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Overview
Introduction DC Generator Types Voltage Regulation Losses Separately Excited Generator Self Excited Generators Maximum Efficiency Criterion

11-DC Generators Part 2 Text: 5.9 5.16

ECEGR 450 Electromechanical Energy Conversion

H. Louie, 2008

DC Generator Types
DC generators can be classified by excitation method
Separate
Excitation current supplied by external source

DC Generator Types
Self-excited generators can also be classified based upon how the excitation winding is connected:
Series Shunt (parallel) Compound (combination of series and shunt)

Self
Excitation current self supplied

Permanent Magnet (PM) generators can be considered separately excited generators

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Voltage Regulation
In all dc generators, as current (load) increases, the terminal voltage drops
Ohmic losses in the armature Armature reaction
VR VnL VfL VfL

Voltage Regulation
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The voltage drop is desired to be minimal Voltage Regulation is a metric for quantifying the voltage drop with respect to load

VR: percent voltage regulation (%) VnL: terminal voltage under no load (V) VfL: terminal voltage under full load (V)

Ideal voltage regulation is 0%

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Losses
No machine is 100 efficient General categories of losses:
Mechanical Magnetic Copper Stray Load

Mechanical Losses
Losses due to:
Friction of bearings Friction between brushes and commutator Drag on the armature (caused by the air around it)

Losses tend to increase with rotational speed

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Magnetic Losses
Losses due to:
Hysteresis Eddy-currents

Rotational Losses
Mechanical and magnetic losses are often grouped together as rotational losses

Operating the machine in the linear region and at a low flux density (make the machine physically larger) decreases magnetic losses

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Copper Losses
Copper has a non-zero resistance, so power is dissipated when current flows through it Power Loss is equal to i2R Contributors to copper losses:
Armature-winding loss Shunt field-winding loss Series field-winding loss Interpole field-winding loss Compensating field-winding loss

Stray Load Loss

Stray load loss: a catch all term for the losses that are unaccounted for in the previous categories
Commutation losses Distorted flux due to armature reaction

Approximately equal to 1% in large (>100 horsepower)

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Efficiency
Efficiency of a machine is the ratio of output power to input power Output power
Po Ts
m

Efficiency
Efficiency in percent is then:
Po Pin 100 Po Ts m 100

Pr Pcu

Po: output power (W) Pr: rotational losses (W) Pcu: copper losses (W)

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Generator Types
We next consider how the field windings are powered Three types considered: Separately excited Shunt Series Compound

Separately Excited Generator

N

DC generator in which a external dc source is used to generate the field current External source can be
Battery Another DC generator Rectified AC

N field windings cross section

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Separately Excited Generator

Equivalent circuit shown
vt: generator terminal voltage (V) vf: applied field winding voltage (V) Rfw: field winding resistance (Ohm) Rfx: adjustable field winding resistance (Ohm) Ra: armature resistance (Ohm) iL Nf: field winding turns per pole Rfw + Ra vf
+ -

Separately Excited Generator

Notes: we will assume that the generator is operating in steady state
mechanical energy does not change Inductance acts as a short

Rfx is used to control the field current, and hence the flux

if Rfx

Nf
+ -

RL Ea

vt -

field circuit
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generator circuit
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Separately Excited Generator

Defining equations are: vf if (R fw R fx ) if R f

Separately Excited Generator

If if and m are constant, then Ea is independent of the armature current As load increases (iL increases), the terminal voltage drops due to Ra Vtnl = Ea (no load terminal voltage = induced emf)

Ea iL

vt iaR a ia
iL Rfw vf
+ -

Ra Nf
+ -

+ vt RL Ea vt load vtnl
including armature reaction

if Rfx

field circuit
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generator circuit
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Shunt Generator
Instead of using an external dc circuit, connect the terminals of the generator to the field winding This is known as a shunt generator

Shunt Generator
Equivalent circuit shown Defining Equations:
vt vt ia if (R fw R fx ) if R f Ea iaR a iL if
if Nf Rfw Ra RL
+ -

iL + vt -

Ea

Rfx
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Shunt Generator
It is interesting to examine what happens to a shunt generator under no-load Under no load ia = if Rf is usually large since vt can be large
Large number of turns of small gauge

Shunt Generator
However, generally there is residual magnetism in the stator and a small amount of voltage will be induced
This increases ia, which increase Ea and so on The process does not continue for ever Saturation of the stator limit the process

Ea will be 0 since there is no flux created by field winding (ia = 0)

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Shunt Generator
Voltage build-up process

Shunt Generator
The no-load voltage depends upon the fieldcircuit resistance Smaller resistances increase the rate of build-up If the resistance is too large (greater than the critical resistance) then voltage build-up does not occur See Figure 5.24 for an example

magnetization curve vtnl field resistance line vt Er if

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Shunt Generator
Under no load: ia = if
Vt is nearly equal to Ea since iaRa is small

Shunt Generator
If the load resistance continues to decrease, the load current will also start to decrease
due to the decrease in terminal voltage

As il increases
iaRa increases Armature reaction demagnetization effect increases

Hence, Ea decreases
This further lowers if and Ea

If the terminals are shorted, the field current becomes zero, but current still flows due to the residual magnetism Er

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Shunt Generator

Shunt Generators
Shunt generators must operate in the saturated region Otherwise, an increase in load would decrease the field current, which would have a large effect on Ea This would further drop if, and so on Operation in the saturated region desensitizes the change in flux due to the change in field current

vtnl vt

with Ra drop

rated load

Load current iL

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Series Generator
Assume now that the field winding is placed in series with armature and external circuit Known as a Series Generator A series field diverter resistance (Rd) is used to control the flux
vt ia isR s Ea iaR a isR s iL is id idR d

Series Generator
Equivalent circuit

Rd

id

Ra
+ -

Rs ia Ea

is

Ns iL

+ vt -

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Series Generator
When under no load, the produced flux in the field is zero
Ea is equal to Er

Series Generator
Note: il = ia Terminal voltage increases with load current As il increases, it is possible to drive the terminal voltage to zero due to armature reaction
Magnetization curve With armature and field winding drops and armature reaction

As load increases, flux increases

Ea increases

vt Load current iL
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Terminal voltage drops due to series resistance and armature reaction Ea and vt are functions of the load current

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Compound Generator
Terminal voltage:
Decreases with load in a shunt generator Rises with load in a series generator
is

Compound Generator
is
Series winding Series winding

Combine them into a single generator Known as a Compound Generator Several types, depending on how they are wound

if
Shunt winding

if
Shunt winding

S Cumulative (mmfs add)

S Differential (mmfs subtract)

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Compound Generator
Short-shunt compound:
series winding is in between the shunt and load

Compound Generator
A long-shunt cumulative generator
Rd Rs Ra
+ -

Long-shunt compound:
Shunt winding connected directly across the load

id
Ns

ia

Rfw if
Nf

+ il vt -

Ea if

Rfx

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Compound Generator
A long-shunt differential generator
Rd Rs Ra
+ -

Compound Generator
In any configuration:
Shunt winding provides the majority of the flux Series winding controls the total flux

id
Ns

Adjusting the current through the series winding allows for three different degrees of compounding
Rfw if
Nf

ia

+ il vt -

Ea if

Under-compound Normal compound Over-compound

Rfx

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Compound Generator
Under-compound generator
Full-load voltage is slightly higher than in a shunt generator, but still lower than no-load voltage Voltage regulation is better than in a shunt generator

Compound Generator
Over-compound generator
Full-load voltage is higher than no-load voltage Useful when connected to a long transmission line (to compensate for the voltage drop) Compound generators are usually over-compound See text for more details and comparison of generator types (Figure 5.32)

Flat-compound generator
Full-load voltage is equal to the no-load voltage Voltage regulation is better than in a shunt generator

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Maximum Efficiency
Generator efficiency varies with load Operating at maximum efficiency is desirable

Maximum Efficiency
iLm: load current under maximum efficiency
0 (v tiLm i2 R a Pr )2 Lm Pr Pr Ra

Po Pin

v tiL
2 v tiL iL R a Pr

i2 R a Lm iLm

v tiL 2 v tiL iL R a Pr

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Maximum Efficiency

Maximum Efficiency
Short-shunt:
2 iLm (Ra Rs ) Pr i2 (Ra R f ) f

Separately Excited:
2 iLm Ra

Pr Pr Rs )

if2 Rf if2 (Ra Pr Rf )

Long shunt:
2 iLm (R a R s ) Pr i2 (R a R f R s ) f

Shunt:
2 iLm Ra

Series
2 iLm (Ra

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Reading Assignment
Text Chapter 6

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