Chapter1 Introduction

1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The concept of using vegetable oil as an engine fuel dates back to 1895 when Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) developed the first engine to run on peanut oil, as the demonstrated at the world exhibition in Paris in1900. Unfortunately, Rudolf Diesel died in 1913 before his vision of a vegetable oil powered engine was rapidly developing and produce a cheap by product Diesel-fuel powering a modified Diesel engine.

Thus, clean vegetable oil was forgotten as a renewable source of power. Modern diesel are now designed to run on a less viscous fuel than vegetable oil but, in time of fuel shortages, cars and trucks were successfully run on preheated peanut oil and animal fat. It seems that the upper rate for inclusion of rapeseed oil with diesel fuel is about 25% but crude vegetable oil as a diesel fuel extender induces poorer cold-starting performance compared with diesel fuel or bio-diesel made with fatty esters.

Todays diesel engines require a clean burning, stable fuel operating under a variety of conditions. In the mid 1970s, fuel shortages spurred interest in diversifying fuel resources, and thus bio-diesel as fatty esters was developed as alternative to petroleum diesel.

Later, in 1990s, interest was raised due to large pollution reduction benefits coming from the use of bio-diesel. The use of bio-diesel is affected by legislation and regulations in all countries.
1

1.2 Problem of the world World energy resources and consumption review the world energy resources and use. More than half of the energy has been consumed in the last two decades since the industrial revolution, despite advances in efficiency and sustainability. According to IEA world statistics in four years (2004-2008) the world population increased 5% annual CO2 emission increased 10% and gross energy production increased 10% Most energy is used in the country of origin, since it is cheaper to transport final products than raw materials. In 2008 the share export of total energy by production by fuel was: oil 50%, gas25%, hard coal 14% and electricity 1%. In 2008, total worldwide energy consumption was 474 exajoules (474*1018 j=132,000 TWh). This is equivalent to an annual average power consumption rate of 15 terawatts (1.504*1013W). The potential for renewable energy is solar energy 1600 EJ (444,000TWh), wind power 600EJ (167,000Twh), geothermal energy 500EJ (139,000TWh), biomass 250EJ (70,000 TWh),

hydropower 50EJ (14,000TWh) and ocean energy 1EJ (280TWh) In 2009, world energy consumption decreased for the first time in 30 years (-1.1%) or 130 Mtoe (Megaton oil equivalent), as a result of the financial

and economic crisis (GDP drop by 0.6% in 2009). This evolution is the result of two contrasting trends. Energy consumption growth remained vigorous in several developing countries, specifically in Asia (+4%). Conversely, in OECD, consumption was severely cut by 4.7% in 2009 and thus almost down to its 20000 levels. Thus, if all developing countries use as much per capita energy as industrialized countries, the energy demands will go up by a factor of 10. The worlds population is still increasing. The population is expected to stabilize around 9 billion. If all 9 billion people were to use the same per capita energy as in industrialized countries today, we will need roughly twice as much yet again or a factor of 20 more than we now do. These are upper bonds and asymptotic, and perhaps not very useful. One has to modify them for the time horizon we are considering; and 2050 is a useful target because it takes nearly that long to harness new technologies profitably and to change habits globally. During this period, increasing energy
2

efficiency will make a dent in our needs. Developing countries will take a long time to catch up to the energy needs and regretfully, some of them never will. The industrialized countries will cut down to their wasteful energy habits and so forth.

Yet there is no doubt that we will need much more energy than now. If the poor parts of the world merely catch up to the world average (which is weighted heavily by the users at low end), a factor of 2 or 3 more energy will be needed. This estimate is primitive yet realistic. Moreover, additional energy needs are likely to emerge-for example, in meeting future water via, say, desalination. Keeping 2050 in mind, we can ask: where is the energy going to come from?

It will not come from nuclear fusion either. A commercial fusion plant is at least 50 years away, even if everything with the ITER project at Cadarche, France, works according to plans and additional up-scaling occurs as expected. ITER will take 20 or so years to work fully and at least one intermediate generation of fusion plants needed before commercial success becomes a reality. Fusion will thus play no role until 2050 though it may play an important one beyond.

Will it come from hydrogen? According to experts, there are basic problems with hydrogen as a energy resource at the thermodynamic and conceptual levels, as well as at practical levels. One should not forget principal point that hydrogen, though an excellent carrier of energy, is not a source. Thus hydrogen may play some role, but not the dominant one that fossil fuels now do.

What about renewable energies? That there is abundance of it no one doubts. The carrot is also that, if we can harness it successfully, one does not need to be constrained by energy conservation! Considerable progress has been made on

renewable energies, especially in Western Europe. Issues related to these technologies from the central theme of this congress.

But renewable energies face several obstacles. They are often characterized as peanuts, and the principal issue is that it is too much of a retail commodity. And the gain of the hard-earned progress made by a few countries will have essentially come to naught by 2020 on the world-scene because of the additional gain in population. It follows that the impact of any progress made will not be felt on the world at large unless that progress carries with it the major parts of the world population. This is the stark reality. The action needed is not just technology, or even money, but it is the mindset of the politics. It is even possible that a very large-scale harnessing of solar energy can have an impact on local environment, of not on the global level. The issues have to be addressed without prejudice.

In summary, looking towards the horizon until 2050, oil will become less available, the use of coal cannot increase dramatically without doing interminable damage to the environment, fusion will play no role, hydrogen will remain fairly marginal, and nuclear fission can be expected to increase slightly. Renewable will not be able entirely to fill the vacuum created by depleting fossil fuels.

1.3 BIOMASS Biomass is the oldest form of renewable energy, has been used for thousands of years. However, its relative share has declined with the emergency of fossil fuels. Currently some13% of the worlds primary energy supply is covered by biomass, but there is a strong regional difference: developed countries source around 3% of their energy needs of biomass, while Africas share ranges from 70%-90%.

With environmental effects such as climate change coming to the forefront, people everywhere
4

Reducing carbon emissions if managed(produced, transported, used) in a sustainable manner Enhancing energy security by diversifying energy resources and utilizing local sources Providing additional revenues for the agricultural and forestry sectors Reducing waste

1.4 BIO-DIESEL Biodiesel refers to any diesel-equivalent bio fuel made from renewable biological materials such as vegetable oils or animal fats. While there are numerous interpretations being applied to the term biodiesel, the term biodiesel usually refers to an ester, or an oxygenate, made from the oil and methanol (in other words, the name biodiesel can be applied to any trans esterifies vegetable oil that makes it suitable for use as a diesel fuel).

Technically, as mentioned earlier, biodiesel is vegetable oil methyl ester, or in general one should say that biodiesel consists what are called mono alkyl-esters. It is usually produced by a transesterfication and esertification reaction of vegetable or waste oil respectively with a low molecular weight alcohol, such as ethanol from vegetable oil is removed in the form of glycerine (soap). Once the glycerine is removed from the oil, the remaining molecules are, to a diesel engine, somewhat similar to those of petroleum diesel fuel. There are some notable differences though, while the petroleum and other fossil fuels contain sulphur, ring molecules and aromatics, the biodiesel molecules are very simple hydrocarbon chains, containing no sulphur, ring molecules or aromatics. Biodiesel is thus essentially free of sulphur and aromatics. Biodiesel is made up of almost 10% oxygen, making it a naturally oxygenated fuel.

Biodiesel is an alternate fuel formulated exclusively for diesel engines its made from vegetable oil or animal fats.

Biodiesel can be mixed with petroleum diesel in any percentage, from 1 to 99, which is represented by a number following a B. For example ,B5 is5 percent biodiesel with 95% diesel, B20 is 20% biodiesel with 80% diesel, or B100 is 100% biodiesel, diesel.

Biodiesel is biodegradable up to 4 times faster than petroleum diesel and non-toxic. It will not spontaneously ignite under normal circumstances since it has high flash point. It has a mild, rather pleasant odour.

1.5 NECESSITY OF BIO-DIESEL The scarce and rapidly depleting conventional petroleum resources have promoted research for alternative fuels for internal combustion engines. The scarcity of known petroleum reserves will make renewable energy resources more attractive. The most feasible way to meet this growing demand is by utilizing alternative fuels.

One of the questions we get asked on a regular basis is why people should use biodiesel. We think there are several reasons to use this great renewable resource! Heres a few that we think stand out.

1.5.1 its the Perfect Alternative Fuel When compared to several other alternative fuels available, biodiesel comes out way ahead. Most alternative fuels require changes to a vehicle to be used. Natural gas and propane require special tanks to be installed and changes to
6

the fuel

injection system must be made as well. Ethanol also requires specialized

changes to the fuel injection system. Electricity requires a completely different engine. In most cases, once a vehicle undergoes the conversion necessary to run the alternative fuel, theres no going back. You either run the alternative fuel or you dont run the vehicle. No propane? No go!

Biodiesel is different.

Unlike other alternative fuels, biodiesel used in most any

diesel vehicle UNMODIFIED! Yes, you read right. In most cases, you just pour the biodiesel in and go. No fancy tanks, no special injection equipment, no switches to throw, just pour it in and drive away. And, unlike the other alternative fuels, if u needs to switch back to petrol diesel you can. Just fill it back up with diesel! In fact, biodiesel will even blend with regular diesel fuel in any mixture from 1% to 99%. Its really that easy!

Another benefit biodiesel has over alternative fuels is mileage. In most cases, when alternate fuels are used the fuel mileage per gallon drops significantly. In some cases its even as high as a 60% drop! With drops that significant any benefit from using the alternative fuel quickly diminishes. However, this isnt the case with biodiesel.

Biodiesel has been shown to only have about an 8% to 10% drop in power when measured over petroleum based diesel. With that said, most people using biodiesel dont even notice the drop and if they do, they report that its only a slight drop in power. Most report seeing a decrease of only 2-3 miles per gallon reduction in fuel mileage

1.5.2 Its Economical Biodiesel can be produced by individuals on a small scale relatively in expensively when compared to petrol and diesel. Figures range anywhere from $0.40 a gallon to about $1.25 a gallon depending on the cost of materials required to make it. With prices that low, most people are able to save hundreds of dollars on their fuel bills. In some cases it even goes into the thousands of dollars. With savings like that, most people are able to recoup their initial investment on the equipment needed to make biodiesel within a matter of months.

1.5.3 Its Renewable Biodiesel has been touted far and wide for its renewable properties, instead making a fuel from a finite resource such as crude oil; biodiesel can be produced from renewable resources such as organic oils, fats, and tallows. This means that it can be made from things that can be re grown, reproduced, and reused. So, if you need more, you can just grow another crop of seeds for the oil.

1.5.4 its good for the Environment When biodiesel is used to power diesel engines, the emissions at the tailpipe are significantly reduced. Studies by the US National Renewable Energy Lab indicate drops in several key areas that help the environment. Carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and particulate matter (the black smoke from diesels) all are significantly reduced when biodiesel is used. When used in older diesel engines such as indirect combustion diesels, the results are astounding. We personally saw a reduction in our tailpipe emissions of nearly 90%. Its one of the many reasons we exist. We were incredibly impressed by our results. It also has a positive energy balance.

1.5.5 It supports farmer When biodiesel is made from organic oils such as canola, soy, peanut, cotton seed, or other domestically grown seed crops it helps the farming community out. Because the oil used to make biodiesel is domestically grown, it keeps the money flowing to those that grow the feedstock. This continues to help out the renewable aspect of biodiesel because this means more seed crops can be grown by local farmers.

1.5.6 It reduces dependence on crude oil When biodiesel is used in place of petro-diesel, it reduces the amount of crude oil used up. This means that it helps to reduce our dependence on a limited resource and increases our use of renewable resources. We think thats a great step toward reducing our dependence on a fuel that may not be around forever.

1.5.7 its enjoyable to make We think that making biodiesel is one of the funniest things in the world to do. With a little practice and know how it can easily be made and is extremely simple to do. Weve found it to be an incredibly fulfilling experience. Theres just something to be said for being able to make your own fuel and drive past a gas station and wave instead of pulling up for a fill-up. Words just cant describe the incredible feeling we get each time we make a batch.

1.5.8 its good for the engine Biodiesel, unlike petro-diesel, has a much higher lubricity to it. This means that its essentially slipperier than normal diesel fuel. With the added lubricity of biodiesel, engines have been shown to experience less wear and tear when used on a regular basis. Also, because biodiesel is less polluting, it means that its easier on the engine. US Government Studies have shown that in some cases large fleets using biodiesel have been able to go longer between oil changes because the oil stays cleaner when biodiesel is used.
9

1.6 Difference between diesel and bio-diesel Although biodiesel is a standard-diesel equivalent the source from which its most raw form is extracted is of a biological nature that gives the biodiesel its name as well. These sources could be inclusive of vegetable oils. Moreover the net

emissions of carbon dioxide are about 60% less from biodiesel than from petroleum based diesel. The reason for this reduction in carbon dioxide emission is the most primary source from which biodiesel is produced is atmospheric carbon dioxide with the aegis of photosynthesis, a process by which plants produce their own food. Moreover biodiesel is a much better solvent than standard diesel. In addition to that, biodiesel is much more biodegradable than standard diesel and has much lower energy content than diesel fuel. Last but definitely not the least, the price of biodiesel is little higher than standard diesel. But the difference is compensated in the terms of economies of scale, along with the constantly elevating prices of petroleum. The major differences make biodiesel a unique and distant commodity than standard diesel.

10

1.7Synthesization of bio-diesel The major steps required to synthesize biodiesel are as follows:

1.7.1 Feedstock pre-treatment If waste vegetable oil is used, it is filtered to remove dirt, charred food, and other non-oil material often found. Water is removed because its presence causes the triglycerides to hydrolyze, giving salts of the fatty acids (soaps) instead of undergoing transessterification to give biodiesel.

1.7.2 Determination and treatment of free fatty acids A sample of the cleaned feedstock oil is titrated with a standardized base solution in order to determine the concentration of free fatty acids (carboxylic acids) present in the waste vegetable oil sample. These acids are then either esterifies into biodiesel, esterifies into bound glycerides, or removed typically through neutralization

1.7.3 Reactions While adding the base, a slight excess is factored in to provide the catalyst for the transesterification. The calculated quantity of base (usually sodium hydroxide) is added slowly to the alcohol and it is stirred until it dissolves. Sufficient alcohol is added to make up three fully equivalents of the triglyceride, and an excess of usually six parts alcohol to one part triglyceride is added to derive the reaction to completion.

1.7.4 Product purification Products of the reaction include not only biodiesel, but also by-products, scap, glycerine, excess alcohol, and trace amounts of water. All of these by-products must be removed, though the order of removal is process-dependent

11

The density of glycerine is greater than that of biodiesel, and this property difference is exploited to separate the bulk of the glycerine by-products. Residual methanol is typically removed through distillation and reused, though it can be washed out (with water) as a waste. Soaps can be removed or converted into acids. Any residual water must be removed from the fuel.

1.8REACTIONS 1.8.1Transesterification A reaction scheme for transesterification is as follows

R1, R2, R3 in this diagram represent long carbon chains that are too lengthy to include in the diagram. Animal and plant fats and oils are typically made of triglycerides which are esters of fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification process, the alcohol is deprotonated with a base to make it a stronger nucleophile. Commonly, ethanol or methanols are used. As can be seen, the reaction has no other inputs than the triglyceride and the alcohol

12

Normally this reaction will precede either exceedingly slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as acid or base are used to help the reaction proceed more quickly. It is important to note that the acid or base are not consumed by the transesterification reaction, thus they are not reactants but catalysts.

Almost all biodiesel is produced from virgin vegetable oils using the base-catalysed technique as it is the most economical process for treating virgin vegetable oils, requiring only low temperatures and pressures and producing over 98% conversion yield (providing the starting oil is low in moisture and free fatty acids). However biodiesel produced from other sources or by other methods may require acid catalysis which is much slower. Since it is the predominant method for commercial scale production, only the base-catalyzed transesterification process will be described below. Since natural oils are typically used in this process, the alkyl groups of the triglyceride are not necessarily the same. Therefore, distinguishing these different alkyl groups, we have a more accurate depiction of the reaction:

During the esterification process, the triglyceride is reacted with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst, usually a strong alkali (NaOH, KOH or Alkoxides). The main reason for doing a titration to produce biodiesel, is to find out how much alkaline is needed to completely neutralize any free fatty acids present, thus ensuring a complete transesterification. Empirically 6.25g / L NaOH produces a very usable fuel.

13

One uses about 6g NaOH when the WVO is light in colour and about 7g NaOH when it is dark in colour.

The alcohol reacts with the fatty acids to form the mono-alkyl ester (or biodiesel) and crude glycerol. The reaction between the bio lipid (fat or oil) and the alcohol is a reversible reaction so the alcohol must be added in excess to drive the reaction towards the right and ensure complete conversion.

1.8.2 Base-catalysed transesterification mechanism The transesterification reaction is base catalyzed. Any strong base capable of deprotonating the alcohol will do (e.g.NaOH, KOH, sodium meth oxide, etc.). Commonly the base (KOH, NaOH) is dissolved in the alcohol to make a convenient method of dispersing the otherwise solid catalyst into the oil. The ROH needs to be very dry. Any water in the process promotes the saponification reaction, thereby producing salts of fatty acids (soaps) and consuming the base, and thus inhibits the transesterification reaction. Once the alcohol mixture is made, it is added to the triglyceride. The reaction that follows replaces the alkyl group on the triglyceride in a series of steps.

The carbon on the ester of the triglyceride has a slight positive charge, and the carbonyl oxygens have a slight negative charge. This polarization of C=O bond is what attracts the RO to the reaction site.

14

R1 Polarized reaction ROO-CH2-CH-CH2-O-C=O O-C=O R2 R3 C=O

This yields a tetrahedral intermediate that has a negative charge on the former carbonyl oxygen: R1 RO-C-O- (pair of electrons) O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-C=O O-C=O R2 These electrons then fall back to the carbon and push off the diacylglycerol forming the ester. R1 RO-C-O= + -O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-C=O O-C=O R2 R3 R3

15

Then two more RO groups react via this mechanism at the other two C=O groups. This type of reaction has several limiting factors. RO has to fit in the space where there is a slight positive charge on the C=O. MeO- works well because it is small in size. As the chain length of the rO- group increases, reaction rates decrease. This effect is called steric hindrance. This effect is a primary reason the short chain alcohols, methanol and ethanol are typically used. There are several competing reactions, so care must be taken to ensure the desired reaction path way occurs. Most method is a slight variant that is also affected by steric hindrance.

1.9 Production methods 1.9.1 Batch process Preparation: care must be taken to monitor the amount of water and free fatty acids in the incoming bio lipid (oil or fat). If the free fatty acid level or water level is too high it may cause problems with soap formation (saponification) and the separation of the glycerine by-product downstream. Catalyst is dissolved in the alcohol using a standard agitator or mixture. The alcohol/catalyst mix is then charged into a closed reaction vessel and the bio-lipid(vegetable or animal oil or far) is added. The system from here on is totally closed to the atmosphere to prevent the loss of alcohol The reaction mix is kept just above the boiling point of alcohol (around 70 0C) to speed up the reaction though some systems recommend the reaction takes place anywhere from room temperature to 550C for safety reasons. Recommended reaction time varies from 1 8 hours under normal condition the reaction rate will double with every 100C increase in reaction temperature. Excess alcohol is normally used to ensure total conversion of fat or oil to its esters. The glycerine phase is much denser than biodiesel phase and the two can be gravity separated with glycerine simply drawn off the bottom of the settling

16

vessel. In some cases a centrifuge is used to separate the two materials faster. Once the glycerine and biodiesel phases have been separated, the excess alcohol in each phase is removed with a flash evaporation process or by distillation. In other systems the alcohol is removed and the mixture neutralized before the glycerine and esters have been separated. In either case, the alcohol is recovered using distillation equipment and is reused care must be taken to ensure no water accumulates in the recovered alcohol stream. The glycerine by product contains unused catalyst and soaps that are neutralised with an acid and sent to storage as crude glycerine (water and alcohol are removed later, chiefly using evaporation, to produce 80-88 percentage pure glycerine). Once separated from the glycerine, the biodiesel is sometimes purified by washing gently with warm water to remove residual catalyst or soaps, dried, and sent to storage

1.9.2 Supercritical process An alternative, catalyst free method for transesterification uses super critical ethanol at high temperatures and pressures in a continuous process. In the super critical state, the oil and methanol are in a single phase, and reaction occurs spontaneously and rapidly. The process can tolerate water in the feed stock; free fatty acids are converted to methyl esters instead of soap, so a wide variety of feed stocks can be used. Also the catalyst removal step is eliminated. High temperatures and pressures are required, but energy costs of production are similar or less than catalyst production routes.

1.9.3 Ultra and high shear in line and batch reactors Ultra and high shear in line or batch reactors allow production of biodiesel continuously, semi continuously, and in batch mode. This drastically reduces production time and increases production volume. the reaction takes place in the
17

high energetic shear zone of the ultra and high shear mixer by reducing the droplet size the larger the surface area the faster the catalyst can react. 1.9.4 ultrasonic-reactor method

In the ultrasonic reactor method, the ultrasonic waves cause the reaction mixture to produce and collapse constantly. These cavitations provide simultaneously the mixing and heating required to carry out the transferification process. Thus using an ultrasonic reactor for bio diesel production drastically reduces the reaction time, reaction temperatures, and energy input. Hence the process of transferification can run inline rather than using then time consuming batch processing. Industrial scale ultrasonic devices allow for the industrial scale ultrasonic devices allow for the industrial scale processing of several thousand barrels per day

1.9.5 Microwave method Current research is being directed into using commercial microwave ovens to provide the heat needed in the transterification process. The microwave provides intense localised heating that may be higher than the recorded temperature of the reaction vessel. A continuously flow process producing 6 litres/minute at a 99% conversion rate has been developed and shown to consume only one fourth of the energy required in the batch process. Although it is still in the lab-scale, development stage, the microwave method holds great potential to be an efficient and cost competitive method for commercial-scale biodiesel production.

1.9.6 Lipase-catalyzed method Large amount of research have focussed recently on the use of enzymes as a catalyst for the transesterification. Researchers have found that very good yields could be obtained from crude and used oils using lipases. The use of lipases makes the reaction less sensitive to high FFA content which is a problem with the standard
18

biodiesel process. One problem with the lipase reaction is that methanol cannot be used because it inactivates the lipase catalyst after one batch. However, if methyl acetate is used instead of methanol, the lipase is not inactivated and can be used for sever batches, making the lipase system much more cost effective.

1.10 BENIFITS OF BIODIESEL The smartest technologies deliver benefits to multiple interests, including an improved economy, and a positive impact on the environment and governmental policies

The role of the biodiesel industry is not replacing petroleum diesel, but help to create a balanced world energy policy. Biodiesel is one of the several alternative fuels desired to extend the usefulness of petroleum, and the longevity and the cleanliness of the diesel engine. The ultimate goal is to contribute to build a stronger, more self-sufficient community by way of a community based biodiesel production model. A community based biodiesel distribution program benefits local economies, from the farmers growing the feedstock to local businesses producing and distributing the fuel to the end customer. The money stays in the community while reducing impact on the local environment and increasing energy security.

a. Easy to use One of the great advantages of biodiesel is that it can be used in existing engines, vehicles and infrastructure with practically no changes. Biodiesel can be pumped, stored and burnt just like petroleum diesel fuel, and can be used pure, or in blends with petroleum fuel. Power and fuel economy using biodiesel is practically identical
19

to petroleum diesel fuel, and year round operation can be achieved by blending with diesel fuel.

ENGINE AND VEHICLES All diesel engines and vehicles can use biodiesel or biodiesel blends, certain older vehicles build before 1993 may require replacement of fuel lines which contain natural rubber, as biodiesel can cause these lines to swell and crack.

BLENDING AND SWITCHING WITH DIESEL FUEL Biodiesel can be used 100% (B100) or in blends with petroleum with diesel fuel. When biodiesel is first used in a vehicle it may release fuel tank deposits which can lead to fuel filter plugging. After this initial period, a user can switch between biodiesel and petroleum diesel whenever needed or desired without modification.

b. Power, Performance and Economy Many alternative fuels have difficulty gaining acceptance because they do not provide similar performance to the petrol counter parts pure biodiesel and biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel provide very similar horse power, torque and fuel mileage compared to the petroleum diesel fuel. In its pure form, typical biodiesel will have energy content 5-10% lower than the typical petroleum diesel. However it should be noted that petroleum diesel fuel energy content can vary as much as 15% from one supply to other.

The lower energy content of biodiesel translates into slightly reduced performance when biodiesel is used in 100% form, although users typically report little noticeable change in mileage or performance. When blended with petroleum diesel at B20 levels there is less than 2% change in fuel energy content, with users typically reporting no noticeable change in mileage or economy
20

SUPERIOR LUBRICATION FOR THE ENGINE The injection system of many diesel engines relies on the fuel to lubricate its parts. The degree to which fuel provides proper lubrication is its lubricity. Low lubricity petroleum fuels can cause premature failure of injection system components and decreased performance. Biodiesel provides excellent lubricity to the fuel injection system. Recently with introduction of low sulphur and ultra low sulphur diesel fuels, many of the compounds which previously provided lubricating properties to petro-diesel fuel have been removed. By blending biodiesel in amounts as little as 5%, the lubricity of the ultra low sulphur diesel can be dramatically improved, and the life of the engines fuel injection system extended.

BIODIESEL IN COLD WEATHER Just like petroleum diesel fuel, biodiesel can gel in cold weather. The best way to use biodiesel during colder months is to blend it with winterised diesel fuel.

C. Emissions and Green house Gas Reduction EMISSIONS Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel to successfully complete the EPAs rigorous emission and health effects study under the clean air act. Biodiesel provides significantly reduced emissions of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulphates compared to petroleum diesel fuel. Additionally, biodiesel reduces emissions of carcinogenic compounds by as much as 85% compared with Petrol-diesel. When blended with petroleum diesel fuel, these emissions reductions are generally directly proportional to the amount of biodiesel in the blend.
21

The reduced particulate and unburned hydrocarbons emissions that result when using biodiesel are a welcome relief in environments where workers and pedestrians are in close proximity to diesel engines, including public transport, mining and construction. In addition, when high blends are used, the exhaust from diesel engine is often described as smelling like fried food, which aside from causing increased hunger in those nearby, is a welcome relief from the smell of diesel fuel exhaust.

A clean alternative fuel for new and old engines Diesel engines have long had a reputation of being dirty engines. However, with the advert of newer diesel engines equipped with exhaust gas recirculation (EGIR), particulate filters, and catalytic converters, clean diesel technology provides incredible fuel efficiency with ultra low emission levels. When coupled with the use of biodiesel, both new and old diesel engines can significantly reduce emissions, including particulate matter (black smoke).

Studies on biodiesel emissions have been conducted for almost 20 years. In that time biodiesel has undergone the most rigorous testing of any alternative fuel, having been the first and only fuel to be evaluated by the EPA under the clean Air Act Section 211(b). This study examined the impact of hundreds of regulated and non regulated exhaust emissions, as well as the potential health effects of these emissions. Some of the results are summarized below:

Average exhaust emissions for 100% biodiesel compared to petroleum diesel fuel Regulated exhaust emissions for B100 Particulate matter Carbon Monoxide Total unburned Hydrocarbons Nitrogen Oxides (NO, NO2, N20) -47% -48% -67% +10%

22

Non regulated emissions Sulphates Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) Nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nPAH) Speciated hydrocarbons ozone forming potential -100% -80% -90% -50%

Table 1 Particulate matter (Black smoke) Emissions of particulate matter have been linked to respiratory diseases and are generally considered to be a human health hazard. Emissions of particulate are reduced with biodiesel by 47%.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas which is reduced with biodiesel with 48%.

Total unburned Hydrocarbons Compounds which contribute to localized formation of smog are reduced by 67% with biodiesel.

NitrogenOxides(NO,NO2,N20) Compounds which contribute to localized formation of smog. The average increase of nitrogen oxide emissions from biodiesel is 0-10%, depending upon the test used in obtaining the data.

Sulphates Sulphates are major contributors of acid rain. These emissions are particularly eliminated when using biodiesel.

23

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH and nPAH) These compounds have been identified as carcinogic (cancer causing) compounds. Biodiesel reduces emissions of these compounds up to 85% for PAH compounds and 90% for nPAH compounds

Speciated hydrocarbons These compounds contribute to the formation of localized smog and ozone. The potential for smog formation from speciated hydrocarbons is reduced by 50% when using biodiesel

d. Biodiesel and human health Some particulate matter and hydrocarbon emissions from diesel fuel combustion are toxic and are suspected of causing cancer and other life threatening illness. Using B100 can eliminate as much as 90% of these air toxics. B20 reduces air toxics by 20%-40%. The effects of biodiesel on air toxics are supported by numerous studies, starting with the former bureau or diesel of mines centre for diesel research at the University of a Minnesota. The department of energy (DOE) conducted the similar research through the University of Idaho, south west research institute and the Montana Department of the Environmental Quality.

DRAWBACK: 1. It is more expensive than normal diesel fuel. 2. It tends to reduce fuel economy. 3. It is less suitable for use in low temperatures. 4. It cannot be transported in pipelines. 5. It gives out more nitrogen oxide emissions. 6. Only a few petrol stations offer biodiesel fuel. 7. It can only be used in diesel powered engines. 8. It can cause inner fuel tubes of older vehicles to lose their long lasting qualities.

24

9. It is more likely than petroleum diesel to attract moisture, which can cause problems in cold weather and increase the risk of microbial growth.

1.11 THE FUTURE OF BIODIESEL FUEL: The future of biodiesel is growing. More companies are offering the solution to the consumers. At this stage only diesel powered automobiles can use the new fuel. This is to change in upcoming years. The mounting concerned of off-shore oil as well as environmental issues has groups in their uproar. Already there are several types of companies using biodiesel as their main source for transportation. The yellow stone national park bus system uses a mixture of biodiesel and petroleum to run the whole fleet. Test by government have proven that this type of fuel is more overall functional and safe than petroleum based products. As fossil beds run dry, everyday scientist come closer to new alternative. Soon Biodiesel will become the new source of power. Through research and constant testing, Biodiesel is better than petroleum based fuels. It has been discovered that this type of product will become the new source of power not only foe diesel automobiles but for other power sources individuals desperately required to live and survive. Before long, this type of supply will be not only in vehicles but also in homes and factories.

25

1.12 Different types of bio-diesels

Fig. 1.1 Cotton seed

Fig. 1.2 Jatropha

26

Fig. 1.3 Pongamia

Fig. 1.4 Karanja

27

Fig. 1.5 Neem

1.13 Properties: Biodiesel has better lubricating properties and much higher cetane ratings than todays lower sulphur diesel fuels. Biodiesel addition reduces fuel system wear, and in low levels in high pressure systems increase the life of the fuel injection equipment that relies the fuel for its lubrication. Depending on the engine, this might include high pressure injection pumps, pump injectors (also called unit injectors) and fuel injectors. The calorific value of biodiesel is about 37.27 MJ/L. This is 9% lower than regular number 2 petrol diesel. Variation in biodiesel energy density is more dependent on the feed stock used than the production process. Still these variations are less than for petrol diesel,., It has been claimed biodiesel gives better lubricity and more complete combustion thus increasing the engine energy output and partially compensating for the higher energy density of petro diesel. Biodiesel is a liquid which varies in color between golden and dark browndepending on the production feedstock. It is immiscible with water, has a high boiling point and low vapor pressure. The flash point of Biodiesel (>130 0C, >266

28

0 0

F) is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel (64 0C) or gasoline (-45 C). Biodiesel has a density of 0.88 gm/cc, less than that of water.

Biodiesel has virtually no sulphur content, and it is often used as an additive to ultra low sulphur diesel (ULSD) fuel.

29

Chapter 2 LITERARY SURVEY

2.1) Esters of ILLUPAI oil as an alternative fuel for CI Diesel engines. G Sankaranarayan and K Jeyachandran who are with ICE division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Anna University, Chennai conducted experiment on Biodiesels and his studies show us The use of existing conventional fuels and rationalization due to rapid depletion, ever increasing cost, low availability, over dependence on OPEC, abundant

availability of alternative fuels and the imposition of stringent legislation for controlling the level of emissions. This has been demanding the development of different forms of fuels. The primary problem associated with using straight vegetable oil as a fuel in a C.I engine is caused by viscosity. The process of transesterification of vegetable with an alcohol provides significant reduction in viscosity, thereby enhancing the physical properties of the renewable fuel. A C.I engine doesnt require any modification to replace diesel by ILLUPAI ester. The engine performance showed a meager power loss combined with an increase in fuel combustion. This is primarily because of the lower calorific value of the ester than for the diesel. The engine with methyl ester gave lower HC, CO emissions and methyl; ethyl esters gave lower smoke at optimum operating conditions.

2.2) Performance and combustion analysis of cotton seed oil and its blends with diesel in direct injection diesel engine B MURALI KRISHNA and J.M. mallikarjuna, department of mechanical who is with GMR institute of technology, Andhra Pradesh conducted

experiments on various cotton seed oil blends In the present investigation, cotton seed oil blended with diesel was used as an alternative fuel for C.I. engine. The performance and combustion parameters of the engine using blends and cotton seed oil were evaluated in single cylinder C.I.
30

engine and compared with diesel. Significant improvement in engine performance was observed in blended fuels compared to cotton seed oil. From the experiment the CSO80D20 blend fuel showed reduction in brake specific fuel consumption specific fuel consumption, increase in brake thermal efficiency, increase in mechanical efficiency, and reduction in smoke emissions in comparison with conventional diesel operated engine. Finally it is concluded that can be used

straight away used in diesel without any modifications in engine as it showed good performance and improved emission compared to all other fuels tested for the entire range of engine operation in comparison with diesel

2.3 OVER VIEW OF PROJECT: Biodiesel production is a modern and technological area for researchers due to constant increase in the prices of petroleum diesel and environmental advantages. This project presents a review of the alternative technological methods that could be used to produce this fuel. Performance of IC engine using cotton seed biodiesel blending with diesel and with carious blending ratios has been evaluated. The engine performance studies were conducted. Parameters like speed of engine, fuel consumption and torque were measured at different loads for pure diesel and various combinations of dual fuel. Brake power, brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency were calculated. In this project we blend biodiesel (cotton seed oil) with diesel in proportions of B10(10 % cotton seed oil and 90% diesel), B20 (20% cotton seed and 80% diesel), B30(30% cotton seed and 70% diesel) and so on up to B100 and test them for: Performance analysis: o Single cylinder diesel engine o Multi cylinder diesel engine Emission test: o Smoke test o 5 gas analyzer

31

Chapter 3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP / METHODOLOGY

3.1 SINGLE CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE: Single cylinder diesel engine was provided by Kirloskar manufacturing and development (FMD) for the project. This 1991 engine model meets the 1991 EPA heavy duty diesel engine emission standards. Engine specifications are listed below:

Engine specifications: No. of cylinders Type 1 Vertical, four stoke, CI water cooled engine Make Bore Stroke Rpm B.P. Compression ratio Calorific value of fuel Kirloskar 80mm 110mm 1500 3.75 KW 16:1 43626 kj/kg

Table 3.1

32

Table.3.1 SPECIFICATIONS Engine description It is water cooled single cylinder diesel engine which is coupled to a rope pulley brake arrangement to absorb the power produced. Necessary weights and spring balances are induced to apply load on brake drum. Suitable cooling water arrangements for the brake drum are provided. Separate cooling water lines fitted are provided for the engine cooling. A fuel measuring system consisting of a fuel tank is mounted on a stand, burette, three way cock and a stop watch is provided. Air intake is measured using an air tank fitted with an orifice and a water manometer.

Fig 3.1 Kirloskar engine

33

Procedure (single cylinder engine) 1. The engine is started and run for at least for 15 minutes for warming up. Motors of circulating water are simultaneously started. Then under no load condition, the time is taken for the consumption of 10cc of fuel, the load applied, the sapped and monometer readings are recorded. 2. The load is increased and allowed to run for 10 minutes. Then the time taken for the consumption of 10 cc of fuel, the load applied, the speed and manometer readings are recorded. 3. The load is further increased in approximately in four equal steps up to the rated value and readings are noted as in earlier steps. 4. In addition, the temperature of cooling water at the inlet and outlet, the temperature of the exhaust gas and discharge of water required at every load. 5. The engine is stopped taking suitable precautions.

3.2 FOUR CYLINDER, FOUR STROKE, DIESEL ENGINE Description The setup consists of four cylinders, four stroke, diesel engine connected to eddy current type dynamometer for loading. It is provided with necessary instruments for combustion pressure and crank angle measurements. These signals are interfaced to computer through engine indicator for P-PV diagrams. Provision is also made for interfacing air flow, fuel flow, and temperature and load measurement. The setup has stand-alone panel box consisting of air box, fuel tank, manometer, fuel measuring unit, transmitters for air and fuel flow measurements, process indicator and engine indicator. Rotameters are provided for cooling water and calorimeter water flow measurement. The setup enables study of engine performance for brake power, indicated power, frictional power, BMEP, IMEP, brake thermal efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency, volumetric efficiency, specific fuel consumption, and A/F ratio and heat balance. Windows base engine performance analysis software package Engine soft is provided for online performance evaluation. A computerised diesel injection pressure measurement is optionally provided.
34

Fig 3.2 COMPUTERISED 4 CYLINDER, 4 STROKE ENGNE

35

SPECIFICATIONS:

Engine power Engine max speed Cylinder bore Stroke length Connecting rod length Compression ratio Stoke type No. Of cylinders Speed type Cooling type Dynamometer type Indicator used type Interface type used Calorimeter used

: 39 Kw : 5000 RPM : 75mm : 79.5mm : 127 mm : 22.1 : Four : Four : Variable : Air : Eddy current : Cylinder pressure : PCI-1050 : Used Table 3.2

PRECAUTIONS Use clean and filtered water any suspended particle may clog the piping. Piezo Sensor Handing: o Ensure cooling water circulation for combustion pressure sensor. o Diaphragm of the sensor is delicate part. Avoid scratches or hammering on it. o A long sleeve is provided inside the Piezo adapter. This sleeve is protecting the surface of the diaphragm. While removing sensor from the adapter this sleeve may come out with the sensor and fell down or lose during handling. Status of the sensor is indicated on the engine indicator. o Damages to electronic parts of the sensors or loose connection are indicated as open or short status on engine indicator.
36

Circulate dynamometer and Piezo sensor cooling water for sometime after shutting down the engine.

ENGINE SOFT CONFIGURATION DATA Setup constraints: No of PO cycles Cylinder pressure plot reference Fuel read time Fuel factor Orifice diameter Dynamometer arm length :1 : 2010 : 60 sec : 0.096 kg/Volt : 43 mm : 210 mm

Engine and setup details: Engine power Engine max speed Cylinder bore Stroke length Connecting rod length Compression ratio Stroke type : 39 KW : 5000 RPM : 75 mm : 79.5 mm : 127 mm : 22.1 : Four

37

No. Of cylinders Speed type Cooling type Dynamometer type Indicator type used Interface type used Calorimeter used

: Four : Variable : Air : Eddy current : Cylinder pressure : PCI-1050 : Used

Theoretical constants: Fuel density Calorific value Orifice coefficient of discharge Sp. Heat of exhaust gas Max sp. Heat of exhaust gas Min sp. Heat of exhaust gas Specific heat of water Water density Ambient temperature : 830 kg/m3 : 42000 kj/kg : 0.60 : 1.00 kj/kg-K : 1.25 kj/kg-K : 1.00 kj/kg-K : 4.186 kj/kg-K : 1000 kg/m3 : 3000C

Sensor range Exhaust gas temperature transition Air flow transmitter : 0-200 mm WC Fuel flow DP transmitter : 0-500 mm WC
38

: 0-10000C

Load cell Cylinder pressure transducer

: 0-50 kg : 0-345 bar

This setup consists of four cylinder, four stroke, diesel engine connected to eddy current/hydraulic dynamometer for engine loading. The setup has stand-alone type independent panel box consisting of air box, fuel tank and manometer, fuel measuring unit, digital speed indicator and digital temperature indicator. Engine jacket cooling water inlet, outlet and calorimeter temperature is displayed on temperature indicator. Rotameters are provided for cooling water and calorimeter flow measurement. This setup enables study of engine for brake power, BMEP, brake thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, specific fuel consumption and A/F ratio and heat balance. Provision is also made for conducting Morse test.

PROCEDURE ( multi cylinder engine ) Manual mode:

o

Ensure cooling water circulation for eddy current dynamometer and Piezo sensor.

o o

Start the setup and run the engine at no load for 4-5 min. Gradually increase the throttle to full open condition and load the engine simultaneously maintaining engine speed at 5000rpm.

Wait for steady state (for 3 minutes) and collect the reading as per Observations provided in cal228 worksheet in Engince.xls

Gradually decrease the load to increase the speed in steps of @500rpm. Up to maximum specified engine speed and repeat the observations. Fill up the observations in cal228 worksheet to get the results and performance plots.

Computerised mode:
39

Ensure cooling water circulation for eddy current dynamometer and Piezo sensor.

o o

Start the setup and run the engine at no load for 4-5 min. Switch on the computer and run Engine soft. Confirm that the Engine soft configuration data is as given below.

Gradually increase the throttle to full open condition and load the engine simultaneously maintaining engine speed at 5000rpm. Wait for steady state (for 3 minutes) and log the data in the Engine soft.

Gradually decrease the load to increase the speed in steps of @500rpm. Up to maximum specified engine speed and repeat the observations. View the results and performance plots in Engine soft.

3.3 EXHAUST GAS ANALYZER DESCRIPTION Gas analyzer tests the emissions from automotive engines, which run on petrol as well as diesel. The instrument can measure Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Oxygen in percentage, and hydrocarbons [Hexane equivalent (HC)] and Nitric oxide (NOX) in ppm. The analyzer uses the principle of non-Dispersive infrared (NDIR) for measurement. The infrared bench used in the analyzer as well as the built-in electronics are based on the latest technology

40

Table 3.9 Specifications

Gases measured:

Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbon, Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen and Nitric Oxide

Principle:

Non-dispersive infrared for CO,CO2 and electro chemical sensors for O2 and NO

Range:

CO CO2 HC

: 0-15.0 % : 0-20 % : 0-30000 ppm(propane)

: 0-15000approx

[hexane]

O2 (NOX)

: 0-25%

: 0-5000 ppm

Data resolution:

CO, CO2 and O2 : 0.01 % HC, NO : 1 ppm

Accuracy:

CO CO2 HC O2 :

Start up time: Auto zero: Zero time: Gas flow rate:

< 2 min. From power On. Full accuracy in 3 min Every 24 min < 25 sec 500 to 1000 m/min

41

Operating conditions:

Temperature: 5-450c, Pressure: 813 to 1060 mbar, Humidity: 0-90 %

Power supply:

90-250V AC, 11-20V DC (Battery)

Procedure (Exhaust gas analyzer) Vehicle preparation: It should be checked that the engine exhaust system leak proof and the manual decompression lever has been returned to the rest position It should be checked that the gas sampling probe can be inserted into the exhaust pipe through a depth of at least 300 mm. If this proof impossible owing to the exhaust pipe, making sure that the connection is leak proof, should be provided. The engine has attained normal thermal conditions.

The engine idling speed should be c checked and set as per the manufacturer with all the accessories switched off.

Measurement: Immediately preceding the measurement, the engine is to be accelerated to a moderate speed with no load, maintained for at least 15 seconds, and then returned to idle speed. w\while the engine idles; the sampling probe should be inserted into the exhaust pipe to a depth not less than 300 mm. After the engine speed stabilizes, the reading should be recorded.
42

In cases where gadgets or devices are incorporated in the exhaust system, for the dilution of the exhaust, both co and co2. If the total of the measured values of co and co2 (T.CO and T.CO2) concentration exceed 15 % for four stroke engines and 10 % for two stroke engines, the measured values of co should be taken as co emissions from the vehicle. If it doesnt, the corrected value (T corrected) should be taken as given below. o T corrected = T CO* 15(TCO + TCO2) for four stroke engines. o T CO * 10/ (TCO + TCO2) for two stroke engines.

Multiple exhaust outlets should be connected to a manifold arrangement terminating in a single outlet. If a suitable adaptor is not available, the arithmetic average of the concentrations from the multiple pipes may be used.

If the measurement is to be repeated, the entire procedure should be repeated.

3.4 EXHAUST MONITER Exhaust monitor is designed for measuring the opacity of exhaust gas of diesel engines. The opacity is proportional to the attenuation of light between a light source and a receiver. The system consists of two units; one is a smoke chamber where the exhaust smoke from the exhaust valve is passed through the measurement zone. The other unit is the control unit where the analog signals from the smoke chamber are processed and displayed. The gas to be measured is fed into a chamber called smoke chamber. The gas enters the smoke column at its centre. The smoke column is a tube, which has a light source and a detector placed face to face at opposite ends. The effective length is 430mm. The system has a built-in heating facility and the temperature at the time of measurement will be around 800C, this equipment can be used to check and measure emissions of all kinds of diesel engines and measures the opacity and absorption coefficient of the exhaust from the engine being tested.
43

Procedure
The engine should be brought to normal operating conditions during a run of about 15 min. The combustion chamber shall not have been cooled or fouled by a prolonged period of idling preceding the test. The vehicle gear change control shall be set in the neutral position and the drive between engine and gear box engages. With the engine idling, the accelerator control shall be operated quickly, but not violently so as to obtain maximum delivery from the injection pump. This position shall be maintained until maximum engine speed is reached and the governor comes into action. As soon as the speed is reached the accelerator shall be released until the engines resumes its idling speed and the opacimeter reverts to the corresponding conditions. The operation described above shall be repeated not less than 6 times in other to clear the exhaust system and to allow for any necessary adjustment of apparatus. Subsequently, the maximum capacity values read in each value are obtained, after each acceleration, the engine is idling. The values read shall be regarded as stabilised when four of them consequently are situated within a band width of 0.25 m -1 and do not for, a decrease in sequence. The absorption coefficient to be recorded shall be the arithmetical mean of these four values. Alternate blends are researched for the PUC check and emissions are recorded accordingly.

METHODOLGY USED: Engine cylinder diameter (bore) (D): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.

44

Piston area (A): The area of the circle of diameter equal to engine cylinder diameter (bore) A = /4 D2 Engine stroke length (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two successive reversals of its direction of motion. Dead centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts, which are mechanically connected to it at the movement when the direction of the piston motion is reversed (at either end point of the stroke) Bottom dead centre (BDC): Dead centre when the piston is nearest to the crank shaft. Sometimes it is also called Outer dead centre (ODC) Top dead centre (TDC): Dead centre when the position is farthest from the crank shaft. Sometimes it is also called inner dead centre (IDC). Swept volume (VS): The nominal volume generated by the working piston when travelling from one dead centre to next one, calculated as the product of piston area and stroke. The capacity described by engine manufacturers in cc is the swept volume of the engine. VS = A L = /4 D2 L Clearance volume (VC): The nominal volume of space on the combustion side of piston at top dead centre. Cylinder volume: The sum of swept volume and clearance volume V = VS + V C

3.5 Four stroke cycle engine In four stroke cycle engine, the cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 1800 of crank shaft

45

rotation and hence a cycle consist of 7200 of crank shaft rotation. The series of operation of an ideal four stroke engine as follows:

1. INTAKE stroke: On the intake or induction stroke of the piston, the piston descends from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, reducing the pressure inside the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port. The intake valve(s) then close.

2. COMPRESSION stroke: With both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the fuel-air mixture. This is known as the compression stroke.

3. POWER stroke.: While the piston is close to Top Dead Center, the compressed airfuel mixture is ignited, usually by a spark plug (for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine) or by the heat and pressure of compression (for a diesel

cycle or compression ignition engine). The resulting massive pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture drives the piston back down toward bottom dead center with tremendous force. This is known as

the power stroke, which is the main source of the engine's torque and power.

4. EXHAUST stroke: During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead center while the exhaust valve is open. This action evacuates the products of combustion from the cylinder by pushing the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s).

46

Fig 3.3 Parts of diesel engine

3.6 Performance of I.C. Engines

INDICATED THERMAL EFCIENCY (t):

Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power to the input fuel energy in appropriate units. =IP/energy in the fuel t (%) = ( )

Fuel flow (Kg/Hr)* Calorific value (KJ/KG)

47

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY (bth): Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power to the input fuel energy in appropriate units. =brake power *3600/fuel flow *calorific value

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY: It is defined as the ratio of brake power to the indicated power =BP/IP It is also defined as the ratio of brake thermal efficiency to the indicated thermal efficiency. and frictional power = Indicated power Brake power

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY (v): Volumetric efficiency in internal combustion engine design refers to the efficiency with which the engine can move the charge into and out of the cylinders. More specifically, volumetric efficiency is a ratio (or percentage) of what quantity of fuel and air actually enters the cylinder during induction to the actual capacity of the cylinder under static conditions.

Mass of air consumed v (%) = Mass of flow of air to fill swept volume at atmospheric conditions
48

Air flow (Kg/Hr) 100 v (%) = /4 D2L (m3) N (RPM)/N Noofcyl Air Den (Kg/m3)60

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC): Brake specific fuel consumption and the indicated specific fuel consumption, abbreviated BSFC and ISFC, are the fuel consumptions on the basis of Brake power and Indicated power respectively.

FUEL-AIR (F/A) or AIR-FUEL (A/F) RATIO: The relative proportions of the furl and air in the engine are very important from stand point of combustion and efficiency of the engine. This is expected either as ratio of the mass of the fuel to that of the air or vice-versa.

CALOROFIC VALUE (CV): It is the calories or thermal units contained in one unit of a substance and released when the substance is burned. When the products of combustion are cooled to 25degrees practically, all the water vapor resulting from the combustion process is condensed. The heating value so obtained is called the higher calorific value or gross calorific value of the fuel.

49

POWER AND MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY Power is defined as rate of doing work and equal to the product of force and linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity. Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well as speed. The power developed by an engine at the output shaft is called brake power and is given by Power = NT/60,000 in KW Where T = torque in Nm = WR W = 9.81 Net mass applied in kg. R = Radius in m N is speed in RPM.

MEAN EFECTIVE PRESSURE AND TORQUE: Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical pressure, which is thought to be acting on the piston throughout the power stroke. Power in KW = (PmLAN/n 100)/60 in bar Where Pm = mean effective pressure L = length of the stroke in m A = area of the piston in m2 N = rotational sped of the engine RPM n = number of revolutions required to complete one engine cycle n = 1 (for two stroke engine)
50

n = 2 (for four stroke engine) Thus we can see that for a given engine the power output can be measured in terms of mean effective pressure. If the mean effective pressure is based on brake power it is called brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) and if based on indicated power it is called Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP). Brake power (KW) * 60 BMEP (bar) = L A (N/n) No. Of cyl 100 Indicated Power (KW) 60 IMEP (bar) = L A (N/n) No. of cyl 100 Similarly, the frictional mean effective pressure (FMEP) can be defined as FMEP = IMEP BMEP Measurement of brake power Measurement of BP involves determination of the torque and angular speed of engine output shaft. This torque measuring device is called as dynamometer. The dynamometer used is of following types: i) Rope brake dynamometer:

It consists of a no. of turns of rope wound around the rotating drum attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and other to a loading device. The power is absorbed in friction between rope and the drum. The drum therefore requires cooling. Brake power = D N (W-S)/60,000 in KW Where D= brake drum diameter
51

W = weight S = spring scale reading ii) Hydraulic dynamometer:

Hydraulic dynamometer works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction. It consists of an inner rotating member or impeller coupled to output shaft of the engine. The impeller rotates in a casing, due to centrifugal force developed, tends to revolve with impeller, but is resisted by torque on arm supporting the balance weight. The frictional forces between the impeller and the fluid are measured by a spring balance fitted on the casing. Heat developed due to dissipation of power is carried away by continuous supply of working fluid usually water. The output (power absorbed) can be controlled by varying the quantity of water circulating the vertex of the rotor and stator elements. This is achieved by a sluice gate in the dynamometer casing. iii) Eddy current dynamometer:

it consists of a stator on which are fitted a number of electromagnets and a rotor disc and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When rotor rotates eddy currents are produced u=in the stator due to magnetic flux set up by the passage of field current in the electromagnets. These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. These eddy currents are dissipated in producing heat so that this type of dynamometer needs cooling arrangement. A moment arm measures the torque. Regulating the current in electromagnets controls the load.

3.7 SAMPLE CALUCULATIONS Sample calculations (pure diesel)

1. For brake thermal efficiency Under no load condition Load w1=0kg

52

Loadw2=0kg Net load on engine=w1-w2=0kg Speed (N) =1544 rpm Time taken for consumption of 10 cc of fuel=73 sec

Brake power=2*3.14*N*T/60000 Kw T=torque=9.81*W*R T=9.81*0*0.15=0 Hence BP=0 1. For Fuel Consumed =10*3600*(specific gravity)/ (t*1000) =10*3600*0.8275/ (73*1000) =0.404 Kg/hr

3. Specific Fuel Consumed = Fuel consumed/ Brake power =0.404/0 = -

4. Brake Thermal Efficiency = Bp3600/ (mfcv) = (03600)/ (0.40443626) =0

Sample Calculation (B20-20% cotton seed oil + 80% Pure Diesel)

53

.Calculation of Calorific value of B20 Calorific value of Cotton seed Oil= 39500 KJ/Kg Calorific value of diesel= 43626 KJ/Kg By principle of allegations, Calorific value of B20 = (0.2 39500) + (0.80 43626) = 42,800 KJ/Kg

Calculation of density of B20 Density of Cotton seed Oil = 0.912g/cm3 Density of diesel= 0.8275 g/cm3 By principles of allegations, Density of B20 = (0.20 0.912) + (0.80 0.8275) = 0.844 g/cm3

54

Emission test results: CO % Regulation Diesel Pure cotton Seed oil 3 1.90 0.39 HC (ppm) 1263 88 137 CO2 % 10 7.30 7.2 O2 % 17.05 30.70 15.27 PEF 1.25 0.54 0.543

Table 3.10

55

Single cylinder

56

Multi cylinder

57

Chapter 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experiments are conducted on two different engines using diesel and with blends of cotton seed oil and diesel. The results are presented in the form of graphs. The following is the list of fuel combination tested on chosen engines. a. PURE DIESEL b. B10 (10% Cotton seed oil and 90% Diesel) c. B20 (20% Cotton seed oil and 80% Diesel) d. B30 (30% Cotton seed oil and 70% Diesel) e. B40 (40% Cotton seed oil and 60% Diesel) f. B50 (50% Cotton seed oil and 50% Diesel) g. B60 (60% Cotton seed oil and 40% Diesel) h. B70 (70% Cotton seed oil and 30% Diesel) i. B80 (80% Cotton seed oil and 20% Diesel) j. B90 (90% Cotton seed oil and 10% Diesel) k. B100 (100% Cotton seed oil)

The experiments are conducted for knowing emission levels using five gas analyzer and smoke meter.

58

Single cylinder
Graph 1:

LOAD VS BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

35 30 BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 LOAD 10 12 14 16 18 B10 B20 B30 B40 B50 B60 B70 B80 B90 B100 PURE DIESEL

DISCUSSION: The variation of the brake thermal efficiency with load is shown in the above graph. It is observed that brake thermal efficiency is increasing with increase in load.

59

Graph 2:

LOAD VS FUEL CONSUMPTION

2 1.8 1.6 FUEL CONSUMPTION 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 5 LOAD10 15 20 B10 B20 B30 B40 B50 B60 B70 B80 B90 B100 PURE DIESEL

DISCUSSION: The variation of the fuel consumption with load is shown in the above graph. It is observed that fuel consumption is increasing with increase in load. Pure diesel has relatively lower fuel consumption when compared to other blends.

60

Graph 3:

LOAD VS SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

1 0.9 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 2 4 6 8 LOAD 10 12 14 16 18 B10 B20 B30 B40 B50 B60 B70 B80 B90 B100 PURE DIESEL

DISCUSSION: The variation of the specific fuel consumption with load is shown in the above graph. It is observed that specific fuel consumption is decreasing with increase in load.

61

Multi cylinder Graph 4:

LOAD VS EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE

450 400 EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE 350 B10 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 5 10 15 LOAD 20 25 30 B20 B30 B40 B50 B60 B70 PURE DIESEL

DISCUSSION: The variation of the exhaust gas temperature with load is shown in the above graph. It is observed that exhaust gas temperature is increasing with increase in load.

62

Graph 5:

LOAD VS A/F RATIO

70 60 B10 50 A/F RATIO 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 LOAD 20 25 30 B20 B30 B40 B50 B60 B70 PURE DIESEL

DISCUSSION: The variation of the A/F ratio with load is shown in the above graph. It is observed that A/F ratio is decreasing with increase in load.

63

Graph 6:

LOAD VS BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

40 35 BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 LOAD 20 25 30 B10 B20 B30 B40 B50 B60 B70 PURE DIESEL

DISCUSSION: The variation of the brake thermal efficiency with load is shown in the above graph. It is observed that brake thermal efficiency is increasing with increase in load.

64

Graph 7:

LOAD VS SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

0.6

0.5 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION B10 B20 0.3 B30 B40 B50 0.2 B60 B70 0.1 PURE DIESEL

0.4

0 0 5 10 15 LOAD 20 25 30

DISCUSSION: The variation of the specific fuel consumption with load is shown in the above graph. It is observed that specific fuel consumption is decreasing with increase in load.

65

Emissions curve: Graph 8:

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 1.9 0 1 2 DIESEL 3 PURE COTTON SEED OIL 4 5 0.39 7.3 7.2 30.7 15.27 1.25 0.543 88 137

EMISSION CHART
1-CO (%) 2-HC (PPM) 3-CO2 (%) 4-O2 (%) 5-PEF

DISCUSSION: Emission of various gases such as (CO, HC, NOx, Particulate emission, CO2) is shown for cotton seed oil and pure diesel. Comparison of emissions showed the reduction of emissions with the cotton seed oil.

66

Chapter 5 Conclusion

1. In our project alternate fuel is blended with diesel in different proportions. At each blending proportion engine performance parameters like Thermal efficiency, Volumetric efficiency,

Mechanical efficiency, Brake specific fuel consumption etc.. are estimated. A comparison is made between the performance parameters obtained using pure diesel and when diesel is blended with alternate fuel. Also emissions are tested for the biodiesels.

2. Investigation on engines test bench has been carried out to obtain comparative measurement of engine performance (torque, power, specific fuel consumption) and emission of pollutants, and too evaluate the behaviour of diesel engine running on cotton seed biodiesel blend.

3. The emission of CO, HC and particle decreased considerably with the pure cotton seed oil. The results also shows lower NOx emission as well as higher torque and power for biodiesel blend compare to that of pure petro-diesel fuel. These results could be as a consequence of the properties of tested biodiesel, which has higher cetane number and lower viscosity value compared to the pure diesel fuel sample.

67

REFERENCES

1. Internal combustion engines by V.GANESHAN 2. Automobile engineering vol 1&2 by KRIPAL SINGH 3. Automobile engineering by RB GUPTA 4. Alternate fuels by S.SS THIPSE. 5. Continuous emission monitoring by JAMES & JHANKE

68