12.

4 Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectra: Emission spectrum: a spectrum that a substance emits with its own specific set of characteristics frequencies. > heated substance -> excited electrons -> leave excited state -> energy emitted in form of photons -> light Atoms absorb light at the 1 frequencies that they emit > Anything that absorbs also emits energy must be conserved Absorption spectrum: the lines of 2 colour in a continuous spectrum, at the same frequencies as would be 3 by an incandescent gas of the same element. It is created when white light passes through a gas, and is absorbed from the continuous spectrum. Gas keeps certain wavelengths (colours) of light that excites its atoms but will transmit light that is unexciting The Franck-Hertz experiment: was used to investigate the how energy was absorbed by atoms as they collided with electrons electrons were emitted from a cathode, and accelerated through low pressure mercury vapour electron volt (eV) = unit for energy from this experiment it was found that: o when the accelerating potential difference increased from zero the current increased as well o at specific points of potential (4.9V, 6.7V , 8.8V, 9.8V) the current drops o but in between those points, the current continued to increase along with the increase of potential explanation: when the electron's kinetic energy is less, or greater, than 4.9eV, electrons bounced off the mercury vapor atoms with the same, or enough, energy and continued as part of the current with a kinetic energy of 4.9eV, electrons colliding with mercury atoms transferred its 4.9eV to the mercury atom > therefore the current dropped, as the electron lost all its energy significance of the experiment: an atom's internal energy can change by specific, discrete amounts as a result of collisions with electrons -> the mercury atom absorbed all the electron's energy at certain values: (4.9eV, 6.7eV, etc.) the energy required to remove an orbiting electron completely from its atom is called the ionization energy Analyzing Atomic Spectra: when atoms absorb energy in collisions with electrons, this excess energy is quickly emitted in the form of light > light consists of photons. the photon's energy and wave length are related by: Ep =
Ep is the energy of the photon h is Planck's constant c is the speed of light

is the wavelength

the energy is equal to the difference between the energy of the first excited state and the ground state > thus we can say for the emission spectrum of any element: Ep= Ei - Ef E - higher energy level E - lower energy level
i f

Analysis of Absorption spectrum: absorption of photons by the atoms cause transitions from a lower internal energy level to some higher level > *condition: only if the energy of the photon is exactly equal to the difference between the two energy levels relationship between energy of photons absorbed and internal energy levels of atom: Ep = Ef - Ei Fluorescence and Phosphorescence: When atoms absorb energy, they go into an excited state. As they emit the energy they absorbed, they return back to their ground state. The process of the atom going from a high frequency radiation to a lower frequency radiation is called fluorescence. Wavelengths for each fluorescence can be different depending on the energy levels of the atoms. There are some materials that are phosphorescence which means that they are able to emit light, even after excitation has been removed. These materials can remain lit for a range of time; this state is called the metastable site.

Lasers: Lasers were first developed for microwave frequencies (wavelengths with frequencies between 300 MHz - 300 GHz) Through either spontaneous emission and stimulated emission the excited state of an atom is stimulated and releases a photon. Einstein predicted that emissions of light can produce amplification, but this only occurs under certain conditions. Furthermore, it is shown that light exhibits coherence, which is when the property of light has the same frequency and polarization that travel in the same direction. There are two types of lasers: continuous lasers, where the energy output is continuous, and pulsed lasers in which atoms are excited periodically so that the energy output appears in pulses of some duration repeatedly. 12.5 The Bohr Model of the Atom: In 1913, Neils Bohr, a Danish physicist, proposed a theoretical model for the _ 1 atom. Why the hydrogen atom? Bohr chose the hydrogen atom because it is the lightest and the 2 atom. It produces the fewest 3 and has only one electron about the nucleus. Hydrogens energy levels are greater than 0 J. This means, that the electron is not bonded directly to the nucleus, rather, it is free. After years of research and revising, scientists have narrowed the original equation down to the current one, which is as follows: =R(
nu is any number greater than nl
th th

* The u and l stands for lower and upper transitions between energy levels

during 19 and 20 centuries... o Physicists + chemists researched the dispersion of light which was emitted by the heated chemical elements o The light created the spectrum which showed different characters of each and every element o J.J. Balmer proved that the hydrogen spectrum near the visible range can bend by the formula:

Length of the light wave Rydberg Constant: 1.097 x 10 m

7 -1

Any whole # greater than '2

Rydberg Constant(R) = 1.097 x 10 m

-1

n = any whole number > 2 and yields the value for wavelength

The Bohr model: In the Rutherford planetary model of the atom, it showed that negatively charged electrons that moved around the nucleus, were held by 4 attractions. However, due to Maxwells theory, any accelerating charge would continue giving off energy (electromagnetic radiation) eventually leading to the atom 5. Also, it is only under certain conditions that atoms emit radiation in forms of 6 and 7 light. After noting this, Bohr decided to use a quantum approach when dealing with the motion of electrons within atoms. He concluded that: Of the few certain orbits for electrons around a nucleus that are 8 allowed, each are characterized by a different specific amount of energy 9 In an allowed orbit, rules from 10 are not applied, and energy is not radiated during movement through this path. This is referred to as its 11. Electrons jump from 12 orbits to 13 orbits giving off a single proton of electromagnetic radiation. Also, energy can be absorbed by the atom only if the energy amount is equal to the energy 14 between a lower stationary state and a higher one.

The wave - mechanical model of the hydrogen atom: The coulomb force of electrical attraction between the proton and the electron provides the force necessary to keep the -11 orbit. The radius of the m (Bohr radius) and it is relatively the normal size of a hydrogen 15 orbit, is 5.3 x 10 atom. Keep in mind that all energy levels are 16. When an electron jumps to a lower energy state, it gives off a _ 17. Energy levels are grouped together, depending on their 18 state. These series are called: Lyman Series: wavelengths emitted in transitions of a photon from a higher energy to the n=1 state (ground state) Balmer Series: series of wavelengths emitted in transitions of a photon from higher energy levels to the n=2 state Paschen Series: series of wavelengths emitted in transitions of a photon from higher energy levels to the n=3 state

Success of the Bohr Model: It provided a physical model of any atom whose energy levels related similarly to the ones in hydrogen, it accounted for the 19 of atoms, and it could be applied to any other atoms. However, the model had to be removed 20 due to the fact that it broke down when it was being applied to 21 electron atoms since the interactions between electrons in an orbit were unaccounted for and with the advancement of technology, scientist were able to examine and state that: instead of a single energy level, it was of finely ______________22 levels. 12.6 Probability versus Determinism: Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle: In traditional mechanics, objects that we determine as particles will behave like particles and waves will display wave properties. Previously, electrons were thought of as tiny particles that had a distinct mass and a charge, they had their own wavelength and they moved in orbits within the atom. However, in 1927, Werner Heisenberg, a physicist came up with the notion that there was always 1 in determining these measures. This uncertainty was not the result of inaccuracy in calculations, in fact, the idea delved from the 2 of subatomic particles. Suppose one is trying to locate the position of an electron. High electromagnetic radiation will be shot at the atom and it will release a photon of wavelength ( ) which will have a momentum of its own. This photon will transfer some of its momentum to the electron when they interact giving the electron a new momentum. If one tries to be more accurate by using a shorter or longer wavelength, the location of the electron will be more uncertain. Consequently, it can be said that one is only able to measure the position and momentum with a restricted The 4 is used to determine the limits of the uncertainties.
p=uncertainty in momentum -23 h = Plancks constant (6.63 x 10 Js)
3.

Probability and Determinism: The Newtonian view of mechanics was 5 because if the 6 and 7 of the object were known at a specific time then its future position and speed would be known through the forces acting on the object. The 8 in measuring the position and speed of an electron makes it impossible to know where it will be and how fast it will be traveling. Electrons have inherent waves so they cannot be seen as a Newtonian particle. As a result, one must state 9 One way to visualize electrons is to imagine them as a _10 around an atom rather than orbiting in a circle. The cloud would be denser where there is a higher probability of the electron being found it is less dense where there is a less probability of the electron being found. The ''probability cloud'' can make different 11 and enter different 12, this can be determined mathematically. In, 1925, Heisenberg and Erwin Schrdinger created mathematical equations for most problems in quantum mechanics. These equations offer mathematical interpretations of a physical situation, which give way to measurable quantities like momentum and energy. The equations also consider the probability of all the 13 that the particle can inhabit. These equations were called the Schrdinger equations and have been successful in solving problems involving atoms.