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INTRODUCTION
Flux () = (MMF/ Reluctance) , Wb ; Reluctance(S) = (l/a) , A/Wb ; Permeance = ( 1/S) , Wb/A ; where l = length of the flux path, m ; A = area of cross section for the flux path, m2 ; = permeability = o r ; o = absolute permeability = 4 x 10 -7 H/m and r = relative permeability. H = Ampere turns / m = MMF/ l = S / l = S Ba /l = (l/a) Ba/l = B/ . or B = H Series magnetic circuit : S = S1 + S2 + Parallel magnetic circuit: Per= Per1 + Per2 +... Leakage Coeff. = total flux/useful flux; total flux = useful flux + leakage flux Expressions for reluctance: Sg = lg / o l ys
ii) slotted armature : ys l = ys - Ws = Wt (no fringing) iii) slotted armature : ys l = ys Kcs Ws ; Ws = slot width , Wt = tooth width Kcs = Carters Coefficient for slots depends on the ratio of slot opening /airgap length or the empirical relation is 1/ {1+ (5lg /Ws )} If radial ventilating ducts are provided: Ll = L Kcd nd Wd where Kcd = Carters Coefficient for ducts, nd = No.of ducts, Wd = width of each duct If ducts are provided on the stator and on the rotor, then Kcd should be based on half the air gap.
Considering the effect of both slotting and ducts, K g ( gap contraction factor) = Kgs Kgd where Kgs ={ ys / ys l } and Kgd ={L /Ll } If slots are provided on both sides of the airgap, K gs = Kgss Kgsr (ss and sr denoting stator and rotor slots respectively). MMF for airgap = H Kg lg ={ B/ o }Kg lg = 8,00,000 B Kg lg .
Effect of Saliency :
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6. Rating of machines
IS: 4722-1968: specification for Rotating Electrical machinery: 1. continuous duty 2. short time duty (T Th ) 3. intermittent periodic duty 4. intermittent periodic duty with starting 5. intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking 6. continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading 7. continuous duty with starting and braking 8. continuous duty with periodic speed changes
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UNIT II DC MACHINES
D L p Z Iz E P Pa Q = stator bore or armature diameter, m = stator core length, m = number of poles = Total numbers of armature conductors = current in each conductor(Ia/A) , A = induced EMF, V = machine rating (power output),kW = power developed by the armature, kW = kVA rating of the machine = flux per pole, Wb = pole pitch ( D/p), m = p ; Total Magnetic loading = Iz Z
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Generator: P a = (P/) (FW & Iron losses) ; Motor : P a = P + (FW & Iron losses) For large machines : FW & Iron losses are neglected i.e., P a = P/ (Generator) =P (Motor) For small machines : FW & Iron losses can be taken as 1/3 rd of the total losses. So, P a = (P/) (1/3) P (1-)/ = P(2+ )/(3 ) generator = P + (1/3) P (1-)/ = P(1+2)/(3 ) motor
5. Armature Design
Considerations in choice of number of armature slots : i) mechanical difficulties ii) cooling of armature iii) pulsation of flux iv) cost v)commutation (Slots/pole 9 ) vi) slot pitch (ys = 25 to 35 mm) vii) slot loading (Iz Zs 1500 Amp-cond) viii) suitability of the winding doublelayer Lap or wave ) Slot dimensions: i) the slot area should accommodate the armature conductors and the required insulation depending on the operating voltage ii) Bt1/3 2.1 Wb/m2 iii) deep slots cause eddy current losses iv) slot opening should be narrow to reduce the flux pulsation and hence to reduce eddy current losses. Armature voltage drop = Ia ra ; ra = (Z/2) L mt /(a2 az ) ; where Lmt = length of mean turn, m = 2L + 2.3 +5ds ; a = no.of parallel paths and a z = area of each conductor, m2 .
Height of the pole(hf) chosen based on the MMF to be provided by the pole at full-load. ( ATf at full-load) /(ATAr m. at full-load) =1.0 to 1.25 (to overcome armature reaction)
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2.brush friction loss =Wbf = b pAb Vc = coefficient of friction (0.1 - 0.3) ; b = brush pressure (10 15 kN/ m2 ) 3. Cooling coefficient = c =k/(1+0.1V c) ; k = 0.015 0.025 4. Temperature rise c = Qc c /Sc
1. I2 R losses : copper loss in i) armature ii) Field iii) Inter pole winding
ii)Iron loss a) Hysterises =Kh Bm1.6 f b) Eddy current loss =Ke Bm2 f2 t2 For the calculation of copper losses , the total length and area cross section of each
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= 2AT/ ; since Tp Ip = Ts Is neglecting magnetizing current Aw = total window area ; K w = window space factor = A c / Aw Ac = Kw Aw = 2AT/ AT = Kw Aw /2 Rating in kVA = Q = Vp Ip x 10 -3 = Ep Ip x 10 -3 = Et ( Tp Ip )x 10 -3 = 4.44 fm ( Kw Aw /2 ) 10 -3 = 2.22 fm ( Kw Aw ) 10 -3
;
where m = Bm Ai
2. Three-phase transforme rs
Each window contains two primary and two secondary windings Ac =2 (Tp ap + Tsas ) = 4 AT / AT = Kw Aw /4
Rating in kVA = Q = 3V p Ip x 10 -3 = 3Ep Ip x 10 -3 =3 Et ( Tp Ip )x 10 -3 = 3 x 4.44 fm ( Kw Aw /4 ) 10 -3 = 3.33 fm ( Kw Aw ) 10 -3 Using the output equation it can also be shown that _____ __________ E t = K kVA where K = 4.44 f r 10 3 ; r = m / AT r is a constant for transformer of a given type ,service and method of connection, since m determines the core section and AT fixes the total copper area. where m = B m Ai
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2Marks DEM 6 Sem EEE Anna University 3. Ratio of Iron loss to copper loss
Copper loss/m3 = (l/a) (current)2 /(la) = (l/a) (a)2 /la = 2 W/m3 = 2 /density W/Kg Taking =0.021 x 10-6 and density = 8.9 x 103 Kg/m3 Copper loss/Kg = specific copper loss = pc = 2.36 x 10 12 2 W/Kg . Then total copper loss = Wc = pcGc where Gc weight of copper , Kg In addition to the above , we must add stray losses which may be 5 to 25 % of copper loss. The total iron loss / Kg = specific iron loss (pi ) can be found from the iron loss curves. Then the total iron loss = Wi = pi Gi Where Gi = weight of iron . Ratio of Iron loss / copper loss = pi Gi / pcGc
6. Types of Windings
i) Cylindrical winding with circular conductors ii) Crossover winding with circular or rectangular conductors
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7. Design of insulation
i) Electrical insulation: depends on the operating voltage ii) Eddy current loss in the conductors and tank walls iii) Mechanical considerations: high mechanical forces during fault iv) Thermal considerations: depends on cooling Major insulation : between windings and core (grounded) Minor insulation ; between turns and layers Materials : cotton thread, cotton tape, leatheriod paper, millinax paper etc .
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Experimentally found that a plain tank surface dissipates 6.0 W/m2 -o C by radiation and 6.5 W/m2 o c by convection (.for a temp rise of 40 o C above an ambient temp of 20 o c). Thus a total of 12.5 W/m2 - o C is taken. The temp rise = total loss/ ( St ) = (Pi + Pc) / ( St ) Where St = heat dissipating surface area of the tank. For small transformers , plain walled tank is enough to dissipate the losses. As the rating of the transformer increases, the volume increases as he cube of the linier dimensions but the heat dissipating surface area increases only as square of the linier dimensions. So above certain rating, plain tank becomes inadequate to dissipate losses and the area is increased by providing tubes. For larger ratings forced air cooling is used. If tubing is provided, the oil circulation is improved due to the head of the oil, and this causes an additional dissipation by convection of about 35 % .
Let x St be the area of the cooling tubes. Then Loss dissipated by the tank surface 12.5 St W/0 C Loss dissipated by the tubes (1.35 x 6.5) x St W/0 C = 8.8 x St W/0 C Total loss dissipated by the tank and oil tubes = (12.5 St + 8.8 x St ) W/0 C Hence = ( Pi + Pc)/ (12.5 St + 8.8 x St ) Total tube area x St = (1/8.8) [ {(Pi + Pc)/ } 12.5 St ] The number of tubes = nt = Total tube area /( dt lt ) The arrangement of the tubes on tank side walls should be made uniformly with a spacing of usually 75 mm. Examples of calculation of nt and the arrangement of the tubes should be studied.
2. Choice of Bave
i) Low Bave large size machine for a given hp ii) high Bave large magnetizing current low power factor
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iii) high Bave high iron loss iv) high Bave high m less Tph low leakage reactance larger diameter for the circle diagram larger over load capacity For 50 Hz motors Bave : 0.3 to 0.6 Wb /m2
The stator winding can be connected in star or delta. The motors meant for starting with star- delta starter should be designed with delta connected stator winding. Stator slot pitch = yss = D/Ss where Ss =number of stator slots Stator outer diameter Do = D + 2 dss + 2dcs Where dss = stator slot depth and dcs = stator core depth Air gap length = 0.2 + 2 sqrt(DL) where Dand L are in metre. After designing the main dimensions, the following calculations can be made: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) The flux per pole, m = Bave DL/p Turns in series per phase, Tph = V/ (4.44f m Kw ) Number of slots per pole per phase can be suitably assumed Slot pitch should not exceed about 24 mm Number of conductors per slot should be rounded off Tph recalculated Iph = [Q x 103 /(3 400)] for star and [Q x 103 /(3 400)] /3 for delta connection viii) Assuming suitable current density (s) , conductor area required is calculated (a s = Iph / s )
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xi) A suitable tooth flux density is assumed and tooth width is calculated xii) slot width = slot pitch- tooth width (at different diameters) xiii) The core flux( m/2) , core area and core depth are calculated assuming a core flux density. Core depth = core area/ Li xiv) The rotor bar and end rings are designed (sq.cage rotor) xv) The rotor winding is designed similar to stator winding (wound rotor)
6. No-load current
Iron loss component = Il =(Iron loss/phase) /Vph
Magnetizing component = Im =(0.427 p ATtotal )/( Kws Tph ) ATtotal = sum of the ampere turns for airgap ,stator tooth and core and rotor tooth and core. No-load current = In = { Il 2 + I m 2 }1/2 The leakage reactance calculations are made to find x1 , x2 and x01 .
2. Output Equation
Q = m Eph Iph 10-3 = 11 Bave ac Kw x 10-3 D2 L ns = Co D2 L ns Where Co = output coefficient (see Unit -4 for derivation)
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6. Length of airgap
The length of air gap very much influences the performance of a synchronous machine. A large airgap offers a large reluctance to the path of the flux produced by the armature MMF and thus reduces the effct of armature reaction. Thus a machine with large airgap has a small Xd and so has i)small regulation ii) high stability limit iii) high synchronizing power which makes the machine less sensitive to load variations iv) better cooling at the gap surface v) low magnetic noise and smaller unbalanced magnetic pull. But as the airgap length increases, a large value of Field MMF is required resulting in increased cost of the machine.
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9.
Data needed for the design of the Field winding : i) Flux density in the pole core ii)Winding depth (d f)iii) Leakage factor (pole flux/gap flux) iv) Field winding space factor (Sf) v) Power dissipation (q f) in W/m2 v) The ratio of field MMF to armature MMF vi) Allow about 30 mm for insulation , flanges and height of the pole shoe. MMF per unit height of the winding = 104 Sqrt (Sf d f q f )
Example of Design of optimization of Induction Motors The independent variables which has a significant effect on the performance are
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