Relationships Theories and Studies

The formation, maintenance and breakdown of romantic relationships Theories of the formation, maintenance and breakdown of romantic relationships: for example, reward/need satisfaction, social exchange theory Reward: o Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) Filter Model three filters (social/demographic; similarity of attitudes and values; complimentarity of emotional needs) filter field of availables down to field of desirables. Byrne and Clore (1970) Reward/Need Satisfaction Theory classical conditioning (association with pleasant events) and operant (rewards e.g. food, sex, self-disclosure). Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) longitudinal questionnaire study found that attitude similarity was the most important factor in relationships developing up to 18 months, after which ability to meet each others needs took over. Caspi and Herbener (1990) married couples with similar personalities found to be happier than those with less similar personalities. Cate et al (1982) reward-level found to be the most important factor in determining relationship satisfaction. Smith and Mackie (2002) happy relationships meet more of the needs of the participants than unhappy ones.

Maintenance o Homans (1971) Social Exchange Theory if the outcome (costs minus rewards) is profit then the relationship is maintained. Thibault and Kelly (1959) Interdependence Theory relationship is maintained if profit/loss compares favourably with CL and CL Alt. Argyle (1987) argued that cost-counting starts after dissatisfaction, and (1996) found that relationship closeness increases as rewards and costs increase. Rusbult and van Lange (1996) Investment model physical and emotional investments in a relationship act as barriers to dissolution (break-up). Jerstad (2005) investments, particularly time and effort, were the most important predictor when it came to men and women staying with a violent partner.

Walster (1978) Equity theory partners either feel dissatisfied (if doing worse) or guilty (if doing better) when a relationship is not equitable. Van Yperen and Buunk (1990) longitudinal study in which 259 couples were assessed for equity at the start. One year later satisfaction was highest for those who had felt equitable higher than for those who felt overbenefited.

Breakdown o Economic maintenance theories can all explain why a relationship might break down. Duck (1999) identifies lack of skills; lack of stimulation (similar to lack of reward); maintenance difficulties (e.g. physical separation) as reasons for breakdown. Duck (1988) four-stage dissolution model (expanded by Rollie and Duck (2006)) intra-psychic; dyadic; social; grave-dressing phases. Tashiro and Frazier (2003) undergraduates after break ups reported personal growth supports grave dressing and resurrection (Rollie and Ducks sixth stage, following grave dressing) phases.

Evolutionary explanations of human reproductive behaviour The relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour o Darwin (1874) intrasexual selection (competition between members of one sex for access to the other e.g. males compete for females), and intersexual selection (mate choice individuals select mates with characteristics that will help them to pass on their genes). Buss (1989) 10,000 participants from 37 cultures. Women in all cultures more likely to desire mates with resources, men placed more importance on youth and physical attractiveness. Both looked for intelligence, kindness and dependability. Singh (1993) across cultures men show a preference for a waist:hip ratio of 0.7 (despite cultural differences in terms of attractive body size) this ratio is an indicator of youth and lack of previous pregnancy. Bailey and Zucker (1995) gay and straight men very similar in terms of preferences for physical attractiveness and lack of interest in resources.

Sex differences in parental investment o Trivers (1972) Parental Investment Theory limited number of eggs and large investment in terms of pregnancy and breast-feeding makes women choosier and focused on securing resources (commitment).

Buss and Schmitt (1993) Sexual Strategies Theory PIT is correct but men and women adopt different strategies at different times. Men seek commitment and fidelity so they can ensure that they are supporting their own children. Women seek commitment and resources, but will engage in casual relationships to secure good genes with another partner. Clark and Hatfield (1989) 50% of men and women agreed to go out with a stranger, 75% of the men agreed to sex, 0% of the women. Clark (1990) same procedure but participants were assured that the stranger was trustworthy results were unaffected. Buss and Schmitt (1993) men said they would like eight sexual partners over the next two years, women only one. Buss (1993) electrical skin responses show that men are more jealous when imagining their partner cheating sexually, women more jealous imagining them cheating emotionally. Norman and Kenrick (2006) when asked to design a short term partner both men and women were most concerned with physical attractiveness.

Effects of early experience and culture on adult relationships The influence of childhood on adult relationships o Bowlby (1969) internal working model concept leads to continuity hypothesis IWM will cause securely attached infants to grow into securely attached adults. Hazan and Shaver (1987) the love quiz questionnaire in newspaper measures infant attachment type and current attitudes to relationships and found a strong link between them. Relationships of secure Type Bs were on average twice as long as those classed as insecure. Temperament hypothesis continuity can be explained by genetic cause of sociability. Social Learning Theory continuity can also be explained by positive rolemodelling / tuition by parents. Russell and Finnie (1990) children who were classed as popular had mothers who suggested strategies to help them interact successfully with peers. Zimmerman et al (2000) in German children child attachment type did not predict adult attachment type. Hamilton (1994) major life events can cause a change in attachment type.

Main et al (1985) devised Adult Attachment Interview to deal with methodological problems (especially demand characteristics) associated with standard interviews and questionnaires in this field non-verbal communication and consistency used to judge accuracy of answers.

The influence of culture on romantic relationships. o Moghaddam et al (1993) relationships in collectivist cultures are obligatory, permanent and collectivist. Batabyal (2001) described process of arranged marriages, including roles of well-wishers and the agent (with more choice in modern arranged marriages). Moore and Leung (2001) Anglo-Australian and Chinese-Australian students compared. Anglo-Australians nearly twice as likely to be in relationships; were less lonely; males were less romantic than Chinese-American males; positive attitudes to romantic relationships were similar in both groups. Gupta and Singh (1982) compared love marriages and arranged marriages. Love marriages featured more love and liking at first, but after 10 years both were higher in arranged marriages. Xioahe and Whyte (1990) women in China in love marriages felt better about their marriage than those in arranged marriages (after all durations).