Hydrotechnology

CI/SfB 998

Technical Bulletin

DESIGNING A WATER FEATURE

1 INTRODUCTION Few designers have the time that is necessary to master the intricacies of designing water features and so they have to rely upon performance specifications to convey their wishes. Unfortunately these are of little value as they are almost impossible to enforce. This bulletin is intended to help designers and end users to define their requirements with precision. This is a briefing document and should be treated as such. Each topic covered in this bulletin is a complex subject in itself. All technical matters, particularly those of an electrical nature, need to be resolved by a qualified person in a way that reflects local regulations. However, with the aid of this publication nozzles, spillways, flow rates, and pipe sizes can be accurately defined. When designing a water feature it is important to anticipate maintenance problems, to use high quality materials, and not to be overly complex. If a feature is not well designed and constructed it will become a burden rather than an asset. An adequate budget is important as good quality materials are always expensive. Experimentation is an important part of any creative design process. The feasibility of all key components should be demonstrated before construction commences. The factors which need to be considered when designing a feature are: the climate the setting the scale the nature of the required effect the maximum acceptable noise level the standard of cleanliness that is required the accuracy required of the water level control system the problems that wind will cause the availability of water the risk of vandalism the budget 2 SETTING AND SCALE When designing a water feature it is important to pay attention to all aspects of the environment in which it is to be placed. For example, sun angles are particularly important in urban areas as water in permanent shade can appear very cold. Close to tall buildings turbulent down-draughts can lift water directly from an unbroken surface. These down-draughts usually preclude the use of reflective pools in urban locations. A feature should always be in scale with its surroundings. Often the desire not to lose development space overrides the need to create a feature of adequate size. It is better not to have a feature than one which is too small. It is also important to anticipate the activities that are to take place adjacent to any feature. For example, in a crowded shopping mall a feature has to either cover a large area or be well over two meters (6 ft 6 in) tall if it is to be seen from a distance. The water spray from a vertical jet will usually spread outwards by at least half the distance that it travels upwards (fig 1). This is a rule which can only be improved upon by employing a very short burst effect in which the rising water does not collide with the falling water. In external locations the radius of a pool should at least equal the height of the effect which it is to contain. In exposed locations the display will need to be lowered or the pool size increased by 20% for every 1m/s (2.2mph) increase in the prevailing wind speed above 2.5m/s (5.5mph). An external feature should always have a wind activated control system, particularly if it is close to a building. Anemometers should be mounted in a representative location as close to the feature as possible e.g. on top of an adjacent lamp post or flag pole. When water runs down a vertical surface the amount of spray which it creates depends upon the physical characteristics of that surface. Water which passes down a very rough surface can spread forward almost half the height of the wall (fig 2). This contrasts with polished stone or glass, both of which will hold water in close contact with their surface. The spread of water is surprisingly small when it is dropped as a free falling curtain in a sheltered location. However, any curtain or wall of water is susceptible to the effect of wind so an anemometer and / or a remote switch should always be provided in external locations. Around natural lakes the ground should slope gently to the water particularly if the area is to be used for storm water balancing. Paving should fall away from formal pools so that rain does not wash debris into the feature. The paving should fall to drainage channels so that any water which is accidentally lost from the system can be safely disposed of. During very cold weather some pools will need to be drained down. Such features must be designed to be vandal proof and attractive when empty.
Fig 2 Water will splash forward by a quarter to a half the height of a rough wall depending upon its angle and surface characteristics

Fig 1 In still conditions water will spread outwards by half the distance that it travels upwards

Fig 3 Circular pools can surge up and down if nozzles are used which discharge below water

Fig 4 If the water is to be flush with its surroundings then a tanked recessed channel is needed to avoid tracking under finishes

3 NOISE Water will generate white noise when it is agitated. This can be useful if it masks conversations or mechanical noise. In most retail locations the background noise level is so high that the sound of water is seldom noticed and may even be welcomed. However, in a quiet reception area even a small amount of noise can be disturbing. In such locations features need to be designed carefully with fine low volume displays. Noise levels can be reduced by placing energy absorbing mats just above the water to reduce splashing. Alternatively, air can be mechanically entrained to reduce the density of the water both in the effect and within the feature itself, which in turn serves to reduce noise levels.

4 FREEBOARD
Fig 5 Complete circulation is important if the water is to remain clean (option 1)

High winds can produce waves over 300mm (1 ft) high on a lake only one hundred metres (110 yds) across. Powerful fountain nozzles can also produce waves. Circular pools may surge up and down if nozzles are used which initially discharge below the surface (fig 3). If pools at different levels are linked together then the lowest pool will receive any water which runs back when the feature is shut down. If the lowest pool is not large enough to receive all the water then a hidden tank must be provided. When calculating the size of a fall back tank, or the lowest pool in a series, it is prudent to assume that any non-return valves in the pumping system will fail to close. Positioning the inlets to the higher pools above the surface avoids the problem of water draining back through the supply pipework when the pumps are turned off. To ensure that water does not escape over the top of a membrane a minimum freeboard of 150mm (6 in) is to be recommended. With a quiet feature this can be reduced to 75mm (3 in). The risk of capillary action behind decorative finishes can be avoided by close bonding. If water is to appear flush with an adjacent surface then a drained channel needs to be recessed into the floor around the feature to avoid water tracking back under the finishes (fig 4).

Fig 6 Complete circulation is important if the water is to remain clean (option 2)

5 RIGID STRUCTURES Water bodies are inherently stable and only circulate slowly of their own volition. Water will always take the shortest route and this fact must be reflected in the overall plumbing configuration. Water should be introduced and drawn off in a way that ensures full turnover (fig 5 & 6). Underwater jets pointing towards or away from the outer walls will help to minimise the accumulation of floating debris and greasy deposits, particularly in corners (fig 7). The base of a pool should always be laid to a fall of at least 2 to a drainage point or sump to facilitate sweeping. Channel bottoms can also be laid to falls to keep debris moving (table 1). In urban locations it is advisable to minimise the depth of water so as to shorten maintenance periods and for reasons of safety. The industry standard water depth for a decorative pool is 400mm (16 in). This depth is sufficient to cover most lights and nozzles. With a freeboard of 150mm the base of a pool will still be less than 600mm below its surroundings. It is not usual to provide safety rails for a drop of less than 600mm (2 ft) so this establishes the normal edge profile. If there is a requirement for large nozzles then sumps can be formed in the base of a pool (fig 8). To avoid clutter and the possibility of vandalism cable ducts and supply pipes should be set into the base of the pool, below the finishes, and not left exposed on the surface. As water freezes so it expands. This force can crack rigid structures, lift finishes and split pipework. Water trapped behind decorative finishes may force them away from their backing as it freezes so full bonding is necessary. If water is to remain in a pool during freezing conditions it may be necessary to have gently sloping sides which will allow the ice to slide upwards. A feature must be designed so that it looks attractive when it is switched off or drained down. A simple bed of cobbles can make an empty pool look attractive in the middle of Winter. Alternatively a pool can be covered with paving so that it looks like a piazza when it is out of commission. When a feature is close to or within a building it must be completely watertight. If a pool consists of a single concrete structure it may not need lining but this is seldom the case. Day work joints usually mean that a membrane is required. Liquid rubber or bitumen based paints can be used to seal small cracks. Liquid applied systems are cheap but they usually fail within a few years. Some liquid systems are reinforced insitu with fibreglass, polypropylene or polyethylene mat to increase their resilience. There are a range of sheet materials which are good for tanking but these cannot support a decorative finish without a rigid internal structure. GRP (glass reinforced plastic) or fibreglass is a useful material as it has structural properties of its own. It is expensive but can carry decorative finishes particularly if the surface is textured with

Fig 7 Water can be bled out below a nozzle to keep the corners clean

Fig 8 A sump can be formed to accommodate large nozzles Table 1

flow rate 0.075m/s 0.125m/s 0.150m/s 0.300m/s

Silt movement over a flat concrete bed

silt movement no silt movement slight movement when disturbed but settling later big conglomerations of algae starting to move silt moving well, large inorganic material stationary usual speed required for mass flow in sewers

1.000m/s

crushed flint or silver sand. All membranes should be electronically and / or flood tested before decorative finishes are applied. All penetrations need to be carefully detailed as most leaks occur at these points. 6 APPLIED FINISHES The surfaces within a feature must be easy to clean and not affected by water. In external locations sunlight and freeze thaw cycles put an additional stress on finishes. At the waterline they must be particularly durable as this is where environmental conditions are at their most extreme and where deposits accumulate. Pool walls should be finished with smooth materials which are easy to clean. Horizontal surfaces may benefit from having some texture as it will improve traction, although rough surfaces will present maintenance problems. Historically marble was used for water features because it was widely available and easy to work. Unfortunately, its surface dissolves quickly particularly when the water has a low pH or is treated with aggressive chemicals such as chlorine. Sandstone and limestone should be avoided as they absorb water. If natural stone is to be used then the best material is granite. Terrazo should never be used as the pigments, which provide much of its colour, are denatured by halogens and acids. High quality glazed ceramic tiles are durable and much cheaper than stone. It is important to select the right colour for a feature. Dark blues, dark greys and black are usually best as they give the water an illusion of depth, and contrast with the effects on the surface. Browns and yellows should be avoided as they tend to make the water look dirty. Greens should be approached with caution as they often look artificial and clash with adjacent vegetation. Uniform colours highlight imperfections and make debris more apparent so patterned or dappled finishes are to be preferred. Fixing through membranes, for example to support natural stone slabs, is not to be recommended. Thoughtful detailing often allows vertical stone panels to be fixed at the top whilst the bottoms are retained by the floor. If large, complex or heavy panels are to be used then an engineering brick wall can be built in front of the membrane to receive mechanical fixings (fig 9). All mechanical fixings must be made from stainless steel. Bedding layers under finishes should either be pure epoxy based (not epoxy cement) and preferably flexible rubber compounds. Under no circumstances should conventional cementatious mortars be used. Lime is easily leached from them and will form white deposits along the joints in the finishes. Eventually the finishes will lift. Joints can be filled with silicone or polysulphide jointing compounds. The surfaces which are to be bonded should be abraded, degreased, and primed before the sealant is applied. Care should be taken to colour co-ordinate joint fillers with adjacent finishes. 7 WATERFALLS AND WATERWALLS Water can descend vertically in a number of ways. If flows are limited or splashing needs to be controlled, then water can be run down a smooth surface such as glass or polished granite. The maximum length of a sheet of glass is normally 6m. A top fixing with a bottom restraint avoids distortion. The glass will need to be laminated or preferably armoured. Perspex can be used but is flammable. However, there are other similar plastics which are fire resistant. Water can be jetted onto a vertical surface via small downward pointing nozzles mounted at 45 to and 15mm away from it. However, a perfectly uniform film can only be formed if the water is fed gently onto the surface. This means using a discharge trough with baffles (fig 9 & 10). It is important to avoid irregularities in the surface of the wall as these may cause splashing. Negative steps have little effect but even the smallest positive step will throw water forward (fig 9). Very fine square grooves, 6 x 6mm deep and 6mm apart, can be used to retard the flow down a wall and so create a slow wave effect without splashing. In this case a smooth initial flow is important and surface tension needs to be reduced. To create a white water effect the surface needs to be rough. Granite or marble can be flame textured but this only makes a small difference. A coarse effect can be achieved by sawing the surface of a slab of stone into parallel ridges which are then broken off. Exposed aggregate concrete offers a cheap way to produce a rough surface. A textured surface will need to be inclined at 3 to 5 from the vertical if water is to remain in close contact with it. No matter how rough the surface the water will not run white until it has accelerated over a distance of 200mm (8 in). A large free-falling waterfall is always impressive. When water falls it drags air with it. A continuous curtain of falling water just in front of a wall creates a negative pressure behind it, which in turn tries to draw it back to the wall. A large gap behind the curtain allows air to enter from the sides. Spillways need to be smooth to minimise friction otherwise the upper and lower surfaces of the flow will move at different speeds. This predisposes the water to curl back on itself and to break up. If the last part of a spillway is almost vertical then the water will be drawn backwards. Spillways can be made

Fig 9 Decorative finishes can be fixed to a wall of engineering bricks to avoid penetrating the membrane

Fig 10 To establish a smooth flow of water it is necessary to have a discharge trough which is fitted with baffles

Fig 11 A typical nozzle arrangement for a linear droplet curtain Table 2 Water flow rates over different weirs for waterfalls, cascades and overflows. Note depths measured at the spillway
sharp lightly smooth metal textured metal edge wide edge wide edge flow l/s/m 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 depth mm 4.5 8.0 11 14 16 27 35 43 57 70 81 91 101 depth mm 3.5 6.5 8.6 10 12 21 29 36 48 58 68 78 88 depth mm 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.0 9.5 16 23 29 39 48 57 66 75

Fig 12 The optimum stone spillway profile

Table 3 Flow rates for waterfalls with a lightly textured stone spillway
height h mm 500 1200 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 width w mm 100 - 150 125 - 175 150 - 200 175 - 225 200 250 225 - 275 250 - 300 275 - 325 300 - 350 slope depth flow s d rate mm mm l/s/m 30 45 55 65 75 85 100 125 150 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 04 06 09 12 15 19 23 28 32

from concrete but the best effects are achieved with metal or polished stone. A sharp vertical or horizontal metal strip can produce a curtain but the effect tends to be unstable, irregular and more water is required than is necessary. Ideally a spillway should have a horizontal component to stabilise the flow, and then change to an inclined surface to accelerate the water. With a lightly textured material an acceleration slope angle of 15 will just suffice (fig 12). However, the best solution is a metal or polished stone spillway with a forward angle of between 30 and 45 to the horizontal, which serves to throw the water forward (fig 13). The depth of water which is required to pass over different spillways can be calculated from tables 3 and 4, and for other activities from table 2. For example, to determine the flow required for a 3m long waterfall which is 2.5m high over a metal spillway use table 4. This shows that a drop of 2500mm needs 20mm of water to flow over the spillway. From tables 2 or 4 it can be seen that this means a flow of approximately 13 l/s/m. The width of 3m is then multiplied by 13 l/s/m to give a flow rate of 39 l/s. To reduce the cost of a spillway it can be limited to an inclined lip bolted to an upstand (fig 14). Such a lip is classified as a sharp edge when calculating flow rates (table 2). As a curtain of water falls it accelerates and stretches until it finally breaks up. The greater the drop the greater the depth of water which needs to pass over the spillway for the curtain to maintain its integrity. Even so it is almost impossible to create a perfect unblemished sheet more than 2m high. On a windy site the chance of producing a pure curtain is reduced and so greater flows are required. When there is a series of pools linked by pure curtains of water the turbulence from one may disturb the flow over the next. Baffles placed before each spillway will overcome this problem. If the supply of water is limited or noise is a problem then the flow can be divided into fingers. A block of falling water droplets can also be striking, particularly if it is strongly lit from below (fig 11). The advantage of the latter system is that the water lands very precisely within a small area. 8 CASCADES Stepped cascades offer an attractive way to handle water over a short vertical distance. The patterns can range from a fine castelated chequer board to large steps. The larger the steps the greater the flow that is required (fig 15 & table 5). For the best results the width of each step should be 1.0 to 1.25 times that of its height. In general the flow over the first step should be 10% of the height of the steps. A minimum water depth of 10mm is usually needed to accommodate possible errors in level. A slight back-fall on each horizontal step will even out the effect as it encourages some lateral movement. In windy locations greater flows are required. There is little visual effect on the first step. Only by the third step is full turbulence achieved. Turbulence, which is generated by fountains splashing above a cascade, can overcome this problem. With angular features additional water must flow over external corners to ensure a uniform effect because water does not readily move sideways. 9 ROCKWORK There are many ways in which it is possible to create rockwork. The one way which will not create a good effect is to use natural stone as peoples perception of what is natural is very different to reality. A basic effect can be achieved by applying a sand cement render to a steel mesh which is fixed to a frame or armature. However, the quality of the final product is very workmanship dependent. The best effect is achieved by taking a silicone rubber mould from a natural rock surface and spraying glass reinforced cement (GRC) onto it. The resultant panels are secured to a metal frame. The backs of the panels are then packed with mortar. Finally the joints are filled with mortar which is worked insitu until it blends with the adjacent panels. The effect is brought to life by spraying with diluted UV stable emulsion paint. Individual points of interest, such as algae and lichen, are then added by hand. Pebbles and cobbles are frequently used in conjunction with water. Below water they can be very attractive but when dry they appear uniformly light and featureless. A permanent wet look can be achieved by coating them with epoxy resin. Epoxy bonding is vital in areas where there is any chance of vandalism, such as in shopping malls. Although simple in theory the practice needs a scientific approach. The aggregates must be clean and dry, and the chemicals correctly handled if the end product is to endure. 10 METALWORK Water is a corrosive material particularly if it contains chemicals such as halogens or salts. As a result the only metal which should be used underwater for permanent fittings is medium grade stainless steel (BS 316 L or BS 304 L). Plastic pipework is ideally suited for use with water features. However, it is potentially flammable and in public areas stainless steel pipework may have to be used. Stainless steel is not

Fig 13 The optimum metal spillway profile

Table 4 Flow rates for waterfalls with a smooth metal or polished stone spillway
height h mm 500 1200 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 width w mm 100 - 150 125 - 175 150 - 200 175 - 225 200 250 225 - 275 250 - 300 275 - 325 300 - 350 slope depth flow s d rate mm mm l/s/m 30 45 55 65 75 85 100 125 150 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 02 05 10 13 16 20 25 30 36

Fig 14 A minimal sharp edge metal spillway

indestructible and can become embrittled if used incorrectly. Condensation readily forms on stainless steel pipework so lagging is necessary. Such lagging usually needs to be fireproof. Stainless steel pipework, when filled with water, can donate electrons to mild steel structures. For this reason stainless steel pipes should be electrically insulated from the structure which provides them with support. Bronze and gun metal are easy to work and are widely used for luminaires and nozzles. They should not be used for components which might affect the integrity of a waterproof membrane. Plastic coated mild steel pipes can be used to carry water, but they corrode rapidly if their surface layer is damaged. Mild steel and galvanised steel pipes corrode very quickly and should never be used. For the same reason aluminium is not appropriate for use in water features. Metals which are used underwater are hard to colour as most paints absorb water and eventually peel off. Powder coating is the only reliable way to apply colour to underwater components. Stainless steel can be surface coloured using an electrolytic process, but the effect is very variable. 11 PIPEWORK AND VALVES ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and uPVC (un-plasticised polyvinyl chloride) pipes are widely used for water features. ABS has the advantage of being more flexible at low temperatures than uPVC. If the ground is likely to settle then MDPE (medium density polyethylene) pipework, with fusion welded joints, is more appropriate. Pipes are available in several wall thicknesses but the abuse to which they are subjected during installation means that only the heaviest grade should be used. There are complex tables and calculations for designing plumbing systems, but for general guidance figure 16 can be used for ABS and MDPE pipes, and figure 17 for uPVC pipes The theoretical output of a system should be increased by 20% to provide flexibility and to accommodate unavoidable losses. The velocity of the water, as it passes along a pipe, should not exceed 2m/s, or 2.5m/s at the most, otherwise cavitation, hammer and erosion may occur. If pipes are to be buried then they should be laid on a sand bed, covered with sand and marked with tape. Pipes need to be laid at least 750mm (2 ft 6 in) deep to protect them against freezing conditions. Under roads or in localities which are prone to severe frosts the depth of cover should be increased. Drain down points should be provided in the lowest parts of a system. Above ground pipes need to be supported at internal diameter in mm flow rate in l/s flow velocity in m/s hydraulic gradient m/100m internal diameter in mm flow rate in l/s flow velocity in m/s hydraulic gradient m/100m

Fig 15 A typical section through a stepped cascade Table 5 Flow rates for stepped cascades
width w mm 100 150 200 250 300 300 200 250 300 400 450 450 height h mm 100 150 200 200 - 250 225 - 300 300 - 450 depth d mm 15 20 25 30 40 50 flow rate l/s/m 6 9 12 15 23 32

Fig 16 Flow diagram for ABS & MDPE pipework

Fig 17 Flow diagram for uPVC pipework

Plate 1 Flame textured granite slabs with a smooth bullnose overlap

Plate 2 Water on a finely slotted metal slab will produce a slow wavelike effect

Plate 3 A slab of exposed aggregate concrete will produce a white water effect

Plate 4 The best spillways are formed in metal and in particular stainless steel

Plate 5 A good spillway consists of a horizontal element and an inclined take-off

Plate 6 Water will splash forward from a rough surface

Plate 7 Water can be thrown forward after being accelerated

Plate 8 A vertical end to a spillway will cause the water to be drawn backwards

Plate 9 With a series of waterfalls the turbulence must be suppressed at each stage

Plate 10 Only by the third step of a cascade does the water fully break up

Plate 11 The external corners of a cascade will stay dry as water does not flow sideways

Plate 12 Fountain turbulence above a cascade will animate the top two steps

Plate 13 As water falls it stretches until it breaks

Plate 14 A curtain can be formed from fingers of water

Plate 15 A block of falling water droplets will sparkle particularly if it is well lit

Plate 16 Artificial rock panels are formed by spraying GRC on to silicone rubber moulds

Plate 17 Moulded artificial rockwork can look very natural

Plate 18 Emulsion paint can be used to add colour to artificial rockwork

Plate 19 Black granite is ideal for pools as it highlights any effects produced in the water

Plate 20 A thin film of water can be used to enliven a decorative surface

Plate 21 A thin layer of water, running down a glass sheet, will produce a fast wave effect

Plate 22 Dappled colours can be used to disguise irregularities in the base of a pool

Plate 23 A lake, which is only 2.5 m deep, can be ecologically stable

Plate 24 A plant room needs to be large and well planned

regular intervals. The distance between supports depends upon the type, size and grade of pipe to be used, and the temperature of the fluid which is to be carried. ABS and uPVC pipes are usually supported at 1800mm intervals for a 110mm (4 in) pipe down to 1100mm for a 32mm (1 in) pipe. Before commissioning all pipework should be tested to at least twice the theoretical maximum pressure to which it could be subjected. To facilitate testing all major sections of pipework must be capable of being isolated. This usually means providing flanged connections that can receive blanking plates. It must be possible to drain down pipework in Winter and for maintenance. This may necessitate the provision of drain down points. If a pipe passes through a fire barrier it must be fitted with an intumescent collar if it is more than 50mm (2 in) in diameter. Threaded connections should never be used to join pipes made from different materials, eg. metal to plastic. Only flanges or composite connectors should be used for this purpose. Bolted flanges offer the best way of joining sections of pipework together (fig 18 & tables 6 & 7). When a pipe passes through a slab it normally does so via a puddle flange. This is usually taken to mean a short length of tube with a flange at its centre through which a pipe can pass. However, if flanges and / or sockets are fitted to the ends of a puddle flange then it can form an active part of the plumbing system as well as providing a fixing point for nozzles, luminaires etc. The points at which pipes pass through a membrane are where most leaks occur. Where possible membranes should be clamped, with a neoprene gasket and backing ring, to a flange which is fully welded to a puddle flange (fig 19). Threaded sealing rings should be used with caution as they can twist the membrane as they are tightened with the result that a seal is not achieved. Also water can track along a thread. Pipes which pass through concrete or soil embankments should bear puddle flanges to prevent seepage. A pipe, which is laid in soil, should be stabilised with a block of concrete at the point where it passes through a flexible membrane. There are a number of valves which are available for controlling the flow of water through pipes. For manual control there are gate valves, which are usually formed in brass or steel, and ball valves or butterfly valves which are usually formed in metal and plastic. Plastic diaphragm valves can be used for very precise control. To automate systems electric actuators can be bolted onto ball or butterfly valves. These are easy to install but prone to fail when subjected to a large number of cycles. Only the most rugged should be selected. Pneumatic actuators are far more durable but need a compressor and a complex pneumatic control system. Hydraulically activated diaphragm valves are useful but can be difficult to calibrate. These use the same basic principle as a solenoid valve where a difference in pressure, either side of a rubber diaphragm, is used to change its shape and so the rate of flow. No commonly available motorised or solenoid valves are suitable for extended use in a wet environment. 12 PLANT ROOMS A plant room will usually contain most but not all of the following items of equipment:a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. main pump(s) main pump strainer(s) manifold with valves filter pump(s) with integral strainer sand or cartridge filter ultra violet steriliser (usually for fish and / or plants) biological filter (for fish and / or plants only) acid or alkali dosing pump and tank sterilising compound diluter, or dosing pump and tank water softener or deionising unit break tank and pressure set control panel drain or drainage sump with pump(s) ventilation fan frost protection heater and frost-stat air compressor for special effects

Fig 18 The main features of a full faced drilled flange Table 6 Flanges drilled to table D (up to 100 lb/in2) and table E (up to 200 lb/in2)
size
1/2 3/4

OD 095 105 115 140 150 165 200 220 220 286 337

PCD 067 073 083 088 098 115 146 178 178 235 292

holes 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 4 8 8

drill 15 15 15 15 15 18 18 18 18 22 22

1 11/4 11/2 2 3 4E 4D 6 8

Table 7 Flanges drilled to NP10 & NP16 (for a nominal pressure of 10 bar & 16 bar)
size
1/2 3/4

OD 095 105 115 140 150 165 200 220 285 340

PCD 065 075 085 100 110 125 160 180 240 295

holes 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 12

drill 14 14 14 18 18 18 18 18 22 22

1 11/4 11/2 2 3 4 6 8

Inside or immediately adjacent to a building it is advisable to treat the water with chemicals to prevent the growth of micro-organisms. It is also important to remove fine debris from the water. This can be done by passing the water through a pleated cartridge filter or preferably a sand filter. The water treatment system must operate continuously and should be independent to the display pump(s). In a multi-level system the filtered water can be used to replace that which leaks past non-return valves when the main pump(s) is inoperative. If the feature is at several levels or if there is a need to have an uncluttered pool then it may be necessary to have a hidden fall back tank. Such a tank will need to accommodate several cubic metres of water (fig 21).
Fig 19 A puddle flange detail which allows a membrane to be fixed to a pipe which is already cast into a concrete slab

A plant room will need to measure at least 2 x 2 x 1.8m high although 3 x 3 x 2m high is to be recommended. This will need to be increased to 7 x 4 x 4m high or more if the feature is large and / or complex, or if there is a need for a large fall back tank. Prefabricated plant rooms can be assembled off-site in GRP (fibreglass) chambers.

These are quickly craned into place and buried. They offer a considerable saving in time on site but only a small reduction in cost. All plant rooms must be drained in case water is lost from the equipment. Plant room drains must be connected to a foul sewer if chemicals are to be added to the water. If it is not possible to connect to a gravity drainage system then a sump pump will have to be placed in a depression in the floor of the plant room. It is always wise to assume that a sump pump will fail when it is needed so, where possible, two pumps should be provided. To guarantee their operation they should be fed from different electrical sub-stations. A flood alarm, activated by a float switch or an electrode sensor, should be fitted as standard. Despite the above all major items of equipment should be raised on concrete plinths at least 300mm high. Ideally the plant room should be located within 10m of the feature but distances of 30m or more can be made to work. If the resistance in the suction pipework is excessive the pump(s) will cavitate and its output pulsate. This problem can be overcome by increasing the size of the pipe which supplies water to the pump. The length of the delivery pipework is seldom of importance. All plant rooms need to be ventilated to dispose of the heat which is released by the electrical equipment and to avoid condensation. Plant rooms usually need at least six air changes an hour. If fresh air is drawn in from outside then it is necessary to have a frost-stat to turn off the ventilation fan(s) when the air temperature falls below, say, 10C (50F). If the main pump(s) could be out of use for several hours at a time then a heater(s) may be needed to maintain the environment in the plant room. If the outside temperature is likely to remain below freezing for some time then it may be advisable to run the equipment continuously to prevent the formation of ice in nozzles. When very low temperatures are anticipated there is no alternative but to drain down pipework, equipment and shallow pools. 13 WATER LEVEL CONTROL Some nozzles draw additional water and / or air from their immediate surroundings to increase their visual impact. Such nozzles are water level dependent. The maximum variation in water level which they can tolerate is usually less than 25mm (1 in). This necessitates very accurate water level control which in turn means an automatic topping up system and well sized overflows. An overflow must be able to handle the maximum quantity of water which can enter the lowest part of a system (fig 20 & 37). In the case of a lake it is important that the overflow can handle the worst flood which could occur in 100 years. This also means that overflows should be able to accommodate run off from adjacent surfaces. Even a lawn will discharge water during heavy rain. Overflows can be designed as flood control weirs to provide a storm water balancing capability. The consequences of periodic flooding must be reflected in the design of the adjacent landscape. Most plants will tolerate being inundated for one or two days at a time, as many as three or four times a year, but only if the ground can drain freely afterwards. In hot dry weather or inside buildings the evaporative loss from a flat water surface will be 25mm per week. With agitation this rate can easily be doubled. It is important to avoid the accumulation of salts within a pool i.e. to control the level of suspended solids. When salt concentrations reach a critical level, crystals will precipitate on surfaces within a pool. Such deposits are hard to remove. As a general rule 10% of the water, in a formal pool, should be replaced each week. This can usually be achieved by a long back-wash of the sand filter. In Summer even large lakes benefit from being flushed with clean water every few weeks. Water can be obtained from natural sources such as streams, but it is often contaminated with silt and micro organisms. Boreholes are a good source of relatively clean water. The land drains which are laid under a lake membrane can sometimes be used as a source of water. Water can be collected from roofs but it will contain nitrates, particularly after prolonged dry weather. The run-off from car parks may be contaminated with oil although, in theory, interceptors should minimise the risk. In most large cities the municipal water supply is rich in nitrates and phosphates which encourages the growth of algae. Features in urban locations are normally supplied with mains water. It is important to ensure that pool water cannot be drawn back into the supply pipework. Double action check valves can be used but an air gap is the only certain way to avoid contaminating the local drinking water supply. Having an inlet 600mm higher than the surface of a pool or a fall back tank is one option. A break tank with a pressure set to pump water to the feature is the other. In hard water areas a softener may be used to convert hard calcium salts into soft sodium salts to make cleaning easier. However, the softener must be of sufficient size to allow for rapid refilling of the pool after it has been cleaned. If the water needs to be very clean eg. for a glass wall, then it may be necessary to install a deionising unit. These units are expensive. It is also important to remember that deionised water is extremely aggressive and will corrode all but the most durable materials.
Table 8 The average full load current in amps for 3 phase 4 pole squirrel cage motors, 50 or 60hz, calibrated in kilowatts
kW HP 240V amp 1.8 2.75 3.5 4.4 6.1 8.7 11.5 13.5 14.5 20 27 32 35 39 52 61 75 85 103 113 126 134 150 170 182 195 203 240 260 295 325 380V amp 1.03 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.5 5.0 6.6 7.7 8.5 11.5 15.5 18.5 20 22 30 37 44 52 60 68 72 79 85 98 105 112 117 138 147 170 188 415V amp 2.0 2.5 3.5 5.0 6.5 7.5 8.4 11 14 17 19 21 28 35 40 47 55 60 66 71 80 90 100 105 115 135 138 165 182

Fig 20 An up-stand overflow which can be removed to drain the feature

0.37 0.55 0.75 1.1 1.5 2.2 3.0 3.7 4.0 5.5 7.5 9.0 10 11 15 18.5 22 25 30 33 37 40 45 51 55 59 63 75 80 90 100

0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 5.5 7.5 10 12 13.5 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 54 60 70 75 80 85 100 110 125 136

14 PLUMBING CONFIGURATION There are a number of ways in which it is possible to plumb a water feature. However, the more common are illustrated below:-

Fig 21 A multi level feature with a fallback tank (IV = isolating valve RV = regulating valve NRV = non-return valve)

Fig 22 A single level feature with a large central nozzle (IV = isolating valve RV = regulating valve NRV = non-return valve)

Fig 23 A waterfall where the filtration system re-circulates via the main pool

Fig 24 A stepped cascade which uses the filtration system to keep the upper pool filled and the pipework primed

15 PUMPS Pumps can be divided into two main categories. They can be either submersible or dry mounted. These categories can be further sub-divided into single stage or multistage pumps. For urban water features single stage dry mounted pumps are the most widely used. These give the water one push and move relatively large quantities of water at low pressure. Multi-stage pumps contain a number of impellers and move a small volume of water at high pressure. Dry mounted pumps should always be located below the surface of the pool from which they have to draw water, otherwise they may run dry and be damaged. If a pump is mounted above the surface of a pool it is possible to use non-return valves to keep the pipework flooded, but eventually debris will prevent the gates from shutting fully and the pipework will drain. The filter pump can sometimes be used to keep the main system primed, but only if it runs continuously. Submersible pumps can be single stage eg. sump pumps, or multi-stage eg. borehole pumps. Sewage pumps, which are designed to handle solids, are ideal for the movement of large volumes of very low pressure water. As a rule mains voltage submersible pumps should only be used when the public cannot get within 20m of them. Even so the circuits must be protected by a residual current detector (RCD). Once the flow rate has been calculated a pump supplier can determine the model which is required. Table 8 gives an indication of the power supply, in amps, required for a pump calibrated in kilowatts. This information is needed to determine the size of the supply cable and the method of starting. Method 1 and table 9 can be used to determine the size of the supply cable. Every country has its own electrical regulations which should always be followed. 16 STRAINERS Debris will always accumulate in a water feature. As a result a strainer, with a removable screen, should be placed before each pump to prevent it getting damaged. Valves must be placed before and after a strainer so that it can be opened, at least once a week, for cleaning. The screen in the strainer needs to have a large surface area, and to be heavily perforated. This means that only special water feature strainers should be used. The holes in the screen should be half the diameter of the smallest opening in the display. Some fountain nozzles have very small orifices in which case a second fine strainer(s) may be required. Fine screens block quickly and should not be used in isolation. 17 FILTRATION Dust and fine debris naturally accumulate in water and make it murky. Such debris can be removed by the use of filters. Only a few passes a day are usually necessary for treated water but filters are not ideally suited to removing algae and quickly become clogged in biologically active water. The most widely used filters are:Fig 25 A pleated cartridge filter

pleated cartridge filters - these act in the same way as an oil filter on a car engine. They have a short life, are not particularly effective, and are time consuming to change, but have the advantage of being cheap (fig 25). sand filters - these consist of a stainless steel or GRP (fibre glass) drum filled with coarse sand. Water normally passes down through the sand bed with the result that debris is deposited on its surface. Every few days the flow is reversed and any debris flushed to waste The sand must be changed once a year. The maximum flow rate is usually 10 l/s for one square metre of sand area.
Fig 26 Fig 26 A typical water treatment system

18 WATER TREATMENT Water can be thought of as being either biologically active or treated. Micro-organisms thrive in the presence of light, carbon dioxide and water. Unicellular algae such as Scenedesmus spp. colonise first, then a whole range of more complex organisms appear. If the water moves quickly (over 0.5 m/s) filamentous algae will develop. UV sterilisers can be used to kill micro organisms which are in circulation, but they will not affect those which develop on surfaces within a feature. These can only be controlled by the use of chemicals. There are several algaecides which can be used in pools, but they are not effective against diseases such as Legionella. Unfortunately even a small error in dosing with an algaecide can have a catastrophic effect on plants and fish. The following processes are widely used for creating a sterile aquatic environment:-

chlorine and bromine ozone metal ions

Fig 27 A free standing float switch

Of these a mixture of chlorine and bromine is the simplest and most certain way of controlling micro-organisms. The chemicals can be added as granules by hand or as a liquid via a pump. However, it is more usual for tablets of concentrated chemicals to be placed in a diluter or brominator. If chlorine and bromine are used to sanitise water there may be a smell, but this is usually due to chloroamines which are released when organic matter degrades. As a result reducing the level of chlorine can make the problem worse. Dilute brine can be electrolysed to release free chloride radicals. Copper and silver ions can also be used to control the growth of micro organisms. Such metal ion systems still need an occasional dose of chlorine to maintain the clarity of the water. For most treatment systems the pH of the water must be maintained between 7.2 and 7.5. Outside this range their efficacy is reduced and salts may precipitate. Purifying chemicals can be added by hand. This approach has no capital cost but is unreliable. A time-clock can be used to open a solenoid valve before a diluter or to activate a dosing pump, but this fails to reflect what is actually happening within the feature. The best solution is to use an automatic electronic controller. With this a small amount of water flows around sensor probes which generate signals which are monitored by electronic circuitry (fig 26). Chemicals are then added automatically to maintain the pH and redox (reduction / oxidation) potential or aggressiveness of the water. A fully automatic system is expensive, but very reliable if correctly maintained.

Fig 28 A hanging float switch

19 FITTINGS The following fittings are widely used in conjunction with water features:a) Skimmers are boxes which are set in the wall of a pool at the water level. Surface water flows through these units on its way back to the filter pump. They contain a removable mesh basket to collect floating debris. They are best located in static corners. They are not widely used. b) Eyeball Fittings are jets mounted in the wall of a pool just below the surface to keep the water in motion particularly in still corners. c) Overflows must be sized to accommodate the maximum flow which may result from any eventuality. To prevent them from getting blocked they need to be fitted with screens. Removable up-stand overflows can be pushed or screwed into drainage points (fig 20). d) Anti-vortex plates are placed over the open end of a suction pipe to prevent air getting drawn into a pump. If this happens the output of the pump will pulsate. To accommodate high flow rates an abstraction point may need to be positioned in a sump to prevent a vortex from forming. These plates should support coarse grills to keep out large debris but they must not take the place of a strainer. e) Supply baffles or diffusers are placed over the end of pipes where water is introduced below the surface. Supply pipework is often used to drain a feature in which case grills must be fitted to hold back debris. When water is introduced close to a spillway it must not disturb the surface so a large directional baffle may be required. f) Anemometers are necessary in most external locations. The electrical pulses produced by the anemometer are monitored by a unit in the control panel. This unit can control the operation of or speed of a pump, or activate motorised valves which adjust the flow of water (fig 21 & 22). g) Water level sensors are available in a number of forms and are used to regulate water level. They can also be used to sound alarms if water runs to waste or to turn off pumps and lights if the level falls. The following types are widely used:-

Fig 29 The reed mechanism which is to be found in fig 27 & 28

Ball cocks or float valves are imprecise as they do not have a positive on-off position and do not respond well to small changes in water level. Reed switches contain two metal strips which normally hang apart inside a small tube. They are forced together by a small magnet fixed to a float which slides up and down the outside of the tube. The signal from the switch is converted into a useable current by a relay which usually activates a solenoid or motorized valve which is mounted on the incoming water supply pipework (fig 27, 28 & 29). Mercury tilt switches consist of a glass tube which contains a bead of mercury. They can be encased in a float or mounted in a cradle above the water where they rock in response to a float which rests on the surface. They are robust and can switch a modest current without the use of a relay (fig 30).

Fig 30 A mercury tilt switch

Electrode sensors employ a minimum of three stainless steel rods which hang in the water. The longest is a common return and its end is permanently in the water. As the level falls the middle rod comes out of the water and a relay closes causing a solenoid valve, on the incoming water supply, to open. When the upper rod is reached the relay breaks the electrical circuit and the valve closes. Additional rods may be fitted for ancillary functions such as flood alarms or to safeguard equipment if the water level falls.

Method 1 An abridged method for obtaining an indication of cable size based loosely on IEE Regulations 16th Edition
It is necessary to check that the current rating of the selected cable is equal to or greater than that which is required. Also the voltage drop between the supply terminals and the equipment being supplied should not exceed 4% of the nominal voltage of the supply, disregarding starting conditions. max volt drop = approx volt drop x length x Ioad 1000 or approx voltage drop = max voltage drop x 1000 length x load where; approximate voltage drop is in mV / amp / m run circuit length is in metres circuit load is in amps For example: circuit load circuit length max voltage drop therefore approx volt drop = 16.6 x 1000 = 0.83mV 200 x 100 From table 9 it can be seen that an approximate voltage drop of 0.83mV falls below the figure given for a 50mm2 cable which is 0.87mV. As a result a 70mm2 3 or 4 core armoured copper cable which has a value of 0.60mV is the one to select. It is also necessary to check that the current rating of the selected cable is equal to or greater than that which is required. In this example a 70mm2 cable has a rating of 251 amps which is greater than the 100 amps which is required and is therefore acceptable. CAUTION - sizing cables is a complex task which should be left to a specialist. There are many different types of cable and ways of mounting them. The above is a quick way to get a feel for a cable size which ignores the more complex aspects of the subject. Also regulations differ between countries. Always consult a specialist. 100 amps per phase 200 metres 4% of 415V or 16.6 volts

20 CONTROL PANELS Single phase pumps are easy to start with simple switches and time clocks. Over 1kW a pump usually needs a three phase supply and as a result special starting equipment. A three phase power supply has a separate wire for each of the three phases. These are normally designated red, yellow and blue or U V W. Up to 5.5kW (7.5hp) a pump is usually started direct on line (DOL). Over 5.5kW a pump should be started stardelta. In this case the pump starts in the star mode, and after a few seconds switches to the delta. This allows the pump to build up its speed slowly, but it will still draw 3 to 4 times its normal running current during start up. If the same pump was started DOL it would draw 6 to 7 times the normal running current which could affect the power supply in the local area. A pump which is started DOL only requires 3 live wires and an earth, whereas a star-delta configuration requires six live wires and an earth. Some large pumps can only be started DOL eg. bore hole pumps. To avoid a power drain with these motors a soft start unit is employed. In their more advanced form these units are referred to as frequency inverters. These allow the speed of the motor and hence the output of the pump to be varied electrically. Such units are very expensive and usually cost more than the pump which they are controlling, although they can save money in the long term. Control cabinets are available in a range of standards. They are usually formed in steel with an anti-corrosion finish although in some countries plastic units are permitted. Doors are now fitted with splash proof rubber seals as a matter of course. The most widely used panels are:-

IP 66 (UK) or Type 4X (USA) - for outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water, hose-directed water and damage from external ice formation. IP 55 (UK) or Type 12 (USA) - for indoor use to provide a degree of protection against circulating dust, falling dirt and dripping non-corrosive liquids.

Doors must be lockable with an integral isolator to prevent access whilst the panel is live. Immediately after the isolator there should be an RCD (residual current device), to detect any imbalance between the amount of electricity which is entering and exiting the system, followed by a main relay. Emergency stop buttons should be positioned close to the entrances to a plant room and connect into the control circuit which holds in the main relay. A break in the control circuit will then result in the main relay dropping out and the equipment failing safe. If there is any chance of water accumulating within a plant room then a float switch should also be placed in the control circuit. Some functions may need to continue even if the panel shuts itself down. For example, sump pumps which drain the plant room should always remain operative. The supply to these should come from another source. However, this is often impractical so some functions may need to connect directly to the incoming supply after the main isolator, but before the main control circuit relay and RCD, and a notice to this effect must be placed on the front of the panel. Any secondary items of equipment will then require their own RCD protection. All panels require either an integral time clock or a Building Management Service (BMS) connection. Any relay which fails to engage should activate a warning light on the front of the panel and a no volt contact to alert the BMS system which is monitoring the equipment. Each major item of equipment will require a relay and a switch on the front of the panel. It is advisable for all switches to be configured for hand-off-auto use. It is normal for the water level controls, the filter pump and the water treatment equipment to run continuously, and so these items are usually left in the hand position. However, the main pump(s) is usually switched on for limited periods of time to conserve energy. Lights should not operate without the main pump(s), and need a secondary means of control such as a photo-electric cell. If the level rises too high water will run to waste and an alarm should be activated. If the level falls below a predetermined minimum then the lights and the pump(s) should be switched off and an alarm activated. This necessitates several water level monitoring devices. It is common for micro-electronic circuits to malfunction at high or low temperatures. In locations where temperatures can be very low and / or humidities high a heater may be required inside the panel. If the equipment within the panel is likely to generate a

Table 9 Copper conductor sizes for multi-core XLPE (as opposed to PVC) armoured cables with thermosetting insulation attached to a perforated tray 2 core
conductor cross section mm2 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400 single approx phase volt AC or drop/ DC amp/m amps 29 39 52 66 90 115 152 188 228 291 354 410 472 539 636 732 847 mV 31 19 12 7.9 4.7 2.9 1.90 1.35 1.00 0.69 0.52 0.42 0.35 0.29 0.24 0.21 0.195

3 or 4 core
three approx phase volt AC drop/ amp/m amps 25 33 44 56 78 99 131 162 197 251 304 353 406 463 546 628 728 mV 27 16 10 6.8 4.0 2.50 1.65 1.15 0.87 0.60 0.45 0.37 0.30 0.26 0.21 0.195 0.170

large amount of heat then a small ventilation fan may be required. Lighting transformers should always be mounted in separate enclosures, away from the control panel, due to the heat which they generate. Every country has its own electrical regulations. These are always extensive and need to be reflected in the design of any panel. All components which are used in a panel should be locally available so that repairs can be quickly effected. 21 LIGHTING It is almost impossible to over illuminate a water feature. Luminaires should be directed upwards if a fountain or waterfall is being lit. With individual nozzles the lighting should be symmetrical. With linear effects banding can be a problem if the luminaires are spaced too far apart. If underwater luminaires are mounted close to the horizontal then total internal reflection will occur. This means that the bottom of the pool will be illuminated and no light will come through the surface. This may be acceptable if the base of the pool is clean and uncluttered. If not then attention will be drawn to any shortcomings. Luminaires need to be mounted as close to the surface as possible as even a small depth of agitated water significantly reduces light output. If possible they should be washed by water from the display. Incandescent lamps are inefficient and generate a great deal of heat. If a luminaire is switched on when it is uncovered its lens will overheat and crack. As a result the water level needs to be automatically monitored and the luminaires turned off if they become exposed. Also the lighting relay should be linked to the main pump relay so that the lights will not operate in isolation. A photo-electric cell should be used to prevent the lights from operating during the day. Most luminaires have interchangeable lenses although some seal round the front of the lamp. Coloured lenses are available but each chosen colour requires a separate set of luminaires or a multi lamped luminaire. Blue and red lenses dramatically reduce light output. Green and yellow lenses allow more light to pass through them. A mixture of luminaires with coloured and clear lenses can be used to create pastel effects. Full spectrum LED luminaires will emit a wide range of coloured light, but they are expensive and lack the power of more conventional units. In several countries the normal mains power supply is 110 / 120 volt. Although not completely safe such supplies carry far less risk than the 220 / 240 volt supply which is used in many countries. If a number of luminaires are connected to different phases of the same supply then the potential hazard increases to 415 volts. In theory 240 volt lamps can be used in underwater luminaires provided that there is adequate RCD protection. However, this is not to be recommended. Voltages can always be reduced by the use of a transformer. For sheer power 500 watt PAR 56 and 1000 watt PAR 64 110/120 volt lamps are the most popular. In swimming pools 12 volt luminaires are usually mandatory. Water features are often used for recreation by children and so logically should be engineered to the same standard. 50 or 75 watt 12 volt dichromic lamps are now widely used but lack power. Powerful 6 volt and 12 volt lamps, up to 250 watts, are available but require very heavy cables. Transformers need to be located within 10m of low voltage luminaires to avoid power loss in the cables. Greater distances can be accommodated, but only if the transformers are customised to allow for the voltage drop. Ideally all transformers should be toroidally wound so that the loss of one or two lamps does not affect the life of the remainder. Fibre optic systems have been developed for use in swimming pools. They have the advantage that the light source can be located away from the feature, but they lack power and are rarely appropriate. Where possible the luminaires should be wired so that they can be lifted out of the water for relamping but this operation is still best done when the feature is drained down. Lamp life is usually much longer than anticipated because of the cooling effect of the water. It is not uncommon to only change lamps once a year. Only vulcanised rubber or ethylene propylene cables should be used underwater. Cables with a PVC sheath should not be used as they are slightly porous.

22 NOZZLES There are many different types of nozzle manufactured by different companies. However, to produce an outline design it is necessary to have some idea of how much water is required for the display. The tables on the following pages are based on equipment from a number of sources. All that is necessary is to select the type of nozzle and the height of the effect that is required. From the tables the flow rates and hence the pipe sizes can be determined. Large pod effects are only a collection of nozzles mounted together. It is possible to calculate their flow requirement by adding together the output of the individual jets (fig 32 & 33).

Fig 31 The relationship between nozzles from a simple finger jet through all the major types

AERATOR JET (water level dependent) These create a tall column of white water with a pulsating crown when mounted vertically. They are very economical with water. The amount of air which enters the stream can be adjusted by raising or lowering the outer collar. The column diameter at the base is very small. They are very useful when grouped together particularly as a pod. Their venturi design makes them very water level dependent. If there is any floating debris in the feature then a trash guard will need to be fitted around the base of each nozzle.
thread
3/4

od
25mm

ht
185mm

height m
flow l/s head m

1.0
0.3 6.0 0.4 4.0 0.6 3.5 0.6 3.5

1.5
0.4 8.0 0.5 6.5 0.7 5.0 0.7 4.5 1.5 3.0

2.0
0.4 10.5 0.6 8.0 0.8 6.0 0.9 5.5 2.0 4.0 5.3 8.0

3.0
0.5 14.5 0.7 11.0 0.9 8.5 1.2 7.5 2.4 5.5 6.2 8.5

4.0
0.6 17.0 0.8 14.5 1.0 10 1.4 9.0 2.7 7.0 7.0 10

5.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

15.0

inch

1 inch

30mm

235mm

flow

l/s

0.9 18.0 1.1 13 1.6 11 3.0 8.5 7.8 13 1.2 18 1.8 12 3.4 10 8.6 15 2.0 16 3.8 13 9.5 18 2.2 19 4.2 16 10 22 2.4 23 4.5 18 11 26 5.0 22 13 32

head m 11/4 inch 40mm 255mm flow l/s

head m 11/2 inch 50mm 335mm flow l/s

head m 2 inch 65mm 385mm flow l/s

head m 3 inch 90mm 535mm flow l/s

head m

FOAM OR BUBBLER JET These create a low pulsating mound of heavily aerated water which can be useful in windy locations. A large expanding spray can be created at higher flow rates. The column diameter at the base is about half the height. These nozzles should be covered before the water supply is turned on otherwise there will be a great deal of spray. The depth of water over the nozzles needs to be strictly maintained. These jets can cause surging in small features unless wave baffles are fitted. If surging is acceptable then the effect can be exploited. These jets require a non-turbulent water supply. The breather pipe must be well clear of the surface of the pool and may need extending if several nozzles are used close together.
thread
3/4

od
185mm

ht
235mm

height m
flow l/s head m

0.5
0.8 3.1 1.2 2.6 1.7 2.5 2.2 2.5 3.6 2.2

1.0
1.0 4.8 1.5 4.6 2.1 4.5 2.8 4.9 4.4 3.9 6.0 3.1

1.5
1.2 5.9 1.7 5.8 2.5 6.7 3.4 6.9 5.1 5.2 7.1 4.3

2.0
1.4 8.3 1.9 7.0 2.9 8.0 3.9 8.4 5.6 6.3 7.8 5.5

2.5
1.7 9.6 2.1 8.6 3.1 8.9 4.3 11.6 6.1 7.4 8.5 7.1

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

inch

1 inch

105mm

280mm

flow

l/s

2.2 11.0 3.3 10.7 4.7 17.1 6.4 8.2 8.9 8.3 3.7 14.7 5.6 21.1 7.2 9.9 10.8 9.8 6.3 23.5 7.9 11.6 12.8 11.9 8.6 13.2 14.2 15.6 16.8 21.0 18.2 24.7 19.2 28.5

head m 11/4 inch 115mm 345mm flow l/s

head m 11/2 inch 130mm 390mm flow l/s

optimum performance

head m 2 inch 175mm 450mm flow l/s

head m 3 inch 250mm 525mm flow l/s

head m

CASCADE JET These produce a tall conical block of highly aerated water. The column diameter at the base is one quarter of the height. They can be used on their own or as part of a group. Their venturi design makes them very water level dependent. They can cause surging in small features unless wave baffles are fitted. They require a non-turbulent water supply.
thread
3/4

od
150mm

ht
135mm

height m
flow l/s head m

0.5
1.0 7.1 1.4 6.4 1.7 2.9

1.0
1.3 11 1.7 7.9 2.0 6.6

1.5
1.5 15 2.0 9.5 2.3 9.9 4.9 7.6 8.4 6.1

2.0
1.7 20 2.2 14 2.7 13 5.3 9.3 9.4 8.1

2.5
1.9 24 2.4 17 2.9 15 5.9 11 10 9.3

3.0
2.1 27 2.6 20 3.2 16 6.3 14 11 11

4.0

5.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

inch

11/4 inch 170mm

190mm

flow

l/s

2.9 24 3.7 24 7.0 19 13 15 7.8 24 14 18 8.2 27 16 20 9.5 33 19 35 12 39 23 47

head m 11/2 inch 180mm 230mm flow l/s

head m 2 inch 100mm 290mm flow l/s

head m 3 inch 160mm 365mm flow l/s

head m

Plate 25 A collection of aerating jets with 500 watt PAR 56 luminaires

Plate 26 A block of water level independent aerating jets surrounded by a splash zone

Plate 27 A ring of water level dependent aerating jets set on a granite dome

Plate 28 Cascade jets produce thick dense columns of water

Plate 29 A ring of cascade jets

Plate 30 Five cascade jets with four 500 watt PAR 56 luminaires

Plate 31 A foam or bubbler jet with its breather pipe projecting above the surface

Plate 32 A feature can be covered with paving to create a piazza

Plate 33 Aerating jets discharging through paving slabs

Plate 34 A ring of aerating jets with a tall central column which is causing splashing

Plate 35 A large foam pod flanked by four cascade jets (see fig 32)

Plate 36 A water level dependent aerating jet castle pod (see fig 33)

Plate 37 A dandelion needs a very well filtered water supply

Plate 38 A bell nozzle display will form and collapse repeatedly if perfectly adjusted

Plate 39 Calyx jets are very variable with even a small amount of adjustment

Plate 40 Water can be blown out of a cylinder below a jet with compressed air

Plate 41 Finger jets can be set in a ring

Plate 42 Finger jets can be set on a linear manifold

Plate 43 An aerator can be used to mechanically entrain air in water

Plate 44 Coloured lenses can be fitted to luminaires but they do reduce light output

Plate 45 White and coloured light can be combined to create pastel shades

Plate 46 A twin pump floating fountain, upside down, awaiting installation

Plate 47 A floating fountain with cascade jets

Plate 48 Small floating fountains can enliven and oxygenate static bodies of water

AERATOR JET (water level independent) These create a tall column of white water when mounted vertically. Their totally enclosed design means that they are not water level dependent. They do not require a smooth water supply. They tend to be less forceful than the water level dependent type of aerator nozzle described above. The column diameter at the base is very small. As they discharge above water they can be used to introduce water to a multilevel system without the need for non-return valves.
thread
1 inch 11/4 inch 11/2 inch 2 inch 3 inch

od
30mm 40mm 45mm 55mm 80mm

ht
150mm 160mm 200mm 220mm 285mm

height m
flow flow flow flow flow l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s

1.0
0.7 1.0 1.5 1.8 4.0

1.5
0.8 1.2 1.7 2.2 4.5

2.0
0.9 1.3 1.9 2.6 5.0

3.0
1.1 1.5 2.2 3.3 6.0

4.0
1.7 2.4 3.9 7.0

5.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

2.7 4.5 8.0 5.0 9.0 6.0 10.5 7.0 12.0

head m

4.5

6.0

7.5

11

13

16

18

22

27

CALYX, MORNING GLORY or TULIP JET These create a clear circular mushroom of water from a low mounted nozzle (as opposed to a bell jet which has a tall pipe at its centre). The pattern can be adjusted from a full translucent sheet to a rough broken half sheet with a droplet outer skirt. A constant water level is not required but windy locations should be avoided. The water supply needs to be non turbulent and very well filtered. As they discharge above water they can be used to introduce water to a multilevel system without the need for non-return valves. A number of different inserts and / or adjustable collars are available which can be used to change the initial steepness of a curtain across a range of angles, which in turn affects its height and spread.
thread
11/2 inch

ht
200mm

spray
flow l/s head m 0.7 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.2 1.8

20o
1.3 0.9 2.6 1.2 8.2 1.5 13 1.8 23 2.1 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.8 1.5 1.0 2.1 1.1 2.4

25o
1.3 0.6 2.2 0.9 6.3 1.2 11 1.5 14 1.8 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.7 0.9 2.3 1.1 2.5

30o
1.4 0.6 2.5 0.9 7.6 1.2 12 1.5 15 1.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.7 1.9 0.8 2.4 1.0 2.8

35o
1.6 0.6 2.8 0.6 8.2 1.2 12 1.2 16 1.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 1.1 0.7 2.0 0.7 2.8 0.8 3.1

40o
1.8 0.6 3.2 0.6 9.5 0.9 15 1.2 21 1.5 0.5 0.8 0.5 1.2 0.6 2.5 0.7 3.1 0.7 3.4

45o
2.3 0.6 3.8 0.6 12 0.9 21 1.2 26 1.5

2 inch

230mm

flow l/s head m

spray height in m spray diam in m

flow in l/s head in m

3 inch

300mm

flow l/s head m

4 inch

350mm

flow l/s head m

6 inch

400mm

flow l/s head m

FINGER, PLUME OR CLEAR JET These are the most basic jet and can be used individually or grouped in a pod where they can produce a massive column. They are ideally suited for use along a straight or circular manifold. They are available with a simple threaded socket connection or an adjustable swivel coupling. They require a very stable flow of water. If the supply is turbulent then flow straightening vanes will be required in the pipework before the jet. They should only be used a few degrees away from the direction of the supply flow.
thd
1/4 1/4 3/8 3/8 1/2 1/2 3/4

thd

ht
60 60 70 70

orif height m 0.5 mm head m

3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 30 40 50 65 75 flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s flow l/s

1.0 1.3
0.03 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.70

1.5 1.9
0.04 0.07 0.11 0.16 032. 0.45 0.65 0.90

2.0 2.5
0.05 0.09 0.13 0.20 0.40 0.55 0.75 1.20 1.75 2.40 4.50 7.10 9.60 17.3 24.6

3.0 3.8
0.06 0.11 0.16 0.24 0.45 0.65 0.95 1.50 2.20 3.20 5.50 9.00 12.0 21.6 31.8

4.0 5.0

5.0 6.3

6.0 7.5

8.0 10

10 13

15 19

20 25

30 38

40 50

50 63

60 75

100 125

inch inch mm

0.7
0.01 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.15 0.25 0.40

0.13 0.21 0.28 0.50 0.75 1.15 1.85 2.65 3.85 6.65 10.8 15.0 27.0 37.8 0.55 0.85 1.25 2.25 3.20 4.60 7.80 12.5 18.5 31.3 42.0 0.95 1.40 2.70 3.80 5.80 9.00 14.9 23.4 38.8 52.2 1.60 3.10 4.40 7.00 11.3 17.8 28.2 46.0 63.6 3.50 4.75 7.81 13.4 20.3 31.8 52.0 72.7 5.58 9.06 15.0 24.0 37.2 60.6 82.1 6.33 10.2 16.8 26.8 42.0 68.8 93.5 12.5 20.4 32.7 52.8 84.3 116 14.3 23.4 38.0 61.2 97.9 141 16.2 27.0 42.5 68.9 111 155 17.1 30.0 47.7 76.1 122 171 58.2 90.0 143 200

optimum performance

B
3/4

85 84 105 140 155 190 310 390 475 550 600

11/4 11/2 11/2 2 3 4 4 or 5 6 6

A - a male threaded swivel connection secured by a lock nut B - a female threaded swivel connection secured by a bolted flange

Water should not flow through pipework faster than 2.0m/s, or 2.5m/s at the most. When it reaches the nozzle the water has to be accelerated for it to create a visual effect. As a result most nozzles taper so as to force the water into a jet. The remainder usually squeeze the water through a narrow gap. The basic tapered nozzle will produce a clear finger of water. These can be positioned around a circular or along a linear manifold. The flow entering the nozzle needs to be stable otherwise the jet will break up around the outside. For this reason there should always be a length of straight pipe immediately before a nozzle. Vanes in this pipework will significantly improve the stability of the flow. Even so, the stream will still break up if the force with which the water passes through the nozzle becomes excessive. This happens because the water which is adjacent to the wall of the nozzle and the supply pipe travels at a different speed to that which is at the centre of the flow. In some special applications this problem is overcome by placing fine drinking straws, or metal mesh in the nozzle. This creates a jet of water which travels at a uniform speed or a lamina flow. This gives a very precise effect but needs very clean water otherwise the straws get blocked (see jumping jets below). To create more volume a simple tapered jet can be incorporated into a nozzle to draw in additional water and / or air (fig 31). Height is then sacrificed for volume. For a stronger effect a number of nozzles can be grouped into a pod (fig 32 & 33). Nozzles are usually formed in brass or gun metal because these materials are easy to machine. Some small nozzles are formed in plastic but they are fragile and should be avoided. Sudden changes in the flow rate to a jet cannot be achieved by valving as the water in the pipework takes time to accelerate. A number of novelty effects are available which employ different techniques to overcome this problem. Probably the best known is the jumping jet where a smooth arching primary jet of water is periodically deflected by a second unseen jet of water so that it fails to pass through an orifice in a plate. A pneumatically or hydraulically operated guillotine can be used to achieve the same effect. A brief intermittent effect can be achieved by blowing water out of a chamber immediately below a nozzle with compressed air which is stored in an adjacent cylinder. This produces instant, powerful but short lived, jets of water. Mists can be cooling in Summer but the water must be sterile if the threat of Legionella is to be avoided. Fogging nozzles use very high pressure water or water which is accelerated with compressed air. The water needs to be free of particulate matter as the opening in the nozzles are very small. 24 MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF FORMAL POOLS The maintenance cycle must be determined before a design is finalised. Formal pools usually need to be drained down, cleaned and refilled in less than a day and sometimes overnight. The drainage system and the water supply need to be of sufficient size to make this possible. In and around buildings the water usually needs to be treated to avoid a health risk. Adding chemicals to a system is pointless if their concentrations are not regularly monitored. The pH and chemical content of the water should be tested twice a week. The bacterial and fungal content should be monitored by exposing dip slides every two weeks. The presence of Legionella can only be detected by special tests which should take place every two months. 25 FLOATING FOUNTAINS On lakes where the water level fluctuates the only way to produce an effect is to have a fountain which floats. This is done by having a series of almost submerged floats which are bolted to a frame (fig 34). Below the frame hangs one or more sump pumps or horizontally mounted bore hole pumps. The pump(s) feed into a chamber which lies directly below the nozzle(s). Lights can be bolted to the frame. The great advantage of floating fountains is that they can be removed for routine maintenance and, if necessary, for the Winter. For safety, there must always be an earth leakage detector (RCD) in the supply and an isolator immediately next to the lake. No human activity should be allowed within at least 20m of such equipment. Standing bodies of water can become anaerobic particularly in hot weather. In such cases aerators can be beneficial. In this case an electric motor hangs below a circular float and carries a propeller. The flow can be directed upwards to throw water into the air or mounted horizontally below the surface with a venturi system to entrain air. These units can be mounted several metres below the surface to direct warm water upwards to keep boat moorings free of ice or to provide a better environment for fish. 26 ORGANIC WATER With natural water the rule is the deeper the better although at depths over 10m stratification, where the water separates into layers, can be a problem. Fountains can help to overcome this difficulty. To be ecologically stable a lake needs to be over 5m (16 ft) deep. However, it is seldom cost effective to construct lakes of this depth. If a large part of a lake is over 2.5m (8 ft) deep and the water is circulated then there are seldom difficulties. The shade of trees can prevent overheating but their leaves can

Fig 32 A large foam pod consists of numerous aerating nozzles connected to a lower manifold and an upper air supply chamber (see plate 35). Indicative flow rates are as follows:4m high 8m high 12m high 30 l/s 38 l/s 45 l/s @ @ @ 30m head 45m head 60m head

Fig 33 Aerating jet castle pod (see plate 36). Many combinations are possible but often 1 or 3 nozzles with a 2 inch bsp thread are surrounded by 8 to 16 nozzles with a 11/2 inch bsp thread. The total flow requirement can be calculated from the water level dependent aerating nozzle table

Fig 34 A typical section through a floating fountain

cause problems. Soft leaves, from say Alder and Birch, can enrich a natural system providing that the quantity is not excessive. Algae will develop on all underwater surfaces unless the depth of water is sufficient to prevent light from reaching the bottom. The minimum depth of water which is required for fish is a balance between the cost of construction, and the danger of over-heating in Summer and freezing in Winter. If the feature is engineered so that it always remains cool, clean and well oxygenated, then 300mm (1 ft) of water will often suffice. Unfortunately, the temperature of a shallow body of water soon matches that of its surroundings, although careful environment design can minimise this problem. Water is at its most dense at 4C which is why ice floats. Toxic gases can accumulate when the surface is sealed with ice. It may be advisable to employ a heater, or to direct warm water from the bottom of a deep pool at the surface, to keep at least part of it free from ice, if the fish are of particular value (see section 25 above). 27 ORGANIC WATER QUALITY Fish and plants add an interesting dimension to any water feature. Unfortunately, algae develop rapidly when water warms up. Water, which contains plants and fish, can be treated with chemicals to reduce the growth of micro-organisms. They are not particularly effective and can kill the plants and fish if the dosage is wrong. Salmonella, Listeria, E. coli and / or Legionella are usually present in natural water bodies. As a result untreated water should never be agitated in the presence of people with a weak immune system or in a confined space. In locations where the temperature of the water is likely to exceed 20C on a regular basis the water may need to be chilled to control the development of Legionella. When combined, bright sunlight and oxygen have a sanitising effect. Vigorous aeration in high light conditions is often sufficient to keep water clear. Air can be entrained below the surface by the use of venturi nozzles (fig 35). To keep water clean for fish it is necessary to provide a biological filter (fig 36). This is a large tank filled with inert porous granular material, such as lytag, upon which bacteria can develop to digest plant and fish waste. Experience would indicate that 2m3 of filter medium are needed to treat the waste from 100kg of fish. However, this is very variable and depends upon the environment and the species. UV sterilisers will dramatically reduce the number of bacteria and algae in circulation. However, they will not prevent algae from developing on surfaces within a feature. Regular sweeping of the inside of a pool, even when it is full of water, will reduce this problem as it causes the algae to be drawn into the treatment system.

Fig 35 A simple aerating nozzle which draws air into the re-circulation supply for an organic pool.

Fig 36 A biological filtration system

28 INFORMAL LAKES When an embankment is built across a natural water course it is said to be on stream. With an on stream structure the riparian rights of users downstream must be respected. For example, in Summer the lake might evaporate the total flow of the stream which feeds it. In contrast an off stream lake is placed away from the bottom of a valley although it can be fed by a spur from a stream to keep it topped up with fresh water. Unless it is unavoidable no more than 25,000m3 (5,555,000 gallons) of water should be stored above ground level. Retaining structures which hold more than this quantity of water need routine inspections and certification which is costly. The flow from a catchment area which is greater than 400ha (1000 acres) should not be intercepted due to the size of the overflow which is needed to accommodate the worst storm in 100 years (fig 37).

It is possible to produce an impervious water retaining structure from an homogenous subsoil which is comprised of 25% clay mixed with equal parts of sand and gravel (fig 38). If such material is in short supply then an impervious clay rich core can be supported by less impervious material (fig 39). The top of an embankment should be 4 to 5m across and at least 1.2m higher than the normal water level. The sides should have a slope which is no steeper than 1 in 3 or 33%. Pipes which pass through earth structures should bear fully welded flanges which increase the length of any potential seepage by at least 50%. All open pipes should be fitted with hinged guards to prevent the entry of debris, animals and children. Deep water can be a danger to people who do not anticipate its presence. At no point should the sides of a lake slope at more than 1 in 3 or 33%. A gently sloping ledge 2 to 4m (6 ft to 12 ft) wide, covered by 450 to 600mm (1 ft 6 in to 2 ft) of water, should be formed around the perimeter of all decorative lakes to enable a person to crawl out. Such a ledge can support emergent aquatic plants. Unless the ground under an artificial lake has a very high clay content it will need to be lined. A liner represents a considerable additional investment and will usually double the cost of construction. Puddled clay was traditionally used but is seldom practical due to the problem of locating the correct grade of clay, spreading it and then puddling it. Should puddled clay dry out it will crack and leak even when rewetted. Bentonite (powdered clay) can be mixed with sub-soil to produce a fragile waterproof layer. Several companies market a thin layer of bentonite sandwiched between two layers of geotextile. In this form it is easy to handle but must be placed carefully and immediately covered with 300mm (1 ft) of soil. As the bentonite absorbs water it swells. It cannot lift the weight of the overlying soil so it expands sideways to produce a seal. The theory is simple but the practice often leaves much to be desired due to difficulties which are encountered during installation. Flexible non-elastic lake liners such as polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are cheap but are not particularly durable. PVC sheets are sometimes reinforced with a synthetic fibre mesh to increase their durability. The best membranes are produced from butyl rubber or the more modern EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer).

Fig 37 A section through a lake overflow which will accommodate storm flows without backing up

Fig 38 A basic earth embankment with or without a liner softened by a downstream surcharge of soil to support small trees and shrubs

Fig 39 An embankment with a clay rich core for use where there is insufficient clay on site or where it is of the wrong grade

Fig 40 A part section through a typical lake with a membrane

Both materials will accept a great deal of stretching but are expensive. There are a number of grades available but the most commonly used is 1.2mm thick. Large sheets are fabricated from narrow rolls in factory conditions so as to keep on-site welding to a minimum. The maximum joint length is usually a multiple of 25m up to a maximum of 100m. The largest area that can be handled with ease is 1000m2. The large concertina folded sheets are placed on the edge of the excavation and stretched out before being welded together (fig 40). Sheet membranes have the advantage that the joints can be vacuum tested. Flexible membranes are usually glued to any concrete structures to support their weight. Stainless steel strips are then pressed against a thick layer of flexible sealant, which is placed along the top edge of the membrane, before being screwed in place. Most lakes need to be emptied at some time during their life. To avoid the danger of rising ground water lifting the membrane a land drain, with gravel back fill, should always be positioned under a lake (fig 40). The drain should discharge to waste or open into a chamber from which the water can be pumped when necessary. The edge of a lake needs to be carefully detailed as the membrane has to be turned into a trench and protected in a way that cannot be compromised by wave action. The excavation must be cleared of all sharp objects to safeguard the well-being of the membrane. In stony areas a sand bed may be required. In all cases sheet membranes should be protected both above and below by a thick geotextile fabric. The two geotextile layers will usually cost 25% of the liner price. Placing a layer of sand or stone free sandy subsoil 300mm (12 in) thick on top of the geotextile is the best way of completing the protection. A strip of gravel, cobbles, timber and / or plants around the outside of the lake is necessary to prevent erosion. 29 PLANTS Few aquatic plants prosper in water which is more than 1.5m deep (5ft). Even water lilies prefer less than this depth. Marginal plants usually prefer water which is only 100 to 300mm deep. Aquatic plants should only be planted when the water temperature is rising in Spring. For this reason most planting takes place in May. The aquatic environment can be very variable. With large projects a shot gun approach, where a large number of different species are planted in distinct blocks, is to be recommended. Nature then eliminates the weak and within three years a stable planting pattern will have evolved. Plants which are used in water features are frequently divided into categories such as bog plants and marginals. These terms are very flexible and many plants cross these man-made boundaries. The table on the back cover of this bulletin describes the most useful from a long list of species and cultivars. It is important to use only those species which are indigenous or which pose no risk to established ecosystems. 30 BUDGETS All water features need a realistic budget. The easiest way to apparently lower the cost of a project is to omit the equipment which is needed to maintain the purity of the water and to undersize the rest of the system. Using a membrane with a short life or poor characteristics is another way to save money. All water features should be designed to operate with a small amount of semi-skilled labour otherwise they will quickly fall into disuse. This means having simple, well engineered systems, built with the very best materials. Water features are expensive to construct and to maintain. If the budget is inadequate then it is best to omit the feature. 31 SPECIFICATION Few designers have the time which is needed to master the intricacies of designing water features. As a result they have to rely on performance specifications and are frequently dissapointed when the project is complete. With the aid of this publication nozzles, spillways, flow rates, pipe sizes, membranes and engineering details can be defined. This information can then be incorporated in a specification. To obtain a draft specification telephone +44 (0) 1474 874 870 or facsimile +44 (0) 1474 874 873 or Email technical@hydrotechnology.net. This draft specification needs to be carefully reviewed and modified. It is always necessary to provide a description of the site and to complete the schedule of components. Any unused, duplicated or mutually exclusive clauses should be deleted. The final document must be checked by a suitably qualified professional before it is issued. Disclaimer - this is a brief technical document intended only to guide and inform. No warranty is offered or accepted for the contents of this document unless Hydrotechnology are retained as design consultants or contractors. Note - the illustrations used in this publication have been selected to explain technical principals and represents the work of a number of organisations, and not solely that of Hydrotechnology.

Table 10 A description of some of the more useful temperate aquatic plants

botanic name
Gunnera manicata Hosta (many named cultivars) Iris sibirica (many named cultivars) Lobelia cardinalis Lysichitum americanum Lysichitum camtschatcense Lythrum salicaria Mimulus guttatus Luteus Myosotis scorpioides Peltyphyllum peltatum Rheum palmatum Zantedeschia aethiopica Acorus calamus Alisma plantago-aquatica Butomus umbellatus Calla palustris Caltha palustris Caltha polypetala Carex acutiformis Carex riparia Cotula coronopifolia Cyperus longus Eriophorum angustifolium Glyceria maxima Variegata Iris laevigata Iris laevigata Alba Iris laevigata Rose Queen Iris laevigata Snowdrift Iris pseudacorus Iris versicolor Juncus effusus Mentha aquatica Menyanthes trifoliata Phalaris arundinacea Picta Phragmites communis Pontederia cordata Ranunculus lingua Grandiflora Sagittaria japonica Sagittaria latifolia Scirpus lacustris Scirpus tabernaemontani Zebrinus Typha latifolia Aponogeton disctachyus Hottonia palustris Hydrocharis morsus-ranae Nuphar lutea Nymphaea Alba Nymphaea Charles de Meurville Nymphaea Gold Medal Nymphaea Gladstoniana Nymphaea James Brydon Nymphaea Carnea Orontium aquaticum Stratiotes aloides Callitriche stagnalis Elodea canadensis Potamogeton crispus

common name
Prickly Rhubarb Plantain Lily Siberian Flag Cardinal Flower Yellow Skunk Cabbage White Skunk Cabbage Purple Loosestrife Monkey Musk Water Forget-me-not Umbrella Plant Ornamental Rhubarb Arum Lily Sweet Scented Rush Water Plantain Flowering Rush Bog Arum Marsh Marigold Giant Marsh Marigold Lesser Pond Sedge Greater Pond Sedge Golden Buttons Sweet Galingale Common Cotton Grass Striped Water Grass Japanese Iris Japanese Iris Japanese Iris Japanese Iris Yellow Flag Blue Flag Iris Soft Rush Water Mint Bog Bean Gardeners Garters Common Reed Pickerel Weed Greater Spearwort Japanese Arrowhead American Arrowhead Common Bulrush Zebra Rush Greater Reedmace Water Hawthorn Water Violet Frog Bit Brandy Bottle Water Lily - medium Water Lily - medium Water Lily - large Water Lily - large Water Lily - medium Water Lily - medium Golden Club Water Soldier Starwort Canadian Pond-weed Curly Pond-weed

flower colour
brown lilac blue & white scarlet yellow white red & purple yellow blue pale pink red white green pink & white pink white yellow yellow brown brown yellow red brown white light brown blue white pink double white yellow blue brown pink white white brown blue yellow white white brown brown brown white & black lilac white yellow white red yellow white red pink gold & white white light green brown

flowering period
July - Sept July - Aug June - July Aug - Sept April - May April - May July - Sept May - Aug Apri - Aug May - June Aug - Sept June - Aug June - July June - Sept July - Sept April - June March - May March - May June - Sept May - June May - Sept July - Sept May - July June - July May - June May - June May - June May - June May - June May - June June - July June - July April - May June - Sept Aug - Oct Aug - Sept May - June June - Sept June - Sept July - Aug July - Aug Aug - Sept May - Sept May - June June - Sept June - Aug June - Sept June - Sept June - Sept June - Sept June - Sept June - Sept May - June June - Aug May - Sept May - Sept

height
200cm 45cm 75cm 50cm 50cm 45cm 100cm 30cm 15cm 100cm 200cm 75cm 100cm 75cm 75cm 20cm 30cm 75cm 75cm 120cm 15cm 100cm 60cm 60cm 75cm 75cm 75cm 75cm 100cm 75cm 75cm 50cm 30cm 100cm 150cm 100cm 60cm 50cm 100cm 200cm 120cm 200cm 15cm 30cm 20cm 15cm 10cm 10cm 10cm 10cm 10cm 10cm 50cm 15cm 25cm

water depth
moist moist moist 0 - 5cm 0 - 5cm 0 - 5cm 0 - 5cm 0 - 5cm 0 - 5cm moist moist moist 0 - 15cm 0 - 15cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 20cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 20cm 0 - 25cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 20cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 15cm 0 - 20cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 15cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 30cm 0 - 15cm 0 - 10cm 0 - 15cm 0 - 30cm 0 - 30cm 0 - 15cm 0 - 60cm 10 - 75cm 15 - 100cm 10 - 150cm 50 - 200cm 50 - 100cm 50 - 100cm 50 - 100cm 50 - 150cm 50 - 100cm 50 - 100cm 20 - 100cm 10 - 150cm 15 - 100cm 15 - 150cm 15 - 100cm

sunlight
shady shady sun shady shady shady sun sun sun shady sun sun sun sun sun shady sun sun shady shady sun sun shady shady sun sun sun sun sun sun shady sun shady sun any sun shady any any sun sun any sun sun sun shady sun sun sun sun sun sun sun any any any sun

planting density
1 per 2m2 5 - 6 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 5 - 6 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 1 per 2m2 4 - 5 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 5 - 6 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 5 - 6 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 3 - 4 / m2 4 - 5 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2 - 3 / m2 2-3/ m2

type
bog bog bog bog bog bog bog bog bog bog bog bog marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal marginal floating floating floating floating floating floating floating floating floating floating floating floating submerge submerge submerge

1 bunch / m2 2 - 3 / m2 1 - 2 / m2 1 per 5m2 1 per 5m2 1 per 5m2 1 per 5m2 1 per 5m2 1 per 5m2 1 - 2 / m2 1 per 5m2 1 bunch / m2 1 bunch / m2 1 bunch / m2

HYDROTECHNOLOGY Fawkham Green Longfield Kent England DA3 8NL

Telephone +44 (0) 1474 874 870 Facsimile +44 (0) 1474 874 873 Email - technical@hydrotechnology.net