavelets and their tributaries, like wavelet packets, in the eld of wireless communication. Special emphasis is placed upon the applications related to transmission technology. It is worth mentioning that this work is by no means a comprehensive review of all the existing literature,

Figure 1. The spectrum of wavelet applications for wireless communication.

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 389 but rather an attempt to appraise the possibilities and potentials that wavelets offer in the area of wireless communications system design and development. This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we give the theory of wavelet representation of signals, and examine the properties and main aspects of wavelets. In Section 3 we highlight a few advantages of using wavelets for digital wireless communication systems. A review of recent applications of wavelets in wireless communication is provided in Section 4. Finally, in Section 5 we conclude the paper by underlining the promising role of wavelet technology for future generation wireless systems. 2. Wavelet Representation for Signal Analysis In this section we give a very brief introduction to the theory of wavelets and wavelet transforms, and we mention a few properties that are important from the perspective of communication system design. A thorough study of the subject can be found in [616]. 2.1. WA V E L E T S
AND

WA V E L E T T R A N S F O R M S

The word wavelet derives from the French researcher, Jean Morlet, who used the French word ondelette meaning a small wave [6]. A little later it was transformed into English by translating onde into wave to thus arrive at the name wavelets. As the name suggests, wavelets are small waveforms with a set oscillatory structure that is non-zero for a limited period of time (or space) with additional mathematical properties. The wavelet transform is a multi-resolution analysis mechanism where an input signal is decomposed into different frequency components, and then each component is studied with resolutions matched to its scales. The Fourier transform also decomposes signals into elementary waveforms, but these basis functions are sines and cosines. Thus, when one wants to analyze the local properties of the input signal, such as edges or transients, the Fourier transform is not an efcient analysis tool. By contrast the wavelet transforms which use irregularly shaped wavelets offer better tools to represent sharp changes and local features. The wavelet transform gives good time resolution and poor frequency resolution at high frequencies and a good frequency resolution and poor time resolution at low frequencies. This approach is logical when the signal on hand has high frequency components for short durations and low frequency components for long durations. Fortunately, the signals that are encountered in most engineering applications are often of this type. Figure 2 illustrates the aforementioned concept to explain how time and frequency resolutions should be interpreted. Every block in the gure corresponds to one value of the wavelet transform in the time-frequency plane. All the points in the time-frequency plane that fall into a block are represented by one coefcient of the wavelet transform. It is easy to infer from the gure that at lower frequencies the width and height of the windows are long and short, giving good frequency resolution and poor time resolution. At higher frequencies the width and height of the windows are short and long respectively giving good time resolution and poor frequency resolution. 2.2. C O N T I N U O U S
AND

D I S C R E T E WA V E L E T T R A N S F O R M

Wavelet transforms are broadly classied as continuous and discrete wavelet transforms. In this section we will look into their operation.

390 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar

Figure 2. Time-frequency tiling of the wavelet transform [14]

2.2.1. Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) The continuous wavelet transform (CWT) of a continuous signal x (t) is dened as the sum of all time of the signal multiplied by scaled, shifted versions of the wavelet (t). This is expressed as: 1 (a, b) = a

x(t)

t b dt a

(1)

where, is the result of the operation and consists of many wavelet coefcients, which are a function of scale a and translation b. The original signal can be reconstructed using the inverse transform: x(t) = 1 C

(a, b)

db t b da 2 a |a|

(2)

where, C =

| ()|2 || d

and () is the Fourier transform of (t).

2.2.2. Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) The DWT analyzes the signal at different frequency bands with different resolutions by decomposing the signal into an approximation containing coarse and detailed information. DWT employs two sets of functions, known as scaling and wavelet functions, which are associated with low pass and high pass lters. The decomposition of the signal into different frequency bands is simply obtained by successive high pass and low pass ltering of the time domain signal. The original signal x [n] is rst passed through a half-band high pass lter g [n] and a half-band low pass lter h [n]. A half-band low pass lter removes all frequencies that are above half of the highest frequency, while a half-band high pass lter removes all frequencies that are below half of the highest frequency of the signal. The low pass ltering halves the resolution, but leaves the scale unchanged. The signal is then sub-sampled by two since half of the number of samples is redundant, according to the Nyquists rule. This decomposition

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 391

Figure 3. Decomposition of input signal [14].

can mathematically be expressed as follows: yhigh [k] = ylow [k] = x[n]g[2k n] n x[n]h[2k n]
n

(3)

where yhigh [k] and ylow [k] are the outputs of the high pass and low pass lters, after sub-sampling by a factor of two. This decomposition halves the time resolution since only half the number of samples then come to characterize the entire signal. Conversely it doubles the frequency resolution, since the frequency band of the signal spans only half the previous frequency band effectively reducing the uncertainty by half. The above procedure, which is also known as subband coding, can be repeated for further decomposition. At every level, the ltering and sub-sampling will result in half the number of samples (and hence half the time resolution) and half the frequency bands being spanned (and hence doubles the frequency resolution). This procedure is illustrated in Figure 3, where x[n] is the original signal to be decomposed, and h[n] and g[n] are the respective impulse responses of the low pass and high pass lters.

2.3. WA V E L E T P A C K E T T R A N S F O R M The wavelet packet transform is just like the wavelet transform except that it decomposes even the high frequency bands which are kept intact in the wavelet transform. Figure 4 illustrates the wavelet packet decomposition procedure. Here S denotes the signal while A and D denote the respective approximations (high frequency terms) and decompositions (low frequency terms). Figure 5 shows the corresponding time-frequency plane division.

392 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar

Figure 4. Wavelet packet decomposition tree of input signal [15].

Figure 5. Wavelet packets; (Left): Semi-arbitrary tree pruning; (Right): Time-frequency plane division [3]. Here wi, j denotes the jth wavelet packet coefcient at the ith iteration level and Dt (wi, j ), D f (wi, j ) denote the length of the time and frequency division, of the wavelet packet wi, j .

2.4. WA V E L E T P R O P E R T I E S The most important properties of wavelets are the admissibility and the regularity conditions [9]. Given a wavelet (t), the admissibility condition may be stated as, C =
0

() |2 d = ||

() |2 d < ||

(4)

where, () is the Fourier transform of (t). The admissibility condition enables decomposition followed by the reconstruction of a signal without loss of information. This condition implies that the Fourier transform of (t) vanishes at the zero frequency, i.e. | () |2 |=0 = 0 (5)

this means that the wavelets have a band-pass-like spectrum. Furthermore, a zero at zero frequency means that the average value of the wavelet in the time domain is zero, i.e. (t) dt = 0 (6)

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 393 The regularity conditions are imposed on the wavelet functions in order to make the wavelet transform decrease quickly as the scale decreases. The regularity condition requires that the wavelet be locally smooth and concentrated in both the time and frequency domains. More about regularity and admissibility conditions can be found in [7, 16]. 2.5. Q U A D R A T U R E M I R R O R F I L T E R S An important feature of the discrete wavelet transform is the relationship between the impulse responses of the high pass (analysis) and low pass (scale) lters. The relationship is stated below: g[L 1 n] = (1)n h[n] (7)

where g[n] and h[n] are the impulse responses of the high pass and low pass lters, and L is the lter length. Filters satisfying this condition are commonly used in signal processing, and they are known as the Quadrature Mirror Filters (QMF). The two ltering and sub-sampling operations can be expressed by the expressions given in (3). The reconstruction in this case is easy since the half-band lters form orthonormal bases. The above procedure is followed in a reverse order for the reconstruction. The signals at every level are upsampled by two, passed through the synthesis lters g [n], and h [n] (highpass and lowpass, respectively), and then added up. A nice feature to note here is that the impulse responses of the analysis and synthesis lters are conjugate time reversed versions of one another i.e. h [n] = g [n] and g [n] = h [n] (8)

Therefore, the reconstruction formula for each layer is given as: x[n] =
k=

(yhigh [k]g[2k n] + ylow [k]h[2k n])

(9)

2.6. S U B B A N D C O D I N G Subband coding is a hierarchical coding scheme where the signal to be coded is successively split into high and low frequency components. The wavelet transform can be regarded as a form of subband coding where the signal to be analyzed is passed through a sieve of lter banks. The outputs of the different lter stages are then the wavelet and scaling function transform coefcients. The lter bank is built by using lters that iteratively split the spectrum into two equal parts, high pass and low pass. The high-pass parts contain the smallest details and hence are not to be processed any further. However, the low-pass part still contains some details and therefore it is split again. This dyadic operation is repeated until the required degree of resolution is obtained. Usually the number of subbands is limited by the amount of data or computation power available. The process of splitting the spectrum is graphically displayed in Figure 6. The advantage of this iterative dyadic implementation is that only two lters have to be designed [14].

394 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar

Figure 6. Subband Coding; (Left): Frequency domain representation, (Right): Tree-structure [9].

3. Motivation for Using Wavelets for Wireless Communication There are several advantages of using wavelets and wavelet packets, for wireless communication systems. Here we shall list a few desirable features of wavelets: 3.1. S E M I -A R B I T R A R Y D IV I S I O N AND MULTIRATE SYSTEMS
OF THE

SIGNAL SPACE

Wavelet transform can create subcarriers of different bandwidth and symbol length. Since each subcarrier has the same time-frequency plane area, an increase (or decrease) of bandwidth is bound to a decrease (or increase) of subcarrier symbol length. Such characteristics of the wavelets can be exploited to create a multirate system. From a communication perspective, such a feature is favorable for systems that must support multiple data streams with different transport delay requirements. 3.2. F L E X I B I L I T Y
WITH

T I M E -F R E Q U E N C Y T I L I N G

Another advantage of wavelets lies in their ability to arrange the time-frequency tiling in a manner that minimizes the channel disturbances. By exibly aligning the time-frequency tiling, the effect of noise and interference on the signal can be minimized. Wavelet based systems are capable of overcoming known channel disturbances at the transmitter, rather than waiting to deal with them at the receiver. Thus, they can enhance the quality of service (QoS) of wireless systems. 3.3. S I G N A L
OR

WA V E F O R M D IV E R S I T Y

Wavelets give a new dimension Waveform diversity, to the physical diversities currently exploited, namely, space, frequency and time-diversity. Signal diversity which is similar to spread spectrum systems, could be exploited in a cellular communication system, where adjacent cells

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 395 can be designated different wavelets in order to minimize inter-cell interference. Another example is the Ultra Wideband (UWB) communication system where a very large band with reduced interference can be shared by users by clever use of transmitting pulse wave shapes. 3.4. S E N S I T IV I T Y
TO

C H A N N E L E FF E C T S

The performance of a modulation scheme depends on the set of waveforms that the carriers use. The wavelet scheme therefore holds the promise of reducing the sensitivity of the system to harmful channel effects like Inter-symbol interference (ISI) and Inter-carrier interference (ICI). 3.5. F L E X I B I L I T Y
WITH

S U B -C A R R I E R S

The derivation of wavelets is directly related to the iterative nature of the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform allows for a congurable transform size and hence a congurable number of carriers. This facility can be used, for instance, to recongure a transceiver according to a given communication protocol; the transform size could be selected according to the channel impulse response characteristics, computational complexity or link quality. 3.6. P OW E R C O N S E R VA T I O N Wavelet-based algorithms have long been used for data compression. In the context of mobile wireless devices, which are mostly energy starved, this has an added signicance. By compressing the data, a reduced volume of data is transmitted so that the communication power needed for transmission is reduced.

4. Overview of Applications of Wavelets for Wireless Communication In this section we give a review of the latest advancements and developments in the use of wavelets for wireless communications. We have categorized the applications into seven broad domains namely channel characterization, interference mitigation and de-nosing, modulation and multiplexing, multiple access communication, Ultra Wideband (UWB) communication, cognitive radio, and networking. Where necessary, the major domains are dissected into subcategories. Further, a brief theory on each technology is introduced at appropriate junctures. 4.1. C H A N N E L C H A R A C T E R I Z A T I O N 4.1.1. Modeling Wireless Channels with Wavelets as Bases Existing wireless communication channel models are based on statistical impulse response models derived from empirical results. While these models perform adequately for time invariant channels, they fail to accurately map time varying channels. Due to their inherent joint time-frequency localization property and their ability to accurately characterize the timevarying nature of the estimation problem, the wavelets offer various advantages for channel modeling. Some of them are: accurate characterization of time-varying as well as frequency selective multipath fading channels, fast convergence of estimate, representation of channel with fewer number of coefcients, small output error, and clear interpretation of modeling

396 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar error. In [17] an algorithm to model time variant systems using wavelets is proposed. Through simulation and theoretical analysis, it is shown that time-variant channels can be represented by two sets of discrete time wavelets and a constant coefcient vector. Extension of the work [17] to represent both time invariant and time variant systems with wavelet packets is reported in [18]. The possibility of using wavelets for modeling channels for OFDM systems is studied in [19], where the performance of wavelet based channel modeling is compared with that of Karhunen-Loeve decomposition. In [20] a method for blind maximum-likelihood channel estimation is proposed where the unknown channel time variations are decomposed using orthonormal wavelet bases. Such a characterization of the channel is shown to be effective in fast fading environments as those found in macrocell wireless communication applications. Kernels derived from orthonormal wavelets for multiresolution representation of direct-sequence code-division multiple-access (DS-CDMA) channels under fading is proposed in [21]. This modeling scheme is reported to outperform known approaches in rapidly fading multipath channels. Lastly, guidelines for choosing the optimal wavelet basis for modeling a time-varying and fading channels are suggested in [22]. We now discuss the mechanism to model wireless channels with wavelet packets as bases [23]. For a time-invariant channel, the channel impulse response hTI (t) can be represented by a set of wavelet packets P j (t), j = 1, 2, . . . , N as
N

h TI (t) =
j=1

A j P j (t)

(10)

Here A is a constants vector and N the number of wavelet packets. For time variant channels, the impulse response hTV (t) can be represented by two sets of wavelets as:
Di Do

h TV (t, ) =
j=1 i=1

Ai j P j ( )Q i (t)

(11)

where, A is a constants vector of size Di Do , is the time delay, P and Q are sets of wavelet packet bases of lengths Di and Do , respectively. These bases are used to provide the frequency and time selection. Figure 7 is a block diagram of such a model. By judiciously choosing the wavelet and the level of iteration for P and Q, a desired level of accuracy in the frequency or time domain or both domains can be achieved. Because of this adaptability, the model holds the promise of representing frequency-selective fading and time-varying channels efciently. With the wavelet packet based modeling, for a given input x (t), the channel output y (t) can be written as
Do Di

y(t) =
i=1

Q i (t)
j=1

Ai j (P j x)(t)

(12)

4.1.2. Antenna Design and Electromagnetic Computations One of the cornerstones of antenna theory and design is to describe antenna calculations in terms of Maxwells electromagnetic equations. In many applications these equations are difcult to solve explicitly and complex computations have to be employed. Wavelets have spawned novel algorithms that help solve large electromagnetic eld problems using modest computational resources. These algorithms eventually help in improved design of antennas

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 397

Figure 7. Wavelet packet based modeling of time-varying channel [23].

and in the development of optimal waveforms for reliable signal transmission. A comprehensive review of wavelet applications in engineering electromagnetics and in signal analysis is provided in [24]. 4.1.3. Speed Estimation in Wireless Systems Several reasons motivate the need for estimating the speed in wireless systems [25]. Primary amongst them is to determine the duration of the temporal window over which the received signal is averaged to mitigate signal variation. Conventionally, an estimate of the speed is made by using the statistics of the received signal such as average signal strength or maximum Doppler frequency [25]. In these approaches an appropriate temporal observation window which depends on the unknown mobile speed is chosen to estimate the required quantities. The disadvantage of these methods is that such statistics are not readily available. Moreover, when the speed is varying and the received signal is non-stationary it becomes extremely difcult to choose the right window. It is in this regard, that wavelets offer a solution. The wavelet transform at different scales corresponds to different time window lengths and, hence, obviates the need for adapting the duration of the temporal observation window. Speed estimation using wavelets exploits three underlying principles [25]: 1. The small-scale spatial variation of the received envelope has a scale that is on the order of a carrier wavelength. 2. The temporal variations of the received envelope are due to the spatial variations through the mobile speed. 3. An estimate of the speed as a function of time can be obtained by tracking the temporal variations of the received envelop. To illustrate this, consider Figure 8 where the plot of variation pattern of a typical received signal with distance is shown. It is evident from the plot that the local minima of the signal occur with a separation of a fraction of a carrier wavelength . The estimate of the speed may be given as v (t) = k/ T (t) (13)

398 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar

Figure 8. Typical signal trace a function of distance [25].

Figure 9. Absolute value of CWT of signal given in Figure 8 [25].

where, k is the mean separation in distance between the local minima with 0 < k < 1, is the carrier wavelength, and T (t) is the mean time separation between two local minima of the received signal in the neighborhood of the time t. An efcient estimate of the speed depends on the accuracy with which T (t) can be measured. An estimate of T (t) is obtained by performing a continuous wavelet transform (CWT) of the received signal. The CWT has the unique property of characterizing minima of the signal. Thus by performing CWT at various scales, the mean time between two mean minima of the received signal in the neighborhood of time t can be efciently identied. Figure 9 depicts the absolute value of a CWT of the signal given in Figure 8. White represents large magnitude and black represents small magnitude. From the CWT coefcients the minima and T(t) are obtained. Finally, using (13) the speed is estimated.

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 399 4.2. I N T E R F E R E N C E M I T I G A T I O N

AND

DENOISING

In a communication channel, an interference can be due to many reasons unintentional, intentional (Jamming), overlap of symbols due to temporal spreading (Intersymbol interference or ISI), adjacent channel interference (Interchannel interference or ICI). Wavelets with their inherent exible nature, offer the keys to successfully discriminate the signal from the noise (denoising), while mitigating the effects of interference and noise. In this section we give an overview of the work carried out in this eld. 4.2.1. Signal De-Noising Wavelet thresholding is a powerful tool for denoising and recovery of true signals from noisy data. Wavelet orthonormal bases are well-adapted to approximate piecewise-smooth functions, and to effectively separate signal and noise. In the wavelet denoising method rst a suitable wavelet transform of the noisy data is performed. Then an adaptive threshold is applied. Wavelet coefcients below the threshold comprise the noise and are eliminated. Finally, the coefcients are padded with zeros to produce a legitimate wavelet transform and this is inverted to obtain the signal estimate. In [26] the protable use of wavelet based denoising technique to improve power delay prole estimates in indoor wideband environments is reported. In [27], a wavelet based denoising method to estimate the time difference of arrival (TDOA) for GSM signals in noisy channels is demonstrated. In [127] denoising of signals with low SNR is performed using composite wavelet shrinkage. Finally, in [28] wavelet based digital signal processing algorithms to combat high power non-stationary noise in infrared wireless systems is proposed, where through simulations, different wavelet methods are evaluated for denoising and their efciency veried. 4.2.2. Mitigation of Interference In [3] a wavelet packet based wireless communication system that is less sensitive to multipath channel distortion, synchronization error and non-linear amplication than its Fourier based counterparts is described. A fuzzy scheme based on the Haar wavelet decomposition for reducing impulsive noise in direct sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) systems is demonstrated in [29]. By means of computer simulations, the authors verify the effectiveness of the method in suppressing the interferences in both time and frequency domains. In [30] a wavelet packet modulated direct sequence spread spectrum system is introduced. This system implements an anti-jamming algorithm that helps suppress narrow band jamming signals. And in [128], a wavelet packet transform-based approach for interference measurement in spread spectrum wireless communication systems is suggested. This system is non-intrusive and is reported to be capable of extracting the interference from the spread spectrum signal. 4.2.3. Mitigation of ISI and ICI ISI and ICI are inuenced by two effects [31]: (i) time dispersion (due to multipath propagation) and frequency dispersion (due to the Doppler and non-linear effects) of the mobile radio channel and (ii) shape of the basic pulse. While the channel effects cannot be controlled, the pulse shape can be carefully designed to give minimum distortion for a given Doppler and delay spread. The wavelet transform allows

400 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar more exibility in the design of the waveforms thereby offering the potential to better handle the channel effects. Investigations in [46] prove that the wavelet based multi-carrier schemes are indeed superior in suppressing ICI and ISI when compared to the traditional Fourier based systems. 4.3. WA V E L E T S
FOR

MODULATION

AND

MULTIPLEXING

Digital communication systems can be viewed as general transmultiplexer systems, which consist of synthesis part and analysis part. The major element which plays an important role in characterization of the system is the lter set used in both synthesis and analysis parts. The time-frequency properties of these lters, i.e. time spread and frequency spread, will determine the type of communication systems (TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, OFDM, MC-CDMA, MC-DSCDMA). Unlike contemporary implementations, the wavelet lters that characterize these systems are derived from wavelet bases (i.e. non-Fourier basis). Recent developments in wireless communications are being driven primarily by the increased demands for radio bandwidth. A key thrust of this drive has been to develop novel signal transmission techniques that allow for signicant increases in wireless capacity without increases in bandwidth. With this increasing demand one is therefore entitled to wonder about the possible improvements that more advanced transforms such wavelet transform, could bring compared to the conventional congurations. Indeed there have been concerted efforts in this direction and in this section we provide an overview of the various activities carried out towards the use of wavelets for modulation and demodulation schemes. 4.3.1. Wavelets for Single Carrier Modulation Figure 10 shows the blocks of a typical narrowband, single carrier communication system. At the transmitting end, a source generates an arbitrary stream of data derived from the source alphabet. This stream of data is then linearly modulated by a pulse shaping lter S(f) and then transmitted to the channel. At the receiver the received signal is demodulated and decoded by a receiving lter U(f) and after further processing the data is estimated. Wavelets and scaling functions can be used to derive the shaping pulse lter. In [32, 33] give comprehensive notes on the theory and design of communication systems based on wavelets and wavelet packets. In [34, 35] the use of wavelets and scaling functions as envelop waveforms for modulation are proposed. By using Daubechies wavelets as shaping pulse, the efcacy and potential of the scheme in improving bandwidth utilization is demonstrated. This work is extended in [36] where wavelet packets are used for modulation. While in [37] two types of wavelet based schemes to improve the spectral efciency of a digital communication system are presented. The rst one is a wavelet based pulse shaping scheme. In this scheme, orthonormal wavelets and their translated versions are used as base

Figure 10. Baseband equivalent of a narrowband communication system [33].

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 401 band shaping pulses. This scheme is found to improve spectral efciency and coding gain. The other is a wavelet based digital modulation called Wavelet Shift Keying (WSK). In this scheme, the user data stream is represented by a sequence of scaled and shifted wavelets. This modulation scheme is reported to offer a greater spectral efciency and power efciency. In [38] a wavelet with very low sidelobes whose spectral occupancy in the frequency domain is adaptive is presented. The associated scaling function of the wavelet is derived from the Gaussian waveform and the function is found to be well suited as an elementary shaping pulse for digital modulation. A survey of the applications of wavelets for modulation schemes is given in [38]. The applications reviewed include wavelet based Pulse Amplitude Modulator (PAM), and Wavelet packet modulator (WPM). The wavelet based schemes are reported to provide improved spectral efciency and superior performance while ensuring adequate quality of coverage even under difcult conditions. In [40] the impact of clock errors and synchronization errors on the bit-error rate performance of the optimum receiver for a wavelet-based multirate signal is investigated. In this reference a maximum likelihood synchronizer is used for time acquisition. And in [41] the properties of the scaling function are used in the derivation of the acquisition function.

4.3.2. Wavelets for Multicarrier Modulation Wavelet Based OFDM (WOFDM) Multi-Carrier Modulation (MCM) is a data transmission technique where the data-stream is divided into several parallel bit streams, each at a lower bit rate, and by using these substreams to modulate several carriers. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing or OFDM is a MCM scheme where the sub carriers are orthogonal sine/cosine waves. The major drawback of such an implementation is the rectangular window used, which creates high side lobes. Moreover, the pulse shaping function used to modulate each sub-carrier extends to innity in the frequency domain [44]. This leads to high interference and lower performance levels. The effect of wave-shaping of OFDM signal on ISI and ICI is reported in [42]. In [43] the optimal wavelet is designed for OFDM signal in order to minimize the maximum of total interferences. The wavelet transform has longer basis functions and can offer a higher degree of side lobe suppression [3]. With the promise of greater exibility and improved performance against channel effects, wavelet based basis functions have emerged as strong candidates for MCM in wireless channels. For wired channels though the Fourier based systems are reported to outperform their wavelet based counterparts [129]. A simplied block diagram of the wavelet packet based multicarrier communication system is shown in Figure 11. The transmitted signal in the discrete domain, x[k], is composed of successive modulated symbols, each of which is constructed as the sum of M waveforms k [k] individually amplitude

Figure 11. Wavelet packet modulation functional block diagram [3].

402 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar modulated. It can be expressed in the discrete domain as:
M1

x[k] =
s m=0

(as,m m [k s M])

(14)

where, as,m is a constellation encoded sth data symbol modulating the mth waveform. To reduce probability of error, the waveforms are made orthogonal. In OFDM, the discrete functions 2 m m [k] are the complex basis functions e j M . In the wavelet packet scheme, the subcarrier waveforms are obtained through the wavelet packet transform (WPT). The transmitted symbol is built by performing inverse transform while the forward transform is used to retrieve the data symbol. The carrier waveforms are obtained by iteratively ltering the signal into high and low frequency components. The relationship between the number of iterations J and the number of carrier waveforms M is given by M = 2 J . In Negash and Nikookar [4] suggest replacing the conventional Fourier-based complex exponential carriers of a multicarrier system with orthonormal wavelets. The wavelets are derived from a multistage tree-structured Haar and Daubechies orthonormal QMF bank. An improved performance with respect to reduction of the power of ISI and ICI is reported. This work is extended in [45] by realizing a high-speed digital communication system over lowvoltage powerline. With empirical investigations on a model obtained from the measurements of a practical low-voltage powerline communication channel, the authors reafrm the effectiveness of wavelets for use in OFDM systems, especially with regard to ISI and ICI mitigation. Another real time application of the system is reported in [46] where Wavelet based OFDM for V-BLAST [47] (vertical Bell laboratories layered space time) is discussed. According to [46] the bit error rate (BER) performance of the wavelet based V-BLAST system is superior to their Fourier based counterparts. In the conventional systems, the ISI and ICI are reduced by adding a guard interval (GI) using cyclic prex (CP) to the head of the OFDM symbol. Adding CP can largely reduce the spectrum efciency. Wavelet based OFDM schemes do not require CP, thereby enhancing the spectrum efciency. According to the IEEE broadband wireless standard 802.16.3 [48], avoiding the CP gives Wavelet OFDM an advantage of roughly 20% in bandwidth efciency. Moreover, as pilot tones are not necessary for the wavelet based OFDM system, they perform better in comparison to existing OFDM systems like 802.1la or HiperLAN, where 4 out of 52 sub-bands are used for pilots. This gives WOFDM another 8% advantage over typical OFDM implementations. An advanced OFDM modulation scheme called Isotropic Orthogonal Transform Algorithm (IOTA) for future broadband physical layers is proposed in [130]. This system uses isotropic Gaussian functions to generate the carrier waves and gives good spectral efciency by eliminating the use of a cyclic prex. In [49] the promise shown by a Haar WOFDM system with Hadamard spreading codes in reducing its peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) is reported. Jamin and Mahonen [3] expanded the realm of wavelets for OFDM by using wavelet packets to create and detect the different sub-carriers. The wavelet packets were found to be more exible, and less sensitive to multipath channel distortion, synchronization error and non-linear amplication. In [50] a wavelet packet based OFDM transmission system, referred as orthogonal wavelet division multiplexing (OWDM), for multirate integrated service is demonstrated. The performance of this system under impulse noise and single tone interference is reported to be superior to existing Fourier based variants. The requirements imposed in the design of usable wavelets and wavelet packets for multicarrier modulation are studied in [51]. According to this work, for perfect reconstruction of data the wavelets have to satisfy bi-orthogonal property. In [52] the performances of wavelets

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 403 based OFDM and DFT based OFDM are compared and contrasted. Lastly, the performance of wavelet based OFDM with popular channel coding schemes like Turbo and LDPC codes for AWGN and Rayleigh channels is reported in [53, 54]. 4.3.3. Fractal Modulation Fractal modulation is a novel diversity strategy that is well-suited for transmission over unreliable channels and for broadcast applications. This works by embedding the information stream into a self-similar waveform so that it is present on all time scales [55]. The major attraction of this scheme is the user congurable quality of service. The spectral and fractal characteristics of wavelets make them appealing candidates for use in fractal modulation. Wavelet representations can be exploited to construct orthonormal self-similar bases for these signals. In [55, 56] the theory of fractal modulation and the use of wavelet-based representations for this scheme are explained. In [57] two algorithms to choose wavelets for fractal modulation are presented. In [5] a review of the role of multirate lterbanks and wavelets in fractal modulation is provided. The performance analysis of various wavelet families for a fractal modulation scheme has been examined in [58]. The results reported show the effectiveness of the fractal modulation for utilization in data broadcasting. In [59] the development of a Wireless Communication system using M-ary phase shift keying (PSK) technique by fractal wavelet packet transform is discussed. The performance of this system in comparison to conventional Fourier based systems is reported to be superior. And in [60] an algorithm for time recovery in fractal modulation is proposed. 4.3.4. Multiplexing The orthogonal properties of wavelets and wavelet packets make them excellent candidates for use in multiplexing techniques. Recent developments to this effect are the wavelet division multiplexing (WDM) and wavelet packet-division multiplexing (WPDM). These are highcapacity, exible, and robust multiple-signal transmission technique in which the message signals are waveform coded onto wavelet and wavelet-packet basis functions for transmission. In [61, 62] multidimensional signaling techniques, and multirate wavelet based modulation formats that can utilize existing Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. (QAM) channels are presented. The advantages of these methods include dimensionality in both time and frequency for exible channel exploitation and an efcient all-digital lter bank implementation. In [63] an expression for the probability of error for a WPDM scheme in the presence of both impulsive and Gaussian noise sources is derived. Through simulations it is demonstrated that WPDM can provide greater immunity to impulsive noise than both a time-division multiplexing (TDM) scheme and an orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing scheme. In [64], the performances of different families of wavelets for modulation over frequency division multiplexing (FDM) nonlinear satellite channels are discussed. 4.4. WA V E L E T S
FOR

MULTIPLE ACCESS COMMUNICATION

Wavelets and wavelet packets possess unique properties that make them attractive for use in multiple access communication. With their offer of greater exibility in designing signature waveforms, and their inherent orthogonality property, they can play a vital role in the design of waveforms and receivers for multiple access systems. In [65] a detailed description of the design, implementation and analytical analysis of wavelet based multiple access communication is system is provided. While [66] gives a preliminary analysis on the applicability of wavelet

404 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar packets in multiple access systems. In [67] a wavelet based asynchronous multiple-access technique called waveform division multiple access (WDMA) scheme is introduced. This scheme is reported to offer superior probability of error performance and bandwidth efciency. In [68] the design and implementation of Wavelet Packet based lter banks for multiple access communications with mathematical background is provided. An improved wavelet-packet-division multiple access (WPDMA) system is presented in [69] where a wavelet design method based on numerical optimization is employed to mitigate the effects of asynchronism in the system. Wavelets and wavelet packets (WP) have also facilitated the design of user signature waveforms in code division multiple access (CDMA) communication systems. By randomly clipping the wavelet construction tree, a complete and orthonormal basis is generated. This basis eventually spawns spreading codes that are orthogonal to one another. Moreover, they display greater capacity to suppress multiple access interferences [70]. The design and construction of orthogonal signatures for use in a spread signature code division multiple access system (CDMA) is discussed in [5]. In [71] a method to use wavelet packets as user signature waveforms in code division multiple access (CDMA) communications is proposed. According to [72] wavelet packets allow for simpler equalization and detection of CDMA signals at the receiver. New spread spectrum codes, whereby spreading and dispreading is achieved by perfect reconstructed quadrature mirror lter (PR-QMF) lter banks is described in [73, 74]. In [75] wavelet-packet-based signatures for asynchronous CDMA systems are proposed. The use of wavelet transforms for delay detection of a new user entering a CDMA communications systems is discussed in [76]. In this section we will review the application of wavelets to two new and promising variants of CDMA, called SCDMA and MC-CDMA. 4.4.1. Scale Code Division Multiple Access (SCDMA) Scale-code division multiple access is a new multiple access system which exploits the scale orthogonality introduced by the wavelets in addition to the code and time orthogonality provided by traditional CDMA systems. In this scheme, each transmitter is assigned a specic scale and a unique pseudo-random sequence that ts time slots in its scale. Each user encodes its successive information symbols with time-shifted replicas of the same basic wavelet in a specic scale and spreads its scaled and translated wavelets (information symbols) by its pseudo noise sequence. For example, consider the dyadic case for a Haar wavelet as shown in Figure 12. Here m denotes the scale and n the time slot and pi,l (t) the signature waveform of the ith user. This waveform is of duration l time periods. The rst scale (the coarsest one, m = 0) uses only one time slot [0, T] using the basic wavelet. The following ner scale (m = 1) uses two time slots [0, T/2], [T/2, T]; the third one (m = 2) four time slots and so on. Therefore, in dyadic SCDMA, over the signaling interval [0, T] the rst scale users transmit only one information symbol, the second scale users transmit two information symbols, and the third scale users send four information symbols and so on. Thus, a multirate system with different rate of information for different messages can be achieved for the same channel. Figure 13 shows the model for a SCDMA system. At the transmitter, the bit to be transmitted bm,i (n), in the nth slot of mth scale by the ith user, is rst spread using the orthonormal wavelet wm,n (t) of scale m to obtain the data signal bm,i (t). A designated carrier cm,n,i (t) is then modulated by the data signal to obtain the transmitted signal sm,i (t). The carrier is constructed from a unique signature waveform pi,l (t). The transmitted signal therefore presents three levels of orthogonality, namely code, time and scale, with respect to other users. At the receiver end,

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 405

Figure 12. SCDMA format [78].

Figure 13. SCDMA system model [78].

the transmitted signal is received after a time delay m,i with the addition of channel noise n(t). The received signal r(t) is down converted, and decorrelated to obtain the baseband data. Through use of a matched lter (integrator) and a threshold, an estimate of the transmitted data bit bm,i (n) is obtained. In [77] an efcient multirate multimedia system based on SCDMA is realized. In [78] the performance of the SCDMA systems over asynchronous AWGN channels is described. In [79, 80] a variant of the SCDMA called scale-time-code-division multiple access (STCDMA) is introduced. This system depends on the time, code, and scale orthogonality introduced by wavelets and is reported to support a larger number of users than conventional DSCDMA (six or seven times that of DS-CDMA). In [81] the performance of the STCDMA over the synchronous AWGN channel is analyzed. In all these studies the reliability of the SCDMA/STCDMA system and its suitability for multirate multimedia communication is emphasized. 4.4.2. MC-CDMA Multicarrier CDMA or MC-CDMA is a data transmission technique that combines Multicarrier modulation (MCM) and CDMA. It is a spread spectrum technology, where the spreading is

406 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar

Figure 14. Transmitter model of MC/BPSK-CDMA system [83].

performed in the frequency domain, unlike CDMA, where the spreading is done in the time domain. By combining the best of MCM and CDMA, MC-CDMA promises high speed, large bandwidth, better frequency diversity to combat frequency-selective fading and good performance in severe multipath conditions [82]. MC-CDMA has thus emerged as a strong candidate for future wireless systems. While conventional MC-CDMA systems use fast Fourier transforms (FFT), we shall focus here on the role that wavelets can play in MC-CDMA systems. In comparison to the conventional MC-CDMA systems, introducing wavelets to MC-CDMA yields the following advantages [83]: (i) They provide three levels of orthogonality: between the subcarriers between the wavelets & scaling functions between the spreading sequences. Therefore in comparison to conventional MC-CDMA systems, they provide new dimensions to combat multipath fading, ICI and narrowband interference or jamming signal, (ii) Flexibility in choosing the spacing between the subcarrier frequencies, (iii) Flexibility in choosing the wavelet family based on need. The wavelet-based MC-CDMA transmitter works by rst replicating the symbol to be transmitted into Nc parallel branches. Each copy is then spread by multiplying it with a pseudo-random chip Nc long and modulated by a wavelet and a subcarrier which is orthogonal to its neighbors. The signal to be transmitted is nally obtained by adding the outputs of all branches. At any instant, all the subcarriers convey the same information. For example, Figure 14 shows the transmitter model of the wavelet-based MC/BPSK-CDMA system.

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 407 The wavelet-based MC/BPSK-CDMA is represented as [83]: 1 Sm(t) = Tb
N 1

cm [i]am [k]
i=0

t kTb Tb cos 2 f c t + 2i F t Tb (15)

+ cm [i]bm [k]

t kTb Tb

where, (t) and (t) are the wavelet and scaling functions, am [k] and bm [k] are two independent data symbols at the kth bit interval of the mth user, cm [i] is the chip or spreading sequence for the mth user, Nc is the length of the chip, Tb is the pulse duration, fc is the carrier frequency, F/Tb is the spacing between neighboring subcarriers. The implementation of the three wavelet-based MC-CDMA schemes (1) Wavelet-based MC/BPSK CDMA, (2) Wavelet-based MC/QPSK CDMA and (3) Wavelet-based Fractal MCCDMA are given in [83]. In [84] compares and contrasts various MCM techniques including the wavelet-based MC-CDMA systems. In [72] the development of a wavelet packet based MC-CDMA system is described. In [85] the system performance is investigated for a multipath, slow Rayleigh fading channel. The performance of a wavelet packet based MC-CDMA system in a correlated fading channel is evaluated in [86]. In [87] the performance of a turbo-coded MC-CDMA system based on a complex wavelet packet in a Rayleigh fading channel is analyzed where it is reported that the system copes well with multi-path fading and multiple-access interference. The performance analysis of a wavelet-based MC-CDMA system for satellite communication channels affected by ionosphere scintillation phenomenon is addressed in [88]. In all these works, the wavelet-based schemes are reported to outperform their Fourier-based counterparts in terms of bandwidth efciency and interference immunity. In [89] a wavelet orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (WOFDM) scheme is used in conjunction with frequency hopping for synchronous code division multiple access (S-CDMA). In [90] presents work done on an MC-CDMA scheme constructed using orthogonal and bi-orthogonal lters for down-link cellular radio systems. In [91] the design of MC-CDMA systems based on a bank of lters derived using the quadrature constrained least square algorithm and satisfying the PR-QMF theory, is discussed. In [92] synchronization of wavelet-Based MC-CDMA systems is elaborated. While in [93] synchronization using wavelets in MC-CDMA systems is detailed. A wavelet packet based MC-CDMA system is designed in [72]. In [94] a multistage interference cancellation scheme for a multicarrier direct sequence code division multiple access (MC-DS/CDMA) system using wavelet packet transform (WPT) as the basis function is proposed. Through extensive computer simulations, it is shown that the new system is suitable for high-rate wireless data transmission. A novel wavelet packet receiver design for MC-CDMA communications is proposed in [95]. This system is reported to efciently combat multipath channel effects and to obviate the need for guard intervals. The performances of equal gaining and maximal ratio combining equalization techniques for a wavelet packet based MC-CDMA system are compared in [96]. Finally, the performance of MC-CDMA based on wavelet packets in a Rayleigh multipath fading channel is studied in [97]. 4.5. UWB C O M M U N I C A T I O N Over the last few years, Ultra-wideband (UWB) communication systems have received significant attention from industry, the media and academia. The reason for all this excitement is that

408 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar this technology promises to deliver data rates that can scale from 110 Mbit/s at a distance of 10 m and up to 480 Mbit/s at a distance of two meters in realistic multi-path environments, while consuming very little power and silicon area. It is expected that UWB devices will provide low cost solutions that can satisfy the consumers insatiable appetite for data rates while at the same time satisfying new consumer market segments. Much of the increased attention paid to UWB technology is due to the landmark ruling of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). In February 2002, the FCC opened up 7,500 MHz of spectrum (from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz) for commercial UWB device. The FCC requires that UWB devices occupy more than 500 MHz of bandwidth in the 3.110.6-GHz band. Given the bandwidth from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz, there are several ways to design a UWB communication system. Currently, two major technologies for UWB wireless communications are under discussion: the Impulse radio (IR) and the Multi-Band OFDM. Wavelets nd applicability in both schemes. 4.5.1. Impulse Radio (IR) IR technology is based on the transmission of very short pulses with relatively low energy. With this method the entire bandwidth of 7500 MHz is utilized and the transmitted information is distributed using spread spectrum or code-division multiple access (CDMA) techniques. The main advantage of building UWB communication systems based on spread-spectrum techniques is that these techniques are well understood and have been proven in other commercial technologies (e.g. wideband CDMA). Wavelets, being small waves, are naturally suitable for use in IR-UWB. Some of the properties of wavelets that make them desirable for IR-UWB communication include [98101]: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Localization in time, Localization in frequency, Finite energy of the wavelet pulses, The orthogonal property of wavelets that can be used to separate multipath signals from two or more sources and to combat interference, (v) Extensibility of bandwidth.

In [98] a review of various time and band limited waveforms that can be used to create ultra wideband signals is given. Through simulations the suitability of both scaling and wavelet functions for use in UWB communication is demonstrated. In [99] is an extension of the work [98] where the expressions and methods for generating the wavelet functions of the UWB signals are elaborated. It is also proved that the convolution and addition of signal spectra can be used to expand UWB bandwidth with wavelet functions by orders of more than 4.5 times. In [100] wavelet packets for use in ultra wideband communications are proposed, and in [101] a simple circuit for generating wavelets required in UWB impulse radio receiver is presented. In [132] a multi-user communication system based on UWB technology is studied. In this study, orthogonal waveforms based on Gegenbauer and Hermite functions have been proposed as basis functions for the pulse shape. In [134] time of arrival estimation of IR-UWB signals based on energy detection is discussed. This system uses signal conditioning techniques based on a bank of cascaded multi-scale energy collection lters and wavelets. In [102] discusses the reduction of interference from coexisting narrowband signals to UWB impulse radio. The effect of the interferers is reduced by using a modied template waveform that is constructed with the multicarrier type template thus removing sub-carrier pulses that are close to the interfering spectrum.

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 409 4.5.2. Multi-Band OFDM (MB-OFDM) Multi-band OFDM UWB systems have a different philosophy of operation. Instead of using the entire band to transmit information, the spectrum is divided into several sub-bands with a 10-dB bandwidth of at least 500 MHz. The information is then interleaved across sub-bands and then transmitted through multi-carrier (OFDM) techniques. The advantage is that the information is processed over a much smaller bandwidth, thus reducing the complexity of the design and the power consumption. Other advantages of this approach include its lower cost, improved spectral exibility, simplied digital complexity, ability to handle narrowband interference at the receiver end and compliance to existing standards [103]. While current approaches to MBOFDM use the Fourier-based OFDM in each band, introducing wavelet-OFDM can bring new benets. For example, one of the disadvantages of the Fourier based OFDM scheme is the use of the cyclic prex to negotiate ISI and ICI. In addition to reducing the capability of the system, the cyclic prex also causes ripples in the power spectral density (PSD) of the UWB signal thus resulting in a transmit power back-off of about 1.5 dB [103]. The wavelet-based scheme does not use a cyclic prex and hence does not produce the ripples, thereby obviating the need for power back-offs. Further the UWB systems operate in a very large bandwidth and share the spectrum with other users as well as with the existing communication systems. Consequently, interference may occur. Wavelets make it possible to sculpt the UWB signal characteristics to operate in minimum interference zones. By replacing the traditional sinusoid carriers of the OFDM system with suitable wavelets, the interference power can to a large extent, be mitigated. In [104] discusses the effects of interference on MB-OFDM UWB radio systems. To reduce the effects of interference, multicarrier type transmission pulses and template waveforms are proposed. Simulation studies have proven that the proposed interference mitigation technique is effective, allowing for coexistence with different wideband systems. 4.6. C O G N I T IV E R A D I O I N T E L L I G E N T W I R E L E S S C O M M U N I C A T I O N S Y S T E M One of the challenges contending communication engineers and designers alike is that of how to handle spectrum congestion. Furthermore, an FCC study revealed that spectrum congestions are more due to the sub-optimal use of spectrum than to the lack of free spectrum [105]. The design of an intelligent communication system that estimates the channel and adaptively operates in regions with minimum interference is highly desirable. Cognitive radio (CR) is an attempt in that direction. Cognitive Radio is an advanced technology for the efcient use of under-utilized spectrums. CR senses the spectrum and detects the presence of primary users. It adaptively changes the parameters of radio transmission and learns from the environment to adapt transmission. The two primary objectives of CR are [105]: to produce highly reliable communications whenever and wherever needed, efcient utilization of the radio spectrum. The key to the successful operation of cognitive radio of course is to efciently estimate the spectrum and scavenge for no-interference zones. Much research effort has been into the designing of such systems. The transfer domain communication system (TDCS) [106, 107] is one such effort that has displayed the potential for interference avoidance capability. The system works by gauging the local environment and sculpting the signal to avoid areas in the basis where interference is present. An offshoot of this system is the wavelet domain communication system (WDCS) [108110]. Wavelets are used in this scheme to identify and establish an interference-free spectrum. Wavelet based spectrum estimation has been used for

410 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar

Figure 15. WDCS Transmitter block [106].

the following reasons [108]: 1. Increased adaptability over a larger class of interfering signals 2. Finer high-frequency resolution 3. Allow implementation of M-ary orthogonal signaling The WDCS uses a packet-based transform to estimate the electromagnetic spectrum [108]. Through the use of adaptive thresholds and notches, sub-bands containing the interference are effectively canceled. From this estimate, a unique communication basis function A() in the transform domain is generated so that no (or very little) energy-bearing information is contained in the areas occupied by primary users. These functions are then multiplied with a pseudorandom (PR) phase vector e j () to generate Bb (). The PR code is used to randomize the phase of the spectral components. The resulting complex spectrum is then scaled C to provide the desired energy in the signal spectrum. A time domain version b(t) of the basis function is then obtained by performing an inverse transform (wavelet/Fourier). Finally, the basis function is modulated with data and transmitted. The block diagram of a WDCS general process is shown in Figure 15. Another novelty spawned by wavelets is in the design of intelligent UWB systems called Soft-Spectrum Adaptation UWB (SSA-UWB) [131], which attempts to wed the best of Cognitive radio and IR/multi carrier UWB. The basic unit of this scheme is to dynamically adjust the transmitted signals spectrum by a proper choice of pulse waveforms and codes, so as to minimize interference from other systems. In [131] it is suggested that prolate spheroidal wave functions (PSWF) be used in the design of time-limited and band-limited pulse waveforms for SSA-UWB systems. 4.7. WA V E L E T S
FOR

NETWORKING

Wireless interoperable communication networks are now a reality. They have spawned many new and exciting applications like mobile entertainment, mobile internet access, healthcare and medical monitoring services, data sensing in sensor networks, smart homes, combat radios, disaster management, automated highways and factories. In each of these applications the system requirements, network capabilities, and device capabilities have enormous variations giving rise to signicant wireless network design challenges. Further, in mobile applications

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 411 there are severe constraints on resources like battery power, radio spectrum and buffer space. Wavelets can help address many of these challenges effectively. In this section we will look into some of the research activities where wavelets have been used to resolve networking issues. 4.7.1. Wavelet-Based Adaptive and Energy Efcient Data Processing for Mobile Services Limited battery power availability is one of the major constraints of mobile communication. To offset this problem, data compression is often considered. By compressing data, the volume of data to be transmitted is reduced and hence the communication energy consumed by the RF circuitry of the device is also reduced. However, the advantage gained by data compression is offset by the energy utilized by the data compression process. There is a need for a mechanism that can intelligently trade between the size of the computations and the quality of the compression desired, so as to deliver good compression even while consuming limited energy. Wavelet transform based algorithms can be used to select a dynamic parameter that can handle this trade-off by minimizing energy consumption based on constraints like bandwidth, quality of compression, and latency. In [111] the details of an adaptive and energy efcient wavelet-based algorithm for image compression, and for mobile multimedia data services, are presented. Through experiments, it is shown that statically congured wavelet transform-based codec can be used to signicantly reduce both computation burdens, by minimizing the computations needed to compress an image, and the communication energy, consumed by the RF component of the mobile appliance. In [112] the applicability of wavelet-based compression techniques to overcome the bandwidth limitations imposed by low power wireless radios is considered. And in [133] a wavelet based data compression scheme for source broadcast in sensor networks is discussed. 4.7.2. Wavelets for Trafc Analysis, Prediction and Load Balancing The resource constraints in wireless (especially mobile) networks have meant that the distribution of network trafc must be shared equally between the constituent nodes and that no host is overloaded. Heavily loaded hosts may cause congestion, long latencies and even depletion of energy. Trafc predictions and the balancing of the load (trafc) of the network therefore gain great importance. The wavelet has many advantages for use in trafc analysis, and prediction and load balancing. Some of them are scale invariance, zero (or minimum) correlation between wavelet coefcients and short range dependence [113]. Wavelet-based trafc predictions and estimations have been suggested in quite a few research works. In [114] a timescale decomposition approach to real time trafc prediction is proposed. The advantage of using time decomposition with wavelets is that it can capture the correlation structure of the trafc better than when examining the raw data directly. Using Haar wavelet transform, the raw trafc data is rst decomposed into multiple timescales. The wavelet coefcients and the scaling coefcients on each scale are predicted independently using an autoregressive integrated moving average model. The predicted wavelet coefcients and scaling coefcient are then combined to give the predicted trafc value. In [115] a trafc prediction method that combines recursive least square adaptive ltering with wavelet transform is proposed. In [115, 116] wavelet-based fast, adaptive and convergent algorithms to predict Video trafc are suggested. A wavelet based trafc prediction and adaptive load balancing mechanism for mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) is proposed in [117]. Finally, in [118] a spatial trafc analysis based on the wavelet transform is reported. This approach has been found to be effective when obtaining succinct views of an entire networks trafc load, to gain insight into a networks

412 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar global trafc response to a link failure, and to localize the extent of a failure event within the network. 4.7.3. Wavelet Based Data Reconstruction Scheme The variable nature of wireless environments results in data corruption and loss of information. Existing schemes handle this problem by using retransmission protocols like automatic retransmission query (ARQ) protocols. However, retransmits in noisy environments is undesirable because repeated retransmits leads to an increase in trafc and power consumption. Reconstructing lost data by using the available surrounding information is therefore an important consideration. In [119] a fast scheme for the wavelet-domain interpolation of lost image blocks in wireless image transmission is presented. The lost data block is reconstructed in the wavelet domain using the correlation between the lost block and its neighbors. An image transmission method for fading communication channels that provides an image of good perceptual quality at the receiver in spite of the channel impairments is presented in [120]. 4.7.4. Wavelets for Modeling Network Trafc Modeling of the trafc in wireless networks is a complex task. This is because unlike wired networks, where the distribution patterns are usually Gaussian, in a wireless environment the network trafc possesses diverse statistical properties which are non-Gaussian in nature and possess complex temporal correlation. The main motivation for introducing wavelets for developing network trafc model comes from the property that although the network trafc has a complex short and long range temporal difference, the corresponding wavelet domain representation are all short range dependent. Moreover, the wavelet based scheme comes with low computational complexity. In [121] wavelet models are proposed to represent heterogeneous network trafc. Low order Markov wavelet models for Gaussian and fractional Gaussian noise trafcs are developed and investigated. Further, the short-range dependence among wavelet coefcients is reported. 4.7.5. Wavelets for Adaptive Distributed Data Processing in Wireless Sensor Networks Wireless sensor networks are constructed using a large number of small, low-powered wireless nodes. They are used for information gathering, monitoring and physical control from remote locations and are usually employed in inaccessible areas and harsh climates. Naturally, they are limited by their computation, communication, and sensing abilities. In order to maximize their abilities, wireless sensor networks use two major optimizations: Wireless sensor networks work on the principle of adaptive distributed load sharing amongst the constituent nodes, They exploit spatial correlation between the data collected between nodes that are physically close together. Wavelets are used to develop distributed multiresolution algorithms to reconstruct the information gathered by the nodes with the sensors spending as little energy as possible. In [122] the design of wavelet based adaptive distributed processing algorithms in large sensor networks for power efcient data gathering through use of spatially correlated data is provided. In [123] a distributed wavelet algorithm, based on the lifting scheme, as a means to decorrelate data at the nodes by exchanging information between neighboring sensors is proposed. A network architecture that efciently supports multi-scale communication and collaboration among sensors for energy and bandwidth efcient communication is reported in [124] where

A Review of Wavelets for Digital Wireless Communication 413 an initial evaluation of the design under simulation is shown to lead to reduced communication overhead, and save energy. In [125] an application of wavelet based neural-network has been proposed for use in wireless sensor networks. The abilities of neural networks have been found translatable to wireless sensor network platforms to yield: simple parallel distributed computation, distributed storage, data robustness and auto-classication of sensor readings. In [125, 126] report usage of wavelet- based neural networks for data processing of the sensory inputs at different resolutions. This mechanism is shown to result in reduction of dimensionality, thus resulting in high energy saving and lower cost.

5. Conclusion Wavelets provide promising potential applications in wireless communications, ranging from source and channel coding to transceiver design and from wireless physical channel to network and higher layers. The major property of wavelets for these applications is their ability and exibility to characterize signals with adaptive time-frequency resolution. The aim of this paper has been to provide an overview of applications of wavelets in wireless communications portraying the myriad potentials and possibilities that the wavelets can offer to wireless communications. Looking ahead, the convergence of information, multimedia, entertainment and wireless communications has raised hopes of realizing the vision of ubiquitous communication. To actualize this there is a challenge of developing technologies and architectures capable of handling large volumes of data under severe constraints of resources such as power and bandwidth. Wavelets are uniquely qualied to address this challenge. They have strong advantage of being generic schemes whose actual characteristics can be widely customized to fulll the various requirements and constraints of advanced mobile communications systems. The wavelet technology is the choice for smart and resource aware wireless systems. The exibility gained by wavelet technology cannot be fully exploited with the current systems and technologies. Therefore, it is foreseen that the wavelet technology would be a strong candidate for future generation wireless systems.

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Madan Kumar Lakshmanan was born in Chennai, India, in 1979. He received the B.E. (with distinction) in electrical engineering from the University of Madras, Chennai, India, in 2000. He joined the Indian Software rm, Polaris Software Labs Ltd., in 2000 where he wrote software for Telecommunication applications. At Polaris, he was awarded the On The Spot Of Excellence Award for his efforts. In 2003, he moved to the Indian Institute of TechnologyMadras, to develop and establish a wireless communications network for rural connectivity. In 2004, he was awarded the Royal Dutch/Shell Chevning scholarship to pursue a Master degree in Telecommunications at the Delft University of Technology (TUDelft). At TUDelft he is afliated to the International Research Center for Telecommunications-Transmission and Radar (IRCTR) where he is undertaking research in the eld of wavelets applications in Wireless Communications.

420 M. K. Lakshmanan and H. Nikookar

Homayoun Nikookar received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Delft University of Technology (TUDelft), The Netherlands, in 1995. From 1995 to 1998 he was a postdoc researcher at the International Research Center for Telecommunications-Transmission and Radar, TUDelft, where since 1999 he has been an Assistant Professor. Dr. Nikookar has done research on different areas of wireless communications, including wireless channel modeling, UWB, MIMO, multicarrier transmission, Wavelet-based OFDM and CDMA. He is a senior member of the IEEE.