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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING K L UNIVERSITY GREEN FIELDS, VADDESWARAM. GUNTUR Dt. 2011-2012
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the report entitled, EVOLUTION, MANUFACTURING AND WORKING OF TURBINES has been carried out by these students :
S.NAGA BABU T.NAREN V.NAVEEN PAUL (09101448) (09101450) (09101451) R.PATTABHIRAM G.PRUDHVI (09101456) (09101461)
M.RAGHAVENDRA (09101465)
as part of mini project for the academic year 2011-2012 of K L University , is the record of the bonafide work carried out by them.
Dr. Y.V.HANUMANTHA RAO Head of the Department, Dept. of Mechanical Engg. K L UNIVERSITY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to take this opportunity to express our heartfelt thanks to all those who helped in the course of our mini project. We express our sincere thanks to our college K L UNIVERSITY and Dr. Y.V.HANUMANTHA RAO (HOD), Dept. of Mechanical Engineering for giving us a chance to come up with a mini project and get exposed to the real engineering. We specially thank and warmly acknowledge the continuous encouragement, invaluable supervision, timely suggestions and inspired guidance offered by our guide M.NAGESWARA RAO, Asst. Professor,Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, K L University, in bringing this report to a successful completion. Last but not the least, we thank our parents and the Almighty whose blessings are always there with us.
CONTENTS
Abstract.. i
CHAPTER 1: EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION 1.1 Evolution of turbines 1.2 Major types of turbines used today 1.3 classification of Steam turbines 1.4 classification of Wind turbines 1.5 classification of Gas turbines
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CHAPTER 2: THE STEAM TURBINE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Parts of a steam turbine 2.3 Steam Turbine Blades 2.4 Classification of blade profiles 2.5 Dynamics in blades 2.6 Blading Materials 2.7 Manufacturing of a Steam turbine blade 2.8 Working of a steam turbine 2.9 The Rankine cycle
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CHAPTER 3: THE GAS TURBINE 3.1 Manufacturing of a gas turbine 3.2 Process chart for manufacturing 3.3 Working of a Gas turbine An overview 3.4 Theory of operation 3.5 The Brayton Cycle 3.6 The Actual Gas Turbine cycle
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CHAPTER 4: THE WIND TURBINE 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Parts of a wind turbine 4.3 Production of the nacelle 4.4 Production of the blades 4.5 Manufacturing of the tower 4.6 Description of a wind turbine blade 4.7 The Aerodynamic profile 4.8 Power produced by a wind turbine 4.9 Efficiency of a Wind turbine
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CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 5.1 Results 5.2 Problem on steam turbine efficiency 5.3 Problem on Gas turbine efficiency
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Conclusion 58 References . 59
ABSTRACT
A TURBINE is a prime mover/rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The working fluid contains potential energy which is in turn converted into kinetic energy. There are several procedures/methods which are employed in turbines to collect this energy. From the invention of the turbine in 1913 to the highly advanced present day turbines, there have been many developments in the design, operating procedures, manufacturing and working of turbines. Our study is mainly aimed at manufacturing and working of the turbines, considering the historical developments also. The entire process study is divided as follows: Phase I: History, classification and overview of turbines. In this phase, the historical developments and different types of turbines are studied. Phase II: Manufacturing of Turbines. A turbine is a combination of many static and rotating components/members. At high operating levels, these components are subjected to high stresses and other deformations. For the stability of a turbine, various considerations in design, manufacturing are employed. Therefore, these components are to be carefully manufactured. In this phase, we study the various manufacturing processes involved in the manufacturing a turbine & its components. Phase III: Working Procedures of different types of turbines. In this phase, the operating and working procedure for different turbines stated in phase I & II are studied in detail.
Fig. undershot water wheel The undershot waterwheel was followed by overshot wheel during medieval times (as shown in fig. below). This first made its appearance in Germany around the middle of the twelfth century and became the prototype for the modern reaction turbine. Contrasted to the impulse turbine whose energy source is kinetic energy, the energy source for an overshot wheel (or reaction turbine) is potential energy. This is because it is the weight of the water
acting under gravity that is used to turn the wheel. Renaissance engineers studied the waterwheel and realized that the action of water on a wheel with blades would be much more effective if the entire wheel were somehow enclosed in a kind of chamber.
Fig. overshot water wheel French mining engineer Claude Burdin published his results in 1828. It was in this publication that Burdin coined the word "turbine" which he took from the Latin "turbo" meaning a whirling or spinning top. It was Burdin's student, Benoit Fourneyron, who improved and developed his master's work and who is considered to be the inventor of the modern hydraulic turbine. Fourneyron built a six-horsepower turbine and later went on to build larger machines that worked under higher pressures and delivered more horsepower. His main contribution was his addition of a distributor which guided the water flow so that it acted with the greatest efficiency on the blades of the wheel. His was a reaction type turbine, since water entering through the vanes of the distributor (that was fitted inside the blades) then acted on the blades of the wheel. Following Fourneyron's first turbine, which happened to be a hydraulic or water turbine, other turbines were developed that used the energy of a different material like gas or steam. In the Impulse turbine, a nozzle transforms water under a high head into a powerful jet. The momentum of this jet is destroyed by striking the runner, which absorbs the resulting
force. If the velocity of the water leaving the runner is nearly zero, all of the kinetic energy of the jet has been transformed into mechanical energy, so the efficiency is high. In the Reaction turbine, the pressure change occurs in the runner itself at the same time that the force is exerted. The force still comes from rate of change of momentum, but not as obviously as in the impulse turbine. Many turbines combine impulse and reaction, so that it is difficult to separate them conceptually.
Subtypes
Darrieus wind turbine: Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results in greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor area. Savonius wind turbine: These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability lowefficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The first steam turbine, at its time indeed did spark off the industrial revolution throughout the west. However, the turbine at that time was still an inefficient piece of heavy weighing high maintenance machine. The power to weight ratio of the first reciprocating steam turbine was extremely low, and this led to a great focus improving the design, efficiency and usability of the basic steam turbine, the result of which are the power horses that currently produce more than 80% of todays electricity at power plants. Because a steam turbine runs on of steam produced by a boiler, it can support many different types of fuels. Natural gas, coal, nuclear, wood, municipal solid waste and more can all be used to run a steam turbine. As a result, facilities that have an excess of waste products such as oil or wood tend to implement steam turbines. The steam turbine can be fitted to match a facilities pressure and temperature requirements. Furthermore, steam turbines can be retrofitted into an existing steam system.
b) Shafts
The shaft is a power transmitting device and is used to transmit the rotational movement of the blades connected to it at one end via the rotor to the coupling, speed reducer or gear at the other end.
c) Outer Casing
The steam turbine is surrounded by housing or an outer casing which contains the turbine and protects the device components from external influence and damage. It may also support the bearings on which the shafts rest to provide rigidity to the shaft. Usually split at the center horizontally, the casing parts are often bolted together for easy opening, checking and steam turbine maintenance, and are extremely sturdy and strong.
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d) Governor
The governor is a device used to regulate and control or govern the output of the steam turbine. This is done by means of control valves which control the steam flow into the turbine in the first place.
e) Oil System
A steam turbine has thousands of moving parts and all these parts not only have to move in high velocities, but also need to be protected from wear and tear over the years. This is done by effective lubrication by the oil system, which governs the pressure, flow and temperature of the turbine oil, the bearing oil and lubrication of other moving parts.
f) Pipes
The pipe is an all-important steam turbine component that brings the steam from the boiler to the turbine. This has to be done without an appreciable loss in pressure, and at the same time, must be able to withstand all these pressures safely. The pipes should be easy to clean and are prone to deposits on their inner surfaces. Deposits on the inner surface of the steam pipe reduce the net steam flow area, throwing forth a negative effect on the efficiency.
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a small pressure drop across the moving blades also. Therefore, the impulse stages in practice have a small degree of reaction. These stages are therefore more accurately, though less widely, described as low-reaction stages. The typical impulse and reaction stages are plotted in the following figure.
Fig. - Impulse & Reaction stages The presently used reaction profiles are more efficient than the impulse profiles at part loads. This is because of the more rounded inlet edge for reaction profiles. Due to this, even if the inlet angle of the steam is not tangential to the pressure-side profile of the blade, the losses are low. However, the impulse profiles have one advantage. The impulse profiles can take a large heat drop across a single stage, and the same heat drop would require a greater number of stages if reaction profiles are used, thereby increasing the turbine length. The Steam turbines use the impulse profiles for the control stage (1st stage), and the reaction profiles for subsequent stages. There are three reasons for using impulse profile for the first stage. a) In most of the turbines, if the first stage is a reaction stage, the lower half of the moving blades does not have any inlet steam, and would ventilate. Therefore, most of the stage heat drop should occur in the guide blades. b) The heat drop across the first stage should be high, so that the wheel chamber of the outer casing is not exposed to the high inlet parameters. c) Nozzle control gives better efficiency at part loads than throttle control. d) The number of stages in the turbine should not be too high, as this will increase the length of the turbine.
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outlet edges is called the bitangent line. The angle which this line makes with the circumferential direction is called the setting angle. Pitch of a blade is the circumferential distance between any point on the profile and an identical point on the next blade.
H.P. BLADE ROOTS The root is a part of the blade that fixes the blade to the rotor or stator. Its design depends upon the centrifugal and steam bending forces of the blade. It should be designed such that the material in the blade root as well as the rotor / stator claw and any fixing element are in the safe limits to avoid failure. The roots are T-root and Fork-root. The fork root has a higher load-carrying capacity than the T-root. It was found that machining this T-root with side grip is more of a problem. It has to be machined by broaching, and the broaching machine available could not handle the sizes of the root. The typical roots used for the HP moving blades for various steam turbine applications are shown in the following figure:
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For HP guide blades of Wesel design, the shroud is not integral, but a shroud band is riveted to a number of guide blades together. The function of this shroud band is mainly to seat the steam. In some designs HP guide blades may have integral shrouds like moving blades. The primary function remains steam sealing. In industrial turbines, in LP blades, the resonant vibrations have high amplitudes due to the thin sections of the blades, and the large lengths. It may also not always be possible to avoid resonance at all operating conditions. This is because of two reasons. Firstly, the LP blades are standardized for certain ranges of speeds, and turbines may be selected to operate anywhere in the speed range. The entire design range of operating speed of the LP blades cannot be outside the resonance range. It is, of course, possible to design a new LP blade for each application, but this involves a lot of design efforts and manufacturing cycle time. However, with the present-day computer packages and manufacturing methods, it has become feasible to do so. Secondly, the driven machine may be a variable speed machine like a compressor or a boiler-feed-pump. In this case also, it is not possible to avoid resonance. In such cases, where it is not possible to avoid resonance, a damping element is to be used in the LP blades to reduce the dynamic stresses, so that the blades can operate continuously under resonance also. There may be blades which are not adequately damped due to manufacturing inaccuracies. The need for a damping element is therefore eliminated. In case the frequencies of the blades tend towards resonance due to manufacturing inaccuracies, tuning is to be done on the blades to correct the frequency. This tuning is done by grinding off material at the tip to increase the frequency, and by grinding off material at the base of the profile to reduce the natural frequency. The damping in any blade can be of any of the following types: a) Material damping: This type of damping is because of the inherent damping properties of the material which makes up the component. b) Aerodynamic damping: This is due to the damping of the fluid which surrounds the component in operation. c) Friction damping: This is due to the rubbing friction between the components under consideration with any other object. Out of these damping mechanisms, the material and aerodynamic types of damping are very small in magnitude. Friction damping is enormous as compared to the other two types of damping. Because of this reason, the damping elements in blades generally incorporate a feature by which the vibrational energy is dissipated as frictional heat.
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The frictional damping has a particular characteristic. When the frictional force between the rubbing surfaces is very small as compared to the excitation force, the surfaces slip, resulting in friction damping. However, when the excitation force is small when compared to the frictional force, the surfaces do not slip, resulting in locking of the surfaces. This condition gives zero friction damping, and only the material and aerodynamic damping exists. In a periodically varying excitation force, it may frequently happen that the force is less than the friction force. During this phase, the damping is very less. At the same time, due to the locking of the rubbing surfaces, the overall stiffness increases and the natural frequency shifts drastically away from the individual value. The response therefore also changes in the locked condition. The resonant response of a system therefore depends upon the amount of damping in the system and the natural frequency of the system.
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The fixturing elements at the head and root of the blade structure are ultimately removed to leave the final shaped item, but during the machining process itself their accuracy and form have a crucial impact on the success of the overall operation. For Root Rectangle, It is done by standard end mill- only roughing necessary. Now for Root Trapezoid or dovetail, special roughing and finishing necessary. The Head Counter sinking is carried out by counter-bore tool.
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The Head rectangle Standard is done by standard end-mill and only roughing is required. Now the Head Cylindrical shape is done by the standard end-mill followed by roughing and finishing. Whichever processing methods are employed, the first step is to machine the reference surfaces by which the work piece will be clamped during the subsequent machining. Several tools are suitable for this operation, and the long edge cutter is particularly recommended.
Fig.- Bending of work piece It is possible that the blade work piece may deform or bend during subsequent stages of the machining process, the result of machining away 80% of the original rolled or annealed raw material and the residual stresses thus created. This is particularly possible for large blades, 400600 mm long, which may bend by as much as 2 mm. Reworking the fixturing elements during the machining process, so that the position of the work piece in the machining centers is modified to account for the deformation, can counteract this phenomenon.
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In general, machining deep slots in the blade root can be divided into: Slot milling (L-style with end mill). Plunge milling (with end mill). Trochoidal milling (with end mill).
Fig.- cutting forces acting along the blade material Vibrations and heavy axial pressure on the inserts will occur if the feed forces cause any movement or deflection of the work piece. If this occurs the feed direction should be modified so the forces act in directions where the blade fixturing arrangement supports the work piece most effectively.
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Vibrations can also be reduced by adopting cutting paths which machine the metal in small triangular steps, in both the longitudinal and lateral directions. This approach requires modifications to the cutting speed and feed, along with no more than 60% of the usual maximum depth of cut, and the modified cutting forces will also produce changes in the wear patterns seen on the cutting inserts.
b) Roughing the rhombus parallel to the blade axis, using two tools of different diameter The use of two different tools to machine the rhombus is an effective strategy in many situations. A first cut, producing a slot perpendicular to the blade axis, can be made with an end mill or a slot milling cutter. This slot then provides clearance for a subsequent cutting tool of different diameter, which should experience a less severe cutting environment and generate lower vibrations while it machines along the blades longitudinal axis.
Fig.- Roughing the rhombus parallel to the blade axis (using two tools of different diameter)
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Semi Finishing
The semi finishing operation requires a 5-axis milling operation, and will directly influence the surface quality of the final finished blade. Therefore the aim should always be to achieve a very regular, uniform level of residual material if necessary, through two separate semi finishing operations. Normally this operation is done by turn milling.
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Fig.- Finishing the Blade Finishing the blade is probably the most difficult 5-axis machining operation, but its success will greatly depend on the quality of the other machining steps carried out previously. The most suitable tool depends on the type and size of the blade, and also on the spindle speed and the feed available in the machining center. The principal problems when finishing are vibrations, and the quality of the pre-finished surfaces. During the cutting process the tool follows a helical path around the blade, a path controlled by a specialized CAD-CAM system. Other components of the turbine are manufactured by simple machining processes Hence, this is about the manufacturing of steam turbine.
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Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000kW turbines used to generate electricity. Steam turbines are widely used for marine applications for vessel propulsion systems. In recent times gas turbines , as developed for aerospace applications, are being used more and more in the field of power generation once dominated by steam turbines. Steam Turbine Principle The steam energy is converted mechanical work by expansion through the turbine. The expansion takes place through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades each row of fixed blades and moving blades is called a stage. The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and the fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular turbine casing which is substantially designed to withstand the steam pressure. On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine and a number of turbine casing/rotor units are combined to achieve the duty. These are generally arranged on a common centre line (tandem mounted) but parallel systems can be used called cross compound systems. There are two principles used for design of turbine blades: The Impulse Blading and The Reaction Blading. Impulse Blading The impulse blading principle is that the steam is directed at the blades and the impact of the steam on the blades drives them round. The day to day example of this principle is the pelton wheel. In this type of turbine the whole of the stage pressure drop takes place in the fixed blade (nozzle) and the steam jet acts on the moving blade by impinging on the blades.
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Fig.-Velocity diagram impulse turbine stage z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities The Power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed. Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam
Reaction Blading The reaction blading principle depends on the blade diverting the steam flow and gaining kinetic energy by the reaction. The Catherine wheel (firework) is an example of this principle. For this turbine principle the steam pressure drop is divide between the fixed and moving blades.
Fig.- Velocity diagram reaction turbine stage z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities
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The Power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed. Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam The blade speed z is limited by the mechanical design and material constraints of the blades.
Fig.- The Rankine cycle The figure above is known as a T-s diagram (Temperature versus Entropy). Step 1 to 2 represents the work done by the boiler. Step 2 to 3 represents the work done by the turbine. Step 3 to 4 represents the work done by the condenser. Step 4 to 1 represents the work done by the pump. There are three types of steam turbines: condensing, non-condensing, and extraction. Condensing turbines are not used for combined heat and power applications and therefore will not be addressed here. Non-condensing steam turbines are also referred to as back pressure steam turbines. Here, steam is expanded over a turbine and the exhaust steam is used for to meet a facilities steam needs. The steam is expanded until it reaches a pressure that the facility can use. The figure below schematically shows the process of a back pressure steam turbine.
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The various energy streams flowing in a simple steam turbine system are as indicated in the diagram below. It is clear that the working fluid is in a closed circuit apart from the free surface of the hot well. Every time the working fluid flows at a uniform rate around the circuit it experiences a series of processes making up a thermodynamic cycle. The complete plant is enclosed in an outer boundary and the working fluid crosses inner boundaries (control surfaces). The inner boundary defines a flow process. The various identifiers represent the various energy flows per unit mass flowing along the steady-flow streams and crossing the boundaries. This allows energy equations to be developed for the individual units and the whole plant. When the turbine system is operating under steady state conditions the law of conservation of energy dictates that the energy per unit mass of working agent entering any system boundary must be equal to the rate of energy leaving the system boundary.
Boiler The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows: F + A + h d = h 1 + G + hl b hence F + A = G + h 1 - h d + hl b Turbine The energy streams entering and leaving the turbine are as follows: h 1 = T + h 2 + hl t hence 0 = T - h 1 + h 2 + hl t
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Condenser Unit The energy streams entering and leaving the condenser unit are as follows: W i + h 2 = W o + h w + hl c hence W i = W o + h w - h 2 + hl c
Feed Water System The energy streams entering and leaving the Feed Water System are as follows: h w + d e + d f= h d + hl f hence d e + d f = - h w + h d + hl The four equations on the right can be arranged to give the energy equation for the whole turbine system enclosed by the outer boundary. That is the energy of the fuel (F) per unit mass of the working agent (water) is equal to the sum of - The mechanical energy available from the turbine minus that used to drive the pumps [T - (d e+ d f) ]. - The energy leaving the exhaust using the air temperature as the datum. - The energy gained by the water circulating through the condenser [W o - W i] - The energy gained by the atmosphere surrounding the plant [ hl] The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant can be represented by the ratio of the net mechanical energy available to the energy within the fuel supplied.
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Ni-based super alloys are used for manufacturing Turbine Blades. The Various stages involved in manufacturing of these blades are: HPTR (casting) LPTR (forging) 1st nozzle vane (casting) 2nd nozzle vane (casting) Stator blades (forging)
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laser beam or by spark erosion, in which carefully controlled sparks are permitted to eat holes in the blade.
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In a gas turbine engine manufacture, the various parts are made individually as part of subassemblies; the subassemblies then come together to form the whole engine. One such part is the fan blade, situated at the front of the engine. Each fan blade consists of two blade skins produced by shaping molten titanium in a hot press. When removed, each blade skin is welded to a mate, with a hollow cavity in the center. To increase the strength of the final product, this cavity is filled with a titanium honeycomb.
Fig.- gas turbine A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between. Gas turbine engines have a great power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines. That is, the amount of power you get out of the engine compared to the weight of the engine itself is very good. Gas turbine engines are smaller than their reciprocating counterparts of the same power. The main disadvantage of gas turbines is that, compared to a reciprocating
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engine of the same size, they are expensive. Because they spin at such high speeds and because of the high operating temperatures, designing and manufacturing gas turbines is a tough problem from both the engineering and materials standpoint. Gas turbines also tend to use more fuel when they are idling, and they prefer a constant rather than a fluctuating load. That makes gas turbines great for things like jet aircraft and power plants, but explains why you don't have one under the hood of your car.
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If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an industrial generator or a turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is necessary that some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust gasses. In the case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high pressure gasses are accelerated to provide a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.
As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperatures can allow for greater efficiencies. However, temperatures are limited by ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or other materials that make up the engine to withstand high temperatures and stresses. To combat this many turbines feature complex blade cooling systems. As a general rule, the smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft must be to maintain tip speed. Blade tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This in turn limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example large Jet engines operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may have multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast system of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers.
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Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. Traditionally, they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball bearings. These bearings are being surpassed by foil bearings, which have been successfully used in micro turbines and auxiliary power units. Air breathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. Jet engines that produce thrust primarily from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets, whereas those that generate most of their thrust from the action of a ducted fan are often called turbofans or (rarely) fan-jets. More sophisticated turbojets are also built, where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to power large aircraft.
Fig.- P-V & T-S diagram of a Brayton cycle Since fresh air enters the compressor at the beginning and exhaust are thrown out at the end, this cycle is an open cycle. By utilizing the air-standard assumptions, replacing the combustion process by a constant pressure heat addition process, and replacing the exhaust discharging process by a constant pressure heat rejection process, the open cycle described above can be modeled as a closed cycle, called ideal Brayton cycle. The ideal Brayton cycle is made up of four internally reversible processes as shown in the figure above .They are :
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1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor) 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine) 4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
In an ideal Brayton cycle, heat is added to the cycle at a constant pressure process (process 2-3). qin = h3 - h2 = cP(T3 - T2) Heat is rejected at a constant pressure process (process 4 -1). qout = h4 - h1 = cP(T4 - T1)
Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold air-standard assumption is given as:
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Where, rP = P2/P1 is the pressure ratio and k is the specific heat ratio. In most designs, the pressure ratio of gas turbines range from about 11 to 16.
Another difference between the actual Brayton cycle and the ideal cycle is that there are pressure drops in the heat addition and heat rejection processes. Hence, this is about the working of a gas turbine.
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
A wind turbine installation consists of the necessary systems needed to capture the wind's energy, point the turbine into the wind, convert mechanical rotation into electrical power and other systems to start, stop, and control the turbine.
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The manufacturing of a wind turbine is a typical assembly process involving the assembly of the above mentioned components. These components are especially manufactured/ordered/procured from outside sources & finally gathered into one place. The main manufacturing and assembly process is as follows:
Fig.- The Nacelle The nacelle, like the tower, is manufactured off site in a factory. Unlike the tower, however, it is also put together in the factory. It houses the frame, gear box, generator, drive shafts and controls. It is usually made of fiber reinforced plastic or fiber glass etc. The whole process involves several steps as follows: a) Frame Assembly Firstly the yaw system is assembled with yaw motors, hydraulic components, columns. This assembly then undergoes a rotational test and is connected to the rear frame. Then the service crane is installed along with the rail beams. Cables are run to the control cabinet and this part of assembly is sent to the next stage for gear box assembly. b) Gear Box Assembly The frame assembly is placed within the lower housing. Then the main gear box, power shaft, power transformer are attached as shown. Gearbox is a standard component in non-direct drive turbines. The purpose is to increase the rotational speed. There are different types of gears in a gearbox: Planetary gears and spur/helical gears.
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c) Generator Assembly Here the generator is assembled with all other electrical connections in the cabinet. Then the nacelle is verified and checked. If it passes the verification test, then it is sent to the final phase of assembly. d) Upper Housing Assembly After all the verification tests are passed, the upper housing is assembled and the nacelle is ready to be sent for installation.
Fig.- % weight of components in a blade Wood, Foam, Fiber Glass, Epoxy Resin are the important materials used in the manufacturing of a wind turbine blade. There are two methods used for the manufacturing process. They are: a) Epoxy Prepregmolding b) Vacuum assisted Resin Transfer Molding(VARTM) In Epoxy Prepregmolding process, fiber glass soaked with epoxy resin is laid into layers and placed in a mould. These layers are pressed and cured at higher temperatures in a kiln. 45
In Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding process, fiberglass is laid in a pre-form and placed in a closed mold. In this mold, epoxy resin is sucked in using vacuum and then cured to form a blade. VARTM has resulted in a simpler process, although it is a time intensive process. A typical manufacturing process of a blade involves the following steps :
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are protected from atmospheric contamination by being submerged under a blanket of granular fusible flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds.
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Fig.- NACA blade profiles The NACA 44 series profiles were used on older wind turbines (up to and including the 95 kW models). This profile was developed during the 1930s, and has good all-round properties, giving a good power curve and a good stall. The blade is tolerant of minor surface imperfections, such as dirt on the blade profile surface. The NACA 63 profiles developed during the 1940s. These have slightly different properties than the NACA 44 series. The power curve is better in the low and medium wind speed ranges, but drops under operation at higher wind speeds. Likewise this profile is more sensitive with regard to surface dirt. In certain climate zones with little rain, accumulated dirt, grime and insect deposits may impair and reduce performance for longer periods. The LM 19 blades, specifically developed for wind turbines, used on the 500 kW, have completely new aerodynamic profiles and are therefore not found in the NACA catalogue. These blades were developed in a joint research project some years ago and further developed and wind tunnel tested by FFA (The Aerodynamic Research Institute of The Swedish Ministry of Defense).
The drawings shown previously mainly illustrate the air flow situation near the blade tip. In principle these same conditions apply all over the blade, however the size of the forces and their direction change according to their distance to the tip. We will use as an example 50
the cross section near the blade tip of a 450 kW wind turbine operating in a wind speed of 10 m/s In the stationary situation (A) in the left hand drawing, wind pressure is 80 N/m^2 with a velocity of 10m/s. The force becomes slightly larger than the force at the tip, as the blade is wider at the root. The pressure is once again roughly at a right angle to the flat side of the blade profile, and as the blade is more twisted at the root; more of the force will be directed in the direction of rotation, than was the case at the tip. On the other hand the force at the root has not so great a torque-arm effect in relation to the rotor axis and therefore it will contribute about the same force to the starting torque as the force at the tip. During the operational situation as shown in the center drawing (B), the wind approaching the profile is once again the sum of the free wind v of 10 m/s and the head wind from the blade rotational movement through the air. The head wind near the blade root of the 450 kW wind turbine is about 15 m/s and this produces a resulting wind over the profile of 19 m/s. This resulting wind will act on the blade section with a force of about 500 N/m^2. In the drawing on the right (C) force is broken down into wind pressure against the tower, and the blade driving force in the direction of rotation. In comparison with the blade tip the root section produces less aero dynamic forces during operation, however more of these forces are aligned in the correct direction, that is, in the direction of rotation. The change of the size and direction of these forces from the tip in towards the root, determine the form and shape of the blade. Head wind is not so strong at the blade root, so therefore the pressure is likewise not so high and the blade must be made wider in order that the forces should be large enough. The resulting wind has a greater angle in relation to the plane of rotation at the root, so the blade must likewise have a greater angle of twist at the root. It is important that the sections of the blade near the hub are able to resist forces and stresses from the rest of the blade. Therefore the root profile is both thick and wide, partly because the thick broad profile gives a strong and rigid blade and partly because greater width, as previously mentioned, is necessary on account of the resulting lower wind speed across the blade. On the other hand, the aerodynamic behavior of a thick profile is not so effective. Further out along the blade, the profile must be made thinner in order to produce acceptable aerodynamic properties, and therefore the shape of the profile at any given place on the blade is a compromise between the desire for strength (the thick wide profile) and the desire for good aerodynamic properties (the thin profile) with the need to avoid high aerodynamic stresses (the narrow profile). 51
Fig.- relationship between coefficients of lift & drag, angle of attack During the change of wind speed from 5 to 15 m/s there is a significant increase in lift, and this increase is directed in the direction of rotation. Therefore power output of the wind turbine is greatly increased from 15 kW to 475 kW. During the change of wind speed from 15 to 25 m/s, there is a drop in lift accompanied by an increase in drag. This lift is even more directed in the direction of rotation, but it is opposed by drag and therefore output will fall slightly to 425 kW.
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The first problem is common to all control and safety systems: A wind turbine is without constant supervision, apart from the supervision of the control system itself. The periods between normal qualified maintenance schedules is about every 6 months, and in the intervening 4,000 hours or so the control system must function trouble-free, whether the
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wind turbine is in an operational condition or not. In almost every other branch of industry there is a much higher degree of supervision by trained and qualified staff. On factory production lines, operatives are normally always present during production.
turbine the energy input is the kinetic energy of the wind and the energy output is mechanical rotating energy. According to Betz's law (1919), the wind turbine efficiency of converting the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical rotating energy can never exceed 59%. This is the best possible conversion rate, as was proven by a physicist. Efficiency is also determined by the design of the windmill. A given design has peak efficiency at a certain wind speed. Below or above this specific speed value, the efficiency may stay the same or even drop down. For example, if a wind turbine has a top efficiency of 50% at a given wind speed of 10 meters per second, it will probably drop to 45% or lower if the wind velocity increases or decreases. Another thing to keep in mind is that the generator converting mechanical to electrical energy, has conversion efficiency as well, which is well below 100%. This fact lowers the overall efficiency of power conversion to a smaller value of 20-30%. The design of the blades and the turbine play an important role in a windmills performance. The design should satisfy the load requirements and generate energy at the lowest cost. This can be done by optimizing the performance characteristics of the windmill. Power output versus wind speed or power output verses rotor angular velocity are two important characteristics that are taken into consideration during optimization. Enhancing this improves the overall quality of the power produced.
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5.1 RESULTS
In the previous chapters, we discussed about the working processes of steam, gas and wind turbines with their manufacturing procedure too. Based on these, we calculated the efficiencies of Gas and steam turbines which are as follows:
S2s = Sf + x2s sfg = 0.5926+0.85(8.2287-0.5926) = 7.0833 kJ/kg K Since S1 = s2s S1 = 7.0833 kJ/kg K At state 1, the temperature and entropy are thus known. At 3600C, Sg = 5.0526 kJ/kg K, which is less than S1. So from the table of superheated steam, at t1 = 3600C and S1 = 7.0833 kJ/kg K, the pressure is found to be 16.832 bar (by interpolation). The greatest allowable steam pressure is
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p1 = 16.832 bar h1 = 3165.54 kJ/kg h2s = 173.88 + 0.85 x 2403.1 = 2216.52 kJ/kg h3 = 173.88 kJ/kg h4s - h3 = 0.001 x (16.83 0.08) x 100 = 1.675 kJ/kg h4s = 175.56 kJ/kg Q1 = h1 h4s = 3165.54 175.56 = 2990 kJ/kg WT = h1 h2s = 3165.54 2216.52 = 949 kJ/kg Wp = 1.675 kJ/kg
cycle
Mean temperature of heat addition Tm1 = (h1 h4s)/(S1 S4s) = 2990/(7.0833 0.5926) = 460.66 K = 187.510C.
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P1V1=NRT1 (P1/RT1 )=(M/V)= e1 =[(1 x 105)/(287 x 300)]= 1.61 KG/M3 Power output= 140.72 x 240 x 1.61= 39.21 MW Efficiency= WN/Q1= (140.72/350.94)= 40.16%
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Conclusion:
The work presented in this report is to bring an overview of the various types of turbines, their operation and the manufacturing processes involved in making these turbines. We mainly concentrated on the manufacturing and working processes. As of today, wind turbines are the most eco-friendly turbines, compared to the steam and gas turbines. The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently. Once the wind turbine is built, the energy it produces does not cause green house gases or other pollutants. The operating and maintenance cost of these turbines is low, compared to the steam and gas turbines. As the natural resources are depleting, there is a need to switch to wind power and other renewable sources of energy. Further research in the manufacturing area can reduce the overall cost and incorporating composites and alloy materials in the manufacturing area can increase the working efficiency of the wind turbines.
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References:
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] Steam Turbines: A Book of Instruction for the Adjustment and Operation of the Principal Types of this Class of Prime Movers by Hubert E. Collins. Wind Energy Engineering by Pramod Jain. Power Plant Engineering - A.K. Raja, Amit Prakash Srivastava. Protective coatings for turbine blades- Y. Tamarin, ASM International. Bharat Heavy Electrical Electricals Ltd.(BHEL) Rolls-Royce Corporation. www.siemens.com www.nasa.gov Vestas Wind Systems Suzlon Energy Bonus Energy web.mit.edu web.me.unr.edu ecourses.ou.edu
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