Journal of Applied Psychology 1998, Vol. 83, No.

3, 486-493

Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0021-9010/98/$3.00

RESEARCH REPORTS Emotional Exhaustion as a Predictor of Job Performance and Voluntary Turnover
"l~homas A. Wright University of Nevada at Reno Russell C r o p a n z a n o Colorado State University

Recent research suggests that a better understanding of emotional exhaustion requires the development of new theoretical perspectives. To that end, with the conservation of resources model (COR) as the theoretical framework, the present 1-year longitudinal study was undertaken. Composed of 52 social welfare workers, this research examined the relationship of emotional exhaustion to job satisfaction, voluntary turnover, and job performance. Positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) were used as control variables. Whereas emotional exhaustion was unrelated to job satisfaction, it was associated with both performance and subsequent turnover. In addition, the relationship between emotional exhaustion and performance and also between emotional exhaustion and turnover remained significant above and beyond the effects of PA and NA. Future research directions and implications of the findings are introduced.

Emotional exhaustion is a chronic state of physical and emotional depletion that results from excessive job demands and continuous hassles (Shirom, 1989; Zohar, 1997). Emotional exhaustion is a significant topic of interest for organizational researchers, as it has important im, plications both for the quality of work life and also for optimal organizational functioning (for reviews see Cherniss, 1993; Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Kahill, 1988; Maslach, 1982). From a worker's perspective, emotional exhaustion is associated with a host of somatic difficulties, such as colds, gastro-intestinal problems, headaches, and sleep disturbances (Belcastro, 1982; Belcastro & Hays, 1984). From the organization's perspective, prior research has found relationships between emotional exhaustion and such attitudinal and behavioral correlates as turnover intentions (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986), work attitudes (Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Wolpin, Burke, & Greenglass, 1991), counterproductive work behavior (Jones, 1981; Quattrochi-Turbin, Jones, & Breedlove, 1983), and job performance (Wright & Bonett, 1997). Effectively managing emotional exhaustion seems to be in everyone's interest. Thomas A. Wright, Managerial Sciences Department, University of Nevada at Reno; Russell Cropanzano, Department of Psychology, Colorado State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Thomas A. Wright, Managerial Sciences Department, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0206. Electronic mail may be sent to taw@scs.unr.edu. 486

Despite the importance of the emotional exhaustion phenomenon and the promise of these research findings, Lee and Ashforth (1996) cautioned that a better understanding requires the further development of new theoretical perspectives. Likewise, Wright and Bonett (1997) noted that the lack of theoretical development explains why prior research investigating the relationship between emotional exhaustion and job performance has produced inconsistent results. Following Lee and Ashforth's admonition, the present research uses the conservation of resources (COR) model of stress as the theoretical framework for better understanding emotional exhaustion. Emotional E x h a u s t i o n and the C O R M o d e l Historically, most emotional exhaustion research has been guided by Maslach's (1982) and Maslach and Jackson' s (1986) three-component conceptualization of bumout. In this model, burnout has three interrelated parts: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment (Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Pines & Aronson, 1988). Emotional exhaustion, the subject of the present study, describes feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one's work. It is manifested by both physical fatigue and a sense of feeling psychologically and emotionally "drained." Depersonalization, also called "dehumanization," is best understood in reference to the social service occupations in which burnout has been most frequently examined. Depersonalization refers to a set of callous and insensitive behaviors

RESEARCH REPORTS

487

displayed by a worker toward a client. Finally, diminished personal accomplishment refers to negative evaluations about the self. A sense of diminished personal accomplishment would be shown when a worker feels ineffective and incompetent. Although all three components are potentially important, a growing research consensus has concluded that emotional exhaustion is the key dimension of burnout (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Gaines & Jermier, 1983; Wright & Bonett, 1997; Zohar, 1997). For example, on the basis of a detailed review of the available literature, Shirom (1989) maintained that the "core meaning" of burnout can best be found in the physical and psychological depletion that characterizes emotional exhaustion. Shirom further noted that defining burnout as emotional exhaustion helps distinguish it from other social science concepts. Likewise, a field study by Lee and Ashforth (1993a) determined that emotional exhaustion plays a central mediating role in the burnout process. In keeping with this recent work, the present study emphasizes emotional exhaustion. We now provide the necessary theoretical framework, derived from COR theory, to better understand the role of emotional exhaustion in organizational behavior. COR theory provides particularly valuable insights for the study of prolonged emotional exhaustion. According to this framework, emotional exhaustion is most likely to occur when there is an actual resource loss, a perceived threat of resource loss, a situation in which one's resources are inadequate to meet work demands, or when the anticipated returns are not obtained on an investment of resources (Hobfoll, 1988). Hobfoll (1989) defined resources, "as those objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies that are valued by the individual or that serve as a means for attainment of these objects" (p. 516). Examples of resources include social support, job enhancement opportunities, degree of participation in decision making, level of autonomy and established behavior-outcome (i.e., reward) contingencies (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Workload level, role ambiguity, role conflict, and stressful events in general are examples of work demands. For many workers, the key decision becomes one of acquiring a n d " stockpiling" the resources necessary to meet current work demands and protect themselves from further resource depletion. Proionged strain or emotional exhaustion occurs when individuals feel they no longer have sufficient emotional resources to handle the stressors confronting them (Hobfoll, 1989; Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Hobfoll (1989) noted the similarity between COR theory and the popular management concept of person-environment (P-E) fit (French, Caplan, & Harrison, 1982). Like COR theory, P-E fit theory posits that an incongruent relationship between organizational demands and an individual's resources to meet those demands leads initially

to job stress and, if left unattended over time, to emotional exhaustion and other potentially maladaptive outcomes. However, COR theory goes beyond P-E fit theory and makes specific predictions regarding what individuals will do and why they do it when confronted with stress. More specifically, COR theory predicts that individuals will experience a sense of discomfort and will attempt to minimize losses. This affords researchers a great deal of precision in predicting the outcomes of emotional exhaustion (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Leiter (1991; 1993) proposed that emotionally exhausted individuals overemphasize avoidance or withdrawal coping mechanisms. The most costly of these employee withdrawal-related correlates of emotional exhaustion are diminished job satisfaction, voluntary turnover, and diminished job performance (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Thus, on the basis of COR theory, we expected that each of these outcomes would be significantly correlated with emotional exhaustion. Emotional Exhaustion and Affective Dispositions In keeping with COR theory, we have thus far discussed the situational correlates of emotional exhaustion, such as job resources and demands. However, though less attention has been given to personality factors, there is some evidence that affective-based or dispositional correlates are related to emotional exhaustion (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). Consequently, it might be that affective personality dispositions are accounting for the relationship between emotional exhaustion and various work outcomes. Lee and Ashforth (1996) noted the need for research providing additional clarification of these proposed relationships. The measurement of affect is frequently divided into positive and negative dimensions (Cropanzano, James, & Konovsky, 1993; Watson & Tellegen, 1985). The first dimension is negative affectivity (NA). High NA is characterized by the experience of negative emotion; low NA, by its lack. The second dimension is positive affectivity (PA). High PAs experience a good deal of positive emotion; low PAs experience less. The Positive and Negative Affectivity Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson and his colleagues (Watson, 1988; Watson & Clark, 1984; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) is probably the most widely used measure of NA and PA. Because emotional exhaustion involves negatively toned feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one's work, we predicted that NA is positively and PA negatively related to emotional exhaustion. If these relationshiPs are found, it raises the possibility that emotional exhaustion is only spuriously associated with job satisfaction and work behavior. The actual "driver" of these outcomes might be affective personality dispositions. For example, Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, and

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RESEARCH REPORTS

Webster (1988; see also Burke, Brief, & George, 1993) m a i n t a i n e d that N A m a y influence the relationship between self-reported situational d e m a n d s and self-reported strain. In an analogous fashion, N A and PA might influence e m o t i o n a l exhaustion, turnover, performance, and satisfaction. Consequently, an observed relationship between e m o t i o n a l exhaustion and these o u t c o m e variables w o u l d be spurious. We controlled for this possibility in the present study.

Measures Emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion was measured with Maslach and Jackson's (1986) nine-item emotional exhaustion scale (Maslach Burnout Inventory). This nine-item scale measures how often one feels emotionally overextended and exhausted by one's work. The inventory uses a 7-point scale (0 = never, and 6 = everyday). Sample items include " I feel emotionally drained from my work," " I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job," and " I feel I ' m working too hard on my job." Evidence of the construct validity of emotional exhaustion has been provided by correlations between emotional exhaustion and selected job characteristics (i.e., direct contact with patients; Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Maslach & Jackson, 1986). The present study established a Cronbach's alpha of .89. Dispositional affectivity. This study used the PANAS Scale developed by Watson et al. (1988) as the measure of affectivity. The PANAS Scale is designed to measure both PA and NA. PA is measured by descriptors such as "active, alert, enthusiastic, inspired, and interested." NA is assessed by descriptors such as "afraid, hostile, irritable, jittery, and upset." Participants indicated the extent to which they experienced each descriptor of affect in general on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). Cronbach's alpha for PA was .90; alpha for NA was .88. Satisfaction. Five widely recognized dimensions of the satisfaction construct--degree of satisfaction with the work itself, degree of satisfaction with coworkers, degree of satisfaction with supervision, degree of satisfaction with promotional opportunities, and degree of satisfaction with p a y - - w e r e used to measure satisfaction (Price & Mueller, 1986). The satisfaction items asked the following questions: " A l l in all, how satisfied are you with the work itself of your job?"; "All in all, how satisfied are you with your co-workers?"; "All in all, how satisfied are you with the supervision?"; "All in all, how satisfied are you with the promotional opportunities?"; and "All in all, how satisfied are you with the pay?" Each of the satisfaction items used a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (very unsatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). These 5 items were summed to form a composite measure of satisfaction for each participant (coefficient alpha = .75). Performance. Employee performance was measured with a 1-item, global rating of performance. Because all employees ultimately report to and are evaluated by the same top-ranking administrative officer, this officer was asked, "Overall, how would you rate this employee's performance over the last six months"? A 5-point scale was provided with ratings ranging from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent). Turnover. Past researchers have calculated turnover in a number of ways (Wright & Bonett, 1992). In this study, turnover was defined only as voluntary withdrawal from the organization. The potential problems resulting from a failure to adequately distinguish between voluntary and involuntary turnover have been well noted (Gerhart, 1990; McEvoy & Cascio, 1987; Stumpf & Dawley, 1981). In the present study, we were able to confirm, through independent conversations with both administrative personnel and the employees themselves, that each and every employee did, in fact, voluntarily withdraw. This specific-

Summary The present research builds on the pioneering w o r k o f Hobfoll ( 1988; 1989) and L e e and A s h f o r t h (1996). W i t h the C O R m o d e l as the theoretical framework, this 1-year longitudinal study tested the relationships among emotional exhaustion, affectivity, j o b satisfaction, voluntary e m p l o y e e turnover, and j o b performance. In particular, w e formulated the following five research hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1. Job satisfaction will be negatively related to emotional exhaustion. Hypothesis 2. Job performance will be negatively related to emotional exhaustion. Hypothesis 3. Emotional exhaustion will be positively related to subsequent voluntary employee turnover. Hypothesis 4. NA will be positively related to emotional exhaustion. PA will be negatively related to emotional exhaustion. Hypothesis 5. All of the relationships predicted in Hypotheses 1 - 3 will remain significant even after controlling for the effects of NA and PA.

Method

Research Participants
The present 1-year longitudinal study was specifically designed to investigate the contribution of affectivity, job satisfaction, voluntary turnover, and job performance to emotional exhaustion. Thomas A. Wright asked social welfare workers employed by a large city on the West Coast of the United States (N = 64) to participate in the study by means of a direct contact procedure. The actual sample included 52 employees, representing a response rate of 81%. All respondents had completed their bachelor's degree, were employed within the same department, and performed the same job duties. The mean age for this mostly male (69%) sample was 42 years; the mean tenure was 13 years. The sample includes all respondents for whom the measures of affectivity (PA and N A ) , emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, job performance, and turnover were available. The measures of affectivity (PA and N A ) , emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and job performance were obtained at Time 1. The turnover data were obtained at Time 2, 1 year later.

RESEARCH REPORTS Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and lntercorrelations Among the Study Variables Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Emotional exhaustion Job satisfaction Turnover~ Job performance Positive affectivity Negative affectivity

489

M
2.6 2.8 4.0 3.4 1.9

SD
1.3 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

1
--

2
-.23 --

3
.34** -.05 --

4
-.27* .11 -.37** --

5
-.39** .36** .00 -.04 --

6
.72*** -.20 .25* -.12 -.47***

Turnover was dummy coded "1" for no turnover and "2" for turnover. *p "~ .05. **p -~ .01. ***p --- .001 (all one-tailed tests).

ity is widely recommended, though not often available in previous research (cf. Campion, 1991; Jackofsky, 1984; Wright & Bonett, 1993). Although infrequent (all turnover was voluntary in the present study), employees have been terminated for cause. Typically, termination is for drug-related infractions. Data supplied by the organization indicated that annual voluntary turnover ranges between 10-15%. In the present study, the rate was 13.5%. Results

Correlational Analyses: Hypotheses 1 - 4

Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for the study variables. Hypothesis 1 predicted a negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. This prediction was not supported. Emotional exhaustion was not associated with job satisfaction. In support of Hypothesis 2, emotional exhaustion was correlated with job performance ( r = - . 2 7 , p < .05). Hypothesis 3 predicted a positive relationship between emotional exhaustion and subsequent employee voluntary turnover (dummy coded " 1 " for no turnover, " 2 " for turnover). A pooled variance t-test procedure for testing the equality of the two turnover group means was conducted. This t-test procedure can be considered a special case of a one-way analysis of variance with two levels of classification (no turnover-turnover) for the categorical turnover response variable (Steel & Torrie, 1980). As predicted, a positive relationship was established between emotional exhaustion and subsequent voluntary turnover ( r = .34, p < .01). Hypothesis 4 predicted directional relationships among PA, NA, and emotional exhaustion, As predicted, a negative relationship was established between PA and emotional exhaustion (r = .47, p < .01 ), whereas there was a positive relationship between NA and emotional exhaustion ( r = .72, p < .0001 ).

Regression Analyses: Hypothesis 5

Although these results provide strong support for the bivariate relationships posited in Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4, they do not address the possibility of various third-vari-

able explanations (Brief et al., 1988). As proposed in Hypothesis 5, the present research provides the first opportunity to simultaneously examine the relative contribution of PA, NA, and emotional exhaustion to the prediction of job performance and voluntary turnover. Job satisfaction was excluded from these analyses because it was not correlated with emotional exhaustion. In the first analysis, job performance was regressed on emotional exhaustion, PA, and NA. Thus, job performance is considered the dependent variable, with emotional exhaustion, PA, and NA as independent variables. Table 2 contains the results of this regression analysis. The results demonstrated that only emotional exhaustion was a significant predictor of performance, t(43) = - 1.91, p < .05. The value of the t statistic for PA, t(43) = - 0 . 8 1 , ns, and NA, t(43) = 0.50, ns, did not reach significance. The dependent variable in the second analysis, employee voluntary turnover, is a binary (no turnover-turnover) response variable. The analysis often recommended to investigate relationships involving binary response variables is logistic regression. In the present case, the method of maximum likelihood is used to fit a linear logistic regression model to the binary turnover response data (Cox & Snell, 1989). Table 3 contains the results of this logistic regression analysis. The results demonstrated that only emotional exhaustion was a significant predictor of employee voluntary turnover (z = -1.80, p < .05). The value of the z statistic for PA (z = -1.05, ns) and NA (z = - 0 . 1 6 , ns) did not reach significance. Taken together, the one-tailed test results of these analyses provide further support to the findings that emotional exhaustion predicted turnover and job performance, even after controlling for PA and NA. Our results show significant relationships among emotional exhaustion, job performance, and voluntary turnover. This raises the possibility that voluntary turnover might be mediated by the consequences of emotional exhaustion. 1 That is, emotional exhaustion could be related 1We gratefully acknowledge the helpful suggestion of an anonymous reviewer regarding this point.

490 Table 2

RESEARCH REPORTS Table 4

Logistic Regression Analyses Predicting Voluntary Turnover From Emotional Exhaustion and Job Performance

Regression Analyses Predicting Job Performance From Emotional Exhaustion, Positive Affectivity, and Negative Affectivity

Independent variable
t

/~ -0.58* 1.56"

SE

Independent variable Emotional exhaustion Positive affectivity Negative affectivity

Note. n = 47.

/~ -0.22* -0.14 0.12

SE

0.11 0.18 0.24

- 1.91 -0.81 0.50

Emotional exhaustion Job performance

Note. n = 47.

0.37 0.78

- 1.54 2.00

*p < .05 (all tests were one-tailed).

*p < .05 (all tests were one-tailed). for better understanding emotional exhaustion. Using the framework of COR theory, the present study is the first to simultaneously examine several important, and potentially costly if left unattended, work-relevant correlates of emotional exhaustion. Although we were unable to predict job satisfaction (Hypothesis 1), job performance (Hypothesis 2) and turnover (Hypothesis 3) were related to emotional exhaustion. Regarding Hypothesis 5, multiple regression analysis further demonstrated that emotional exhaustion predicted both turnover and job performance, even after NA and PA were controlled. The pattern of associations between emotional exhaustion and the correlates examined in this study are consistent with COR theory (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993; Leiter, 1993; Lee & Ashforth, 1996). More specifically, COR theory predicts that emotional exhaustion occurs when individuals feel that they do not have the necessary or adequate supply of emotional resources to handle interpersonal stressors (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). This recognition, in turn, leads to selective methods of adapting or coping with the particular situation. Lee and Ashforth (1993a, 1993b) proposed that the prevalent coping strategy for most individuals in these circumstances, especially for social and human services workers, involves some form of withdrawal from the situation, either behavioral (i.e., tumover or decreased performance) or attitudinal (i.e., job dissatisfaction). The present results provide strong support to this behavioral withdrawal thesis. In particular, the obtained relationships among job performance, emotional exhaustion, and employee turnover require further discussion. Generally speaking, PA and NA showed only weak relationships to the criterion variables examined here. PA showed a significant bivariate association with job satisfaction, whereas NA was significantly correlated with turnover (see Table 1 ). The turnover relationship vanished when emotional exhaustion was controlled for (see Table 3). However, given our modest sample size, it would not be judicious to accept these nonsignificant relationships without considerably more research. Certainly, with greater statistical power, the relationships observed here would have achieved significance. Additionally, previous research has found NA and PA to be related to various

to lower job performance. Job performance, in turn, could cause people to depart from the organization (Jackofsky, 1984). If this were the case, the significant relationship between emotional exhaustion and turnover would drop to nonsignificance once the effects of job performance ratings were taken into account (cf. Baron & Kenny, 1986). To test for this possibility, we treated voluntary turnover as the dependent variable. Emotional exhaustion and job performance were both independent variables. Table 4 contains the results of this logistic regression. The two independent variables, considered simultaneously, were found to predict voluntary turnover, X2(2, N = 47) = 9.29, p < .01. This global chi-square result provides the joint effect of the model explanatory variables. The value of the z statistics further demonstrated that job performance (z = 2.00, p < .05), but not emotional exhaustion (z = - 1 . 5 4 , ns), was a significant predictor of voluntary turnover. Finally, for only descriptive, and not for inferential, purposes we report the R 2 effect size ( R 2 = .18; a d j u s t e d R E = .14) obtained from a multiple regression analysis using a dummy-coded dependent variable (i.e., voluntary turnover). Discussion Prior research (Hobfoll, 1989; Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Wright & Bonett, 1997) noted that a primary goal of future research is to develop new theoretical perspectives

Table 3
Logistic Regression Analyses Predicting Voluntary Turnover From Emotional Exhaustion, Positive Affectivity, and Negative Affectivity

Independent variable Emotional exhaustion Positive affectivity Negative affectivity

Note. n = 51.

fl -0.89* -0.68 -0.14

SE

0.50 0.65 0.89

- 1.80 - 1.05 -0.16

*p < .05 (all tests were one-tailed).

RESEARCH REPORTS work outcomes (e.g., Brief et al., 1988; Cropanzano et al., 1993; Czajka, 1990). It could well be that NA and PA have weak, though practically important, effects on the dependent variables measured here. Further research with larger samples is necessary to examine this possibility. The practical relevance of employee performance in emotional exhaustion-related research is widely recognized (Garden, 1991; Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Shirom, 1989). However, although the notion that emotional exhaustion is related to a decline in work performance is widely recognized, empirical support for this relationship is limited. In fact, our literature review revealed only two empirical studies linking job performance to emotional exhaustion (Quattrochi-Turbin et al., 1983; Wright & Bonett, 1997), and only Wright and Bonett used a non-selfreport measure of performance. In this study, Wright and Bonett found a negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and subsequent work performance (measured 3 years later). Interestingly, unlike the relationship established in the present research, Wright and Bonett's research failed to establish a cross-sectionally derived relationship between emotional exhaustion and their measure of performance (i.e., a composite measure of the jobspecific performance dimensions: work facilitation, team building, goal emphasis, and support). Although interesting, one could argue that both Wright and Bonett's (1997) findings and the present results may well be a function of the type of performance instrument used. That is, while measuring different aspects of performance, both studies relied on supervisory ratings. Thus, employees who are less emotionally exhausted or fatigued may be more fun to be around and more likable. Because people (i.e., supervisors) tend to be more tolerant of those they favor or like, supervisors may provide more positive evaluations for those who display positive affect (Robbins & DeNisi, 1994). Rather than being directly related to changes in performance, emotional exhaustion could serve as a systematic source of halo in performance evaluations. However, in the present study, i t should be emphasized that PA and NA were not associated with job performance ratings. If rating bias was accounting for the emotional exhaustion-job performance relationship, then one would also have expected significant bivariate associations between NA and performance and between PA and performance. These were not obtained. Nevertheless, a conclusive test of this possibility awaits future research in which more quantitative measures of performance are available. These suggestions for more quantitatively based performance measures may prove difficult tasks for future research endeavors, however. For instance, the current appraisal process for the present employee sample is based solely on supervisory evaluation. Wright, Bonett, and

491

Sweeney (1993) noted that many human services organizations emphasize non-task-specific performance dimensions in the appraisal process. Furthermore, regardless of whether supervisory performance evaluations include halo or other forms of bias, they are predictive of "success" from the employees' point of view (Staw, Sutton, & Pelled, 1994). It remains for future research using additionai participants in a variety of settings to establish the generalizability of these findings to other employee groupings. Another topic for future research should be to establish a less ambiguous causal link between job performance and emotional exhaustion. In accordance with COR theory, we framed our hypotheses with the assumption that exhaustion causes (decreased) performance. In addition, the findings that performance ratings served as a mediator between emotional exhaustion and turnover is consistent with a model in which exhaustion is the causally prior variable. However, it is important to emphasize that, in the present study, performance ratings and emotional exhaustion were collected at the same point in time. Thus, it is also possible that the causal arrow runs from performance to exhaustion. For example, an employee who receives consistently negative performance feedback may be more likely to experience emotional exhaustion than a person whose feedback is generally positive. The findings regarding job performance and turnover bear further scrutiny. More specifically, the fact that job performance mediated the relationship between emotional exhaustion and turnover is consistent with COR theory. On the basis of her review of the literature, Jackofsky (1984) observed that often, though not always, poor performers are likely to turn over. Similarly, McEvoy and Cascio (1987) have noted that because poor performance is a stressful event, in most circumstances, employees will try to reduce this stress. In order to do so, individuals can either allocate additional precious resources to increase productivity or exhibit various forms of withdrawal behavior. Of course, in the event of emotional exhaustion, those resources have probably been depleted. Consistent with this reasoning, and on the basis of COR theory, we anticipated that emotionally exhausted employees would lack the necessary additional resources to increase performance. As a consequence, they were more likely to leave their employers. If these findings are replicated, it would suggest that emotional exhaustion may not (only) affect a single criterion at a single time. Rather, it might result in "ripple effects" that resonate for months, as one negative outcome causes another. This certainly could have been the case here; reduced job performance was associated with higher turnover a year later. These observations are consistent with Comments made by Shirom (1989), who observed that even relatively small levels of emotional exhaustion may be large enough

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RESEARCH REPORTS Comparison of alternative measures and recommendations for research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 199-212. Cherniss, C. (1993). The role of professional self-efficacy in the etiology and amelioration of burnout. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 135-149). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. Cordes, C. L., & Dougherty, T. W. (1993). A review and integration of research on job burnout. Academy of Management Review, 18, 621-656. Cox, D. R., & Snell, E. J. (1989). The analysis of binary data (2nd ed.). London: Chapman & Hall. Cropanzano, R., James, K., & Konovsky, M. A. (1993). Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes and job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 595-

to cause concern, because emotional exhaustion is suggestive of very high levels of activation or arousal. In fact, Gaines and Jermier (1983) maintained that because emotional exhaustion refers to an extreme feeling state, even minimal occurrence of this type of strain, experienced relatively few times a month, may warrant attention. In sum, from the perspective of COR theory, turnover is a likely eventual solution for emotionally exhausted employees. Conclusion The present research is the first to simultaneously examine the relationships among affectivity, job satisfaction, turnover, job performance, and emotional exhaustion. With the COR model as the theoretical base, the present findings appear to confirm the primacy-of-loss hypothesis (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). Emotionally exhausted employees exhibit diminished job performance and eventually quit their job, even after controlling for PA and NA. According to COR theory, these withdrawal-related activities demonstrate that emotionally exhausted employees, without the benefit of outside help or intervention, respond to stress by coping with strategies designed to minimize any further resource loss. It remains for future research to more thoroughly investigate the mechanisms by which emotionally exhausted individuals learn to reframe or reappraise situations as challenging, as opposed to stressful (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Lee and Ashforth, 1996). Until preventive measures are undertaken, organizations will likely continue to experience the costly dysfunctional manifestations of emotional exhaustion examined in the present study. References Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. Belcastro, P. A. (1982). Burnout and its relationship to teachers' somatic complaints and illnesses. Psychological Reports, 50, 1045-1046. Belcastro, P. A., & Hays, L. C. (1984). Ergophilia . . . ergop h o b i a . . , e r g o . . , burnout? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 15, 260-270. Brief, A. P., Burke, M. J., George, J. M., Robinson, B., & Webster, J. (1988). Should negative affectivity remain an unmeasured variable in the study of job stress? Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 193-198. Burke, M. J., Brief, A. P,, & George, J. M. (1993). The role of negative affectivity in understanding relations between selfreports of stressors and strains: A comment on the applied psychology literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 402-412. Campion, M. A. ( 1991 ). Meaning and measurement of turnover:

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