CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, modern industrial devices are mostly based on electronic devices such as programmable logic controllers and electronic drives. The electronic devices are very sensitive to disturbances and become less tolerant to power quality problems such as voltage sags, swells and harmonics. Voltage dips are considered to be one of the most severe disturbances to the industrial equipments.

Voltage support at a load can be achieved by reactive power injection at the load point of common coupling. The common method for this is to install mechanically switched shunt capacitors in the primary terminal of the distribution transformer. The mechanical switching may be on a schedule, via signals from a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, with some timing schedule, or with no switching at all. The disadvantage is that, high speed transients cannot be compensated. Some sags are not corrected within the limited time frame of mechanical switching devices. Transformer taps may be used, but tap changing under load is costly.

Another power electronic solution to the voltage regulation is the use of a dynamic voltage restorer (DVR). DVRs are a class of custom power devices for providing reliable distribution power quality. They employ a series of voltage boost technology using solid state switches for compensating voltage sags/swells. The DVR applications are mainly for sensitive loads that may be drastically affected by fluctuations in system voltage.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

11 kV

Step-up Transformer: 11/220 kV Primary Transmission Step-down Transformer: 220/33 kV Secondary Transmission Medium Scale Industries Primary Distribution Small Scale Industries Secondary Distribution

Step-down Transformer: 33/11 kV

Step-down Transformer: 11/0.4 kV

The Consumers Fig 2.1 Single Line Diagram of Power Supply System Power distribution systems, ideally, should provide their customers with an uninterrupted flow of energy at smooth sinusoidal voltage at the contracted magnitude level and frequency. However, in practice, power systems, especially the distribution systems, have numerous nonlinear loads, which significantly affect the quality of power supplies. As a result of the nonlinear loads, the purity of the waveform of supplies is lost. This ends up producing many power quality problems.

While power disturbances occur on all electrical systems, the sensitivity of todays sophisticated electronic devices makes them more susceptible to the quality of power supply. For some sensitive devices, a momentary disturbance can cause scrambled data, interrupted communications, a frozen mouse, system crashes and equipment failure etc. A power voltage spike can damage valuable components. Power Quality problems encompass a wide range of disturbances such as voltage sags/swells, flicker, harmonics distortion, impulse transient, and interruptions. Voltage Dip: A voltage dip is used to refer to short-term reduction in voltage of less than half a second. Voltage Sag: Voltage sags can occur at any instant of time, with amplitudes ranging from 10 90% and a duration lasting for half a cycle to one minute. Voltage Swell: Voltage swell is defined as an increase in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 min. Voltage 'Spikes', 'Impulses' Or 'Surges': These are terms used to describe abrupt, very brief increases in voltage value. Voltage Transients: They are temporary, undesirable voltages that appear on the power supply line. Transients are high over-voltage disturbances (up to 20KV) that last for a very short time. Harmonics: The fundamental frequency of the AC electric power distribution system is 50 Hz. A harmonic frequency is any sinusoidal frequency, which is a multiple of the fundamental frequency. Harmonic frequencies can be even or odd multiples of the sinusoidal fundamental frequency. Flickers: Visual irritation and introduction of many harmonic components in the supply power and their associated ill effects.

2.1.1 Causes Of Dips, Sags And Surges:

1. Rural location remote from power source 2. Unbalanced load on a three phase system 3. Switching of heavy loads 4. Long distance from a distribution transformer with interposed loads 5. Unreliable grid systems 6. Equipments not suitable for local supply

2.1.2 Causes Of Transients And Spikes:

1. Lightening 2. Arc welding 3. Switching on heavy or reactive equipments such as motors, transformers, motor drives 4. Electric grade switching

2.2 STANDARDS ASSOCIATED WITH VOLTAGE SAGS

Standards associated with voltage sags are intended to be used as reference documents describing single components and systems in a power system. Both the manufacturers and the buyers use these standards to meet better power quality requirements. Manufactures develop products meeting the requirements of a standard, and buyers demand from the manufactures that the product comply with the standard. The most common standards dealing with power quality are the ones issued by IEEE, IEC, CBEMA, and SEMI.

2.2.1 IEEE Standard

The Technical Committees of the IEEE societies and the Standards Coordinating Committees of IEEE Standards Board develop IEEE standards. The IEEE standards associated with voltage sags are given below. IEEE 446-1995, IEEE recommended practice for emergency and standby power systems for industrial and commercial applications range of sensibility loads

The standard discusses the effect of voltage sags on sensitive equipment, motor starting, etc. It shows principles and examples on how systems shall be designed to avoid voltage sags and other power quality problems when backup system operates. IEEE 493-1990, Recommended practice for the design of reliable industrial and commercial power systems

The

standard

proposes

different

techniques

to

predict

voltage

sag

characteristics, magnitude duration and frequency. There are mainly three areas of interest for voltage sags.

The different areas can be summarized as follows: Calculating voltage sag magnitude by calculating voltage drop at critical load with knowledge of the network impedance, fault impedance and location of fault. By studying protection equipment and fault clearing time it is possible to estimate the duration of the voltage sag. Based on reliable data for the neighbourhood and knowledge of the system Parameters an estimation of frequency of occurrence can be made.

IEEE 1100-1999, IEEE recommended practice for powering and grounding Electronic equipment

This standard presents different monitoring criteria for voltage sags and has a chapter explaining the basics of voltage sags. It also explains the background and application of the CBEMA (ITI) curves. It is in some parts very similar to Std. 1159 but not as specific in defining different types of disturbances. IEEE 1159-1995, IEEE recommended practice for monitoring electric power quality

The purpose of this standard is to describe how to interpret and monitor electromagnetic phenomena properly. It provides unique definitions for each type of disturbance. IEEE 1250-1995, IEEE guide for service to equipment sensitive to momentary voltage disturbances

This standard describes the effect of voltage sags on computers and sensitive equipment using solid-state power conversion. The primary purpose is to help identify potential problems. It also aims to suggest methods for voltage sag sensitive devices to operate safely during disturbances. It tries to categorize the voltage-related problems that can be fixed by the utility and those which have to be addressed by the user or equipment designer. The second goal is to help designers of equipment to better understand the environment in which their devices will operate. The standard explains different causes of sags, lists of examples of sensitive loads, and offers solutions to the problems.

2.2.2 SEMI International Standards

The SEMI International Standards Program is a service offered by Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI). Its purpose is to provide the semiconductor and flat panel display industries with standards and recommendations to improve productivity and business. SEMI standards are written documents in the form of specifications, guides, test methods, terminology, and practices. The standards are voluntary technical agreements between equipment manufacturer and end-user.

The standards ensure compatibility and interoperability of goods and services. Considering voltage sags, two standards address the problem for the equipment. SEMI F47-0200, Specification for semiconductor processing equipment voltage sag immunity. The standard addresses specifications for semiconductor processing equipment voltage sag immunity. It only specifies voltage sags with duration from 50ms up to 1s. It is also limited to phase-to-phase and phase-to-neutral voltage incidents, and presents a voltage-duration graph, shown in Figure 2.2. SEMI F42-0999, Test method for semiconductor processing equipment voltage sag immunity

This standard defines a test methodology used to determine the susceptibility of semiconductor processing equipment and how to qualify it against the specifications. It further describes test apparatus, test set-up, test procedure to determine the susceptibility of semiconductor processing equipment, and finally how to report and interpret the results.

2.3 SOLUTIONS TO POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS: There are two approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems. The solution to the power quality can be done from customer side or from utility side First approach is called load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is less sensitive to power disturbances, allowing the operation even under significant voltage distortion. The other solution is to install line conditioning systems that suppress or counteracts the power system disturbances. Currently they are based on PWM converters and connect to low and medium voltage distribution system in shunt or in series. Series active power filters must operate in conjunction with shunt passive filters in order to compensate load current harmonics. Shunt active power filters operate as a controllable current source and series active power filters operates as a controllable voltage source. Both schemes are implemented preferable with voltage source PWM inverters, with a dc bus having a reactive element such as a capacitor. However, with the restructuring of power sector and with shifting trend towards distributed and dispersed generation, the line conditioning systems or utility side solutions will play a major role in improving the inherent supply quality; some of the effective and economic measures can be identified as following:

2.3.1 Lightening and Surge Arresters: Arresters are designed for lightening protection of transformers, but are not sufficiently voltage limiting for protecting sensitive electronic control circuits from voltage surges.

2.3.2 Thyristor Based Static Switches: The static switch is a versatile device for switching a new element into the circuit when the voltage support is needed. It has a dynamic response time of about one cycle. To correct quickly for voltage spikes, sags or interruptions, the static switch

10

can used to switch one or more of devices such as capacitor, filter, alternate power line, energy storage systems etc. The static switch can be used in the alternate power line applications.

2.3.3 Energy Storage Systems: Storage systems can be used to protect sensitive production equipments from shutdowns caused by voltage sags or momentary interruptions. These are usually DC storage systems such as UPS, batteries, superconducting magnet energy storage (SMES), storage capacitors or even fly wheels driving DC generators .The output of these devices can be supplied to the system through an inverter on a momentary basis by a fast acting electronic switch. Enough energy is fed to the system to compensate for the energy that would be lost by the voltage sag or interruption.

Though there are many different methods to mitigate voltage sags and swells, but the use of a custom Power device is considered to be the most efficient method. For example, Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) for transmission systems, the term custom power pertains to the use of power electronics controllers in a distribution system, specially, to deal with various power quality problems. Just as FACTS improves the power transfer capabilities and stability margins, custom power makes sure customers get pre-specified quality and reliability of supply. This prespecified quality may contain a combination of specifications of the following: low phase unbalance, no power interruptions, low flicker at the load voltage, low harmonic distortion in load voltage, magnitude and duration of overvoltage and under voltages within specified limits, acceptance of fluctuations, and poor factor loads without significant effect on the terminal voltage There are many types of Custom Power devices. Some of these devices include: Active Power Filters (APF), Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS), Distribution STATic synchronous COMpensators (DSTATCOM), Distribution Series Capacitors (DSC), Dynamic Voltage Restorer

11

(DVR), Surge Arresters (SA), Super conducting Magnetic Energy Systems (SMES), Static Electronic Tap Changers (SETC), Solid-State Transfer Switches (SSTS), Solid State Fault Current Limiter (SSFCL), Static Var Compensator (SVC), Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC), and Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS).

12

CHAPTER 3 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER

13

3.1 INTRODUCTION Among the power quality problems (sags, swells, harmonics) voltage sags are the most severe disturbances. In order to overcome these problems the concept of custom power devices is introduced recently. One of those devices is the Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), which is the most efficient and effective modern custom power device used in power distribution networks. DVR is a recently proposed series connected solid state device that injects voltage into the system in order to regulate the load side voltage. It is normally installed in a distribution system between the supply and the critical load feeder at the point of common coupling (PCC). Other than voltage sags and swells compensation, DVR can also added other features like: line voltage harmonics compensation, reduction of transients in voltage and fault current limitations. Step-down Transformer Load 1

AC Source

Step-down Transformer

DVR Step-down Transformer Distribution line Fig 3.1 Location of DVR

Sensitive load

Transmission line

14

3.2 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF DVR:

The general configuration of the DVR consists of: i. An Injection/ Booster transformer ii. A Harmonic filter iii. Storage Devices iv. A Voltage Source Converter (VSC) v. DC charging circuit vi. A Control and Protection system

Impedance
VDVR

Load VL

VS Supply

Filter

Control System

VSC

Fig 3.2 Schematic Diagram of DVR

15

3.2.1 Injection/ Booster transformer:

The Injection / Booster transformer is a specially designed transformer that attempts to limit the coupling of noise and transient energy from the primary side to the secondary side. Its main tasks are: It connects the DVR to the distribution network via the HV-windings and transforms and couples the injected compensating voltages generated by the voltage source converters to the incoming supply voltage. In addition, the Injection / Booster transformer serves the purpose of isolating the load from the system (VSC and control mechanism).

3.2.2 Harmonic Filter:

The main task of harmonic filter is to keep the harmonic voltage content generated by the VSC to the permissible level.

3.2.3 Voltage Source Inverter:

A VSI is a power electronic system consists of a storage device and switching devices, which can generate a sinusoidal voltage at any required frequency, magnitude, and phase angle. In the DVR application, the VSC is used to temporarily replace the supply voltage or to generate the part of the supply voltage which is missing.

There are four main types of switching devices: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET), Gate Turn-Off thyristors (GTO), Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT), and Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Each type has its own benefits and drawbacks. The IGCT is a recent compact device

16

with enhanced performance and reliability that allows building VSC with very large power ratings. Because of the highly sophisticated converter design with IGCTs, the DVR can compensate dips which are beyond the capability of the past DVRs using conventional devices.

The purpose of storage devices is to supply the necessary energy to the VSC via a dc link for the generation of injected voltages. The different kinds of energy storage devices are Superconductive magnetic energy storage (SMES), batteries and capacitance. 3.2.4 DC Charging Circuit: The dc charging circuit has two main tasks. The first task is to charge the energy source after a sag compensation event. The second task is to maintain dc link voltage at the nominal dc link voltage.

3.2.5 Control And Protection:

The control mechanism of the general configuration typically consists of hardware with programmable logic. All protective functions of the DVR should be implemented in the software. Differential current protection of the transformer, or short circuit current on the customer load side are only two examples of many protection functions possibility.

17

3.3 EQUATIONS RELATED TO DVR

Zline

ZDVR

VINJ Iload

VS VSource

Vload

Load

Fig 3.3 Equivalent Circuit of DVR

The system impedance Zth depends on the fault level of the load bus. When the system voltage (Vth) drops, the DVR injects a series voltage VDVR through the injection transformer so that the desired load voltage magnitude VL can be maintained. The series injected voltage of the DVR can be written as VDVR= VL +ZTHIL- VTH Where VL = The desired load voltage magnitude ZTH = The load impedance IL = The load current VTH = The system voltage during fault condition The load current IL is given by, IL= When VL is considered as a reference equation can be written as, VDVR<0=VL<0+ZTH< -VTH (3.3) , , are angles of VDVR, ZTH, VTH respectively and is Load power angle (3.2) (3.1)

18

( ) The complex power injection of the DVR can be written as, SDVR = VDVR IL * It requires the injection of only reactive power and the D VR itself is capable of generating the reactive power.

(3.4)

(3.5)

3.4 OPERATING MODES OF DVR:

The basic function of the DVR is to inject a dynamically controlled voltage VDVR generated by a forced commutated converter in series to the bus voltage by means of a booster transformer. The momentary amplitudes of the three injected phase voltages are controlled such as to eliminate any detrimental effects of a bus fault to the load voltage VL. This means that any differential voltages caused by transient disturbances in the ac feeder will be compensated by an equivalent voltage generated by the converter and injected on the medium voltage level through the booster transformer. The DVR has three modes of operation which are: protection mode, standby mode, injection/boost mode.

3.4.1 Protection mode:

If the over current on the load side exceeds a permissible limit due to short circuit on the load or large inrush current, the DVR will be isolated from the systems by using the bypass switches (S2 and S3 will open) and supplying another path for current (S1 will be closed).

19

S1

Bypass Switche s

Source

S2

S3

Sensitive Load

Booster Transformer

Fig 3.4 Protection Mode (Creating another path for current) 3.4.2 Standby Mode: (VDVR= 0) In the standby mode the booster transformers low voltage winding is shorted through the converter. No switching of semiconductors occurs in this mode of operation and the full load current will pass through the primary.

Source LV winding

Sensitive load Booster Transformer

Bypass Converter Switches Filter Fig 3.5 Standby Mode 3.4.3 Injection/Boost Mode: (VDVR>0) In the Injection/Boost mode the DVR is injecting a compensating voltage through the booster transformer due to the detection of a disturbance in the supply voltage.

20

3.5 VOLTAGE INJECTION METHODS OF DVR:

Voltage injection or compensation methods by means of a DVR depend upon the limiting factors such as; DVR power ratings, various conditions of load, and different types of voltage sags. Some loads are sensitive towards phase angel jump and some are sensitive towards change in magnitude and others are tolerant to these. Therefore the control strategies depend upon the type of load characteristics.

There are four different methods of DVR voltage injection which are i. Pre-sag compensation method ii. In-phase compensation method iii. In-phase advanced compensation method iv. Voltage tolerance method with minimum energy injection 3.5.1 Pre-Sag/Dip Compensation Method: The pre-sag method tracks the supply voltage continuously and if it detects any disturbances in supply voltage it will inject the difference voltage between the sag or voltage at PCC and pre-fault condition, so that the load voltage can be restored back to the pre-fault condition. Compensation of voltage sags in the both phase angle and amplitude sensitive loads would be achieved by pre-sag compensation method. In this method the injected active power cannot be controlled and it is determined by external conditions such as the type of faults and load conditions VDVR=Vprefault - Vsag (3.6)

21

Fig 3.6 Pre Sag Compensation 3.5.2 In-Phase Compensation Method: This is the most straight forward method. In this method the injected voltage is in phase with the supply side voltage irrespective of the load current and pre-fault voltage.The phase angles of pre-sag and load voltage are different but the most important criteria for power quality that is the constant magnitude of load voltage are satisfied

. Fig 3.7 In Phase 22 Compensation Method

|VL|=|Vprefault|

(3.7)

One of the advantages of this method is that the amplitude of DVR injection voltage is minimum for a certain voltage sag in comparison with other strategies. Practical application of this method is in non-sensitive loads to phase angle jump. 3.5.3 In-Phase Advanced Compensation Method: In this method the real power spent by the DVR is decreased by minimizing the power angle between the sag voltage and load current. In case of pre-sag and in-phase compensation method the active power is injected into the system during disturbances. The active power supply is limited stored energy in the DC links and this part is one of the most expensive parts of DVR. The minimization of injected energy is achieved by making the active power component zero by having the injection voltage phasor perpendicular to the load current phasor.

In this method the values of load current and voltage are fixed in the system so we can change only the phase of the sag voltage. IPAC method uses only reactive power and unfortunately, not al1 the sags can be mitigated without real power, as a consequence, this method is only suitable for a limited range of sags. 3.5.4 Voltage Tolerance Method with Minimum Energy Injection: A small drop in voltage and small jump in phase angle can be tolerated by the load itself. If the voltage magnitude lies between 90%-110% of nominal voltage and 5%-10% of nominal state that will not disturb the operation characteristics of loads. Both magnitude and phase are the control parameter for this method which can be achieved by small energy injection.

23

Vload

Load Voltage Tolerance

VDVR Vsag

Pre-sag Voltage

Fig 3.8 Voltage Tolerance Method with Minimum Energy Injection

24

CHAPTER -4 REALIZATION OF COMPENSATION TECHNIQUE

25

4.1 SOFTWARE USED Software used MATLAB 7.0 4.1.1 MATLAB Introduction MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and numerical computation. Using MATLAB, you can solve technical computing problems faster than with traditional programming languages, such as C, C++, and FORTRAN. You can use MATLAB in a wide range of applications, including signal and image processing, communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modelling and analysis, and computational biology. Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions) extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems in these application areas. MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You can integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute your MATLAB algorithms and applications. 4.1.2 SIMULINK Introduction Simulink is a software package for modelling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modelled in continuous time, sampled time, or a hybrid of the two. Systems can also be multirate, i.e., have different parts that are sampled or updated at different rates. For modelling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. With this interface, you can draw the models just as you would with pencil and paper (or as most textbooks depict them). Simulink includes a comprehensive block library of sinks, sources, linear and nonlinear components, and connectors. You can also customize and create your own blocks Models are hierarchical. This approach provides insight

26

into how a model is organized and how its parts interact. After you define a model, you can simulate it, using a choice of integration methods, either from the Simulink menus or by entering commands in MATLAB's command window. The menus are particularly convenient for interactive work, while the command-line approach is very useful for running a batch of simulations (for example, if you are doing Monte Carlo simulations or want to sweep a parameter across a range of values). Using scopes and other display blocks, you can see the simulation results while the simulation is running. In addition, you can change parameters and immediately see what happens, for "what if" exploration. The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and visualization. And because MATLAB and Simulink are integrated, you can simulate, analyze, and revise your models in either environment at any point. 4.2 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK BASED CONTROL SCHEME The input-output data necessary for the off-line training of the neural network have been obtained in the present work using the voltage transfer ratio of the chosen inverter. The data set is made sufficiently rich to ensure stable operation since no additional learning will take place after training. A back-propagation algorithm is used for training of the created network. The LEARNGDM function which has a gradient descent with momentum weight / bias learning is used in this work. Learning occurs according to the learning parameters: Learning rate=0.01 and momentum constant t = 0.9 The neural network weights are: After load disturbances: w1= -4.3396 1.0328 -0.9796

27

-4.1411 b1= 4.5387 -0.6714 -0.7780 -4.1621 w2= 0.0259 -0.5370 1.0723 0.0682 b2 = 0.2595 After supply disturbances: w1= 4.2698 -1.0492 0.8594 4.1234 b1= -4.3006 0.7756 0.6985 4.0341 w2= -0.0172 0.4589 -1.2668 -0.0568 b2 = 0.3386 MSE is the performance criteria used in this work that evaluates the network according to the mean of the square of the error between the target and computed output. The minimum MSE that can be achieved in this work is 1e-7.

For a back-propagation training algorithm, the derivative of the activation function is needed. Therefore, the activation function selected must be differentiable. The sigmoid function satisfies this requirement and it is the commonly used softlimiting activation function. It is also quite common to use linear output nodes to make

28

learning easier and using a linear activation function in the output layer does not squash (compress) the range of output. Hence, a bipolar sigmoid activation function and a linear activation function are used for the hidden and output layers, respectively. Trials have been carried out to obtain maximum accuracy with a minimum number of neurons per layer. The feed forward neural network developed consists of one neuron in the input layer, four neurons in the hidden layer and one neuron in the output layer. The optimum number of neurons for the hidden layer is chosen as four since the number of epochs for training the neural network is reduced considerably. The tansig function is found to be better than the logsig activation function for the hidden layer since the logsig function takes approximately 200 more epochs than the tansig function. The input to the neuro controller is voltage error (e). The output of the controller is the corrected duty ratio (dk)

Fig 4.1 Simulink Model of DVR Controller

29

4.3 TEST SYSTEM FOR DVR Impedance 115/11 kV Load 2

13/115/115 kV

115/11 kV 3phase fault Impedance

Breaker

Load 1 Vs 13 kV
Vs

Controller Fig 4.2 Single Line Diagram of Test System of DVR

Single line diagram of the test system for DVR is composed by a 13 kV, 50 Hz generation system, feeding two transmission lines through a 3- winding transformer connected in Y//, 13/115/115 kV. Such transmission lines feed two distribution networks through two transformers connected in /Y,115/11 kV. To verify the working of DVR for voltage compensation a fault is applied at point X at resistance 0.66 U for time duration of 200 ms. The DVR is simulated to be in operation only for the duration of the fault.

4.4 PARAMETERS USED IN SIMULINK MODEL OF DVR

3-PHASE SOURCE Phase To Phase Rms Voltage: 13KV Frequrency: 50Hz Source Resistance: 0.1 Ohms 3-PHASE 3-WINDING TRANSFORMER Winding 1: 13KV, Resistance

0.002pu, Inductance 0.08pu Delta Connected Winding 2: 115KV, Resistance 0.002pu, Inductance 0.08pu Delta Connected Winding 3: 115KV, Resistance 0.002pu, Inductance 0.08pu

30

3-PHASE RLC SERIES ELEMENTS Parameters Resistance: 0.05 Ohms Inductance: 0.4806 H Capacitance: 1e-6 F 3-PHASE RLC SERIES ELEMENTS Parameters Resistance: 20 Ohms Inductance: 0.5 H Capacitance: 1e-6 F

Parameters Resistance: 0.001 Ohms Inductance: 0.005 H Capacitance: 1e-6 F 2) 3-PHASE RLC SERIES ELEMENTS Parameters Resistance: 150 Ohms Inductance: 1e-3 H Capacitance: 1e-6 F FAULT CREATED Three Phase Fault Time Duration 0.2-0.3s Fault Resistance 0.66 Ohm SUBSYSTEM PARAMETERS PWM GENERATOR 3-Arm Bridge (6 Pulses) Carrier Frequency 1080Hz Sample Time 50-6 UNIVERSAL BRIDGE No. Of Arms 3 Snubber Resistance: 148.4 Ohms Snubber Capacitance: Infinity Power Electronic Devices Used: IGBT/Diodes DC Voltage 5KV DC Supply Table 4.1 Simulation Parameters

3-PHASE 2-WINDING TRANSFORMER Winding 1: 115KV, Resistance 0.002pu, Inductance 0.08pu Star Connected Winding 2: 11KV, Resistance 0.002pu, Inductance 0.08pu Delta Connected 3-PHASE 2-WINDING TRANSFORMER Winding 1: 115KV, Resistance 0.002pu, Inductance 0.08pu Delta Connected Winding 2: 11KV, Resistance 0.002pu, Inductance 0.08pu Star Connected LOADS CONNECTED 1) 3-PHASE RLC SERIES ELEMENTS

31

Powergui -Continuous
A a A B b B C A A B C C c A B C + v

Scope6

Scope9
i + A B C i + C i + B a2 A b2 c2 a3 b3 c3

B C

3-Phase Series RLC Branch 2

Voltage Measurement2

3-Phase Series RLC Branch

Three-phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Scope1
A A B C A B C B C

3-Phase Source

+ v

Three-Phase Transformer (Three Windings)

Fault ABC

+ v

Voltage Measurement4

3-Phase Fault Breaker2

A a

Voltage Measurement6

Scope4 Three-Phase V-I Measurement

+ v

3-Phase Series RLC Branch 1

Voltage Measurement3

Breaker1 Scope5
B b

3-Phase Series RLC Branch 3

A A B C B

Breaker
+ v C c

B B C

Voltage Measurement5

Scope7

Three-phase Transformer (Two Windings)1

Vabc

Voltage Measurement
+ v -

Linear Transformer

Linear Transformer1

Linear Transformer2

+ v

Voltage Measurement7 Voltage Measurement1

+ v -

Scope8

Scope2 Scope3 DVR

In1 In2 In3 In4

Fig 4.3 Simulink Model of Dynamic Voltage Restorer

32

CHAPTER 5 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

33

5.1 COMPONENTS USED IN HARDWARE 5.1.1 PIC Microcontroller 16F870

Fig 5.1 Pin Diagram Of 16F870 Microcontroller

5.1.1.1 Pin configuration and description of PIC16F870

PIN NAME OSC1/CLKI

DIP SOIC PIN# PIN# 9 9

OSC2/CLKO

10

10

I/O/P BUFFER DESCRIPTION TYPE TYPE 1 ST/CMOS Oscillator crystal input/external clock source O Oscillator crystal output in crystal oscillator mode. In RC mode, the OSC2pin outputs CLKO, which has the frequency of OSC1, and denotes the instruction cycle

34

MCLR/VPP/ THV

I/P

ST

RA0/AN0 RA1/AN1 RA2/AN2/ VREF-

2 3 4

2 3 4

I/O I/O I/O

TTL TTL TTL

RA3/AN3/ VREF+

I/O

TTL

RA4/T0CKI

I/O

ST/OD

RA5/AN4 RB0/INT

7 21

7 21

I/O I/O

TTL TTL/ST

Master Clear (Reset) input or programming voltage input or high voltage test mode control. This pin is an active low RESET to the device. RA0 can also be analog input 0. RA1 can also be analog input 1. RA2 can also be analog input 2 or negative analog reference voltage. RA3 can also be analog input 3or positive analog reference voltage. RA4 can also be the clock input to the Timer 0 module. Output is open drain type. RA5 can also be analog input 4 RB0 can also be the external interrupt pin.

RB1 RB2 RB3/PGM

22 23 24

22 23 24

I/O I/O I/O

TTL TTL TTL/ST

RB3 can be the low voltage programming input. Interrupt-on-change pin. Interrupt-on-change pin. Interrupt-on-change pin or In-circuit Debugger pin.Serial programming data.

RB4 RB5 RB6/PGC

25 26 27

25 26 27

I/O I/O I/O

TTL TTL TTL/ST

35

RB7/PGD

28

28

I/O

TTL/ST

RC0/T1OSO/ T1CKI

11

11

I/O

ST

Interrupt-on-change pin or In-circuit Debugger pin.Serial programming data. RC0 can also be the Timer1oscillator output or Timer 1 clock input. RC1 can also be the Timer1 oscillator input. RC2 can also be the Capture1input/Compare 1 output/PWM1 output.

RC1/T1OSI

12

12

I/O

ST

RC2/CCP1

13

13

I/O

ST

RC3 RC4 RC5 RC6/TX/CK

14 15 16 17

14 15 16 17

I/O I/O I/O I/O

ST ST ST ST

RC7/RX/RT

18

18

I/O

ST

VSS VDD

8,19 20

8,19 20

P P

RC6 can also be the USART Asynchronous Transmit or Synchronous Clock. RC7 can also be the USART Asynchronous Receive or Synchronous Data. Ground reference for logic and I/O pins Positive supply for logic and I/O pins.

TABLE 5.1 PIC16F870 Pin Configuration and Description

Legend: I = input OD = Open Drain

O = output = Not used

input/output TTL = TTL input

P = power ST = Schmitt Trigger input

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5.1.2 7085 Voltage Regulator IC

Fig 5.2 7085 Voltage Regulator

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. Voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in the 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

5.1.3 IRF840 MOSFET

Fig 5.3 IRF840

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5.1.3.1 Features Dynamic dV/dt Rating Repetitive Avalanche Rated Fast Switching Ease of Paralleling Simple Drive Requirements Compliant to RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC

5.1.3.2 Description

Third generation Power MOSFETs provide the designer with the best combination of fast switching, ruggedized device design, low on-resistance and costeffectiveness. The TO-220AB package is universally preferred for all commercialindustrial applications at power dissipation levels to approximately 50 W. The low thermal resistance and low package cost of the TO-220AB contribute to its wide acceptance throughout the industry.

5.1.4 SK 100B Transistor

DEVICE SPECIFICATION Type : SK100 Polarity : P N P Application : General Purpose Medium Power Transistor PACKAGE : TO-39 Fig 5.4 SK 100B

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5.1.5 Optocoupler MCT2E Gallium Arsenide Diode Infrared Source. Optically Coupled to a Silicon npn Phototransistor. High Direct-Current Transfer Ratio. Base Lead Provided for Conventional Transistor Biasing. High-Voltage Electrical Isolation 1.5-kV, or 3.55kV Rating. Plastic DualIn-Line Package. High-Speed Switching: tr = 5 s, tf = 5 s Fig 5.5 MCT2E

5.1.6 Transistor 2N2222A

Fig 5.6 2N2222A

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PIN 1 2 3

DESCRIPTION emitter base collector, connected to case

Table 5.2 Pin Description of 2N2222A 5.1.7 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Fig 5.7 LCD Display JHD 162A

5.1.7.1 Pin Configuration

5 R/ W

6 7

10

11

12

13

14

15

16 LE D-

VS VC VE R S C E S

E DB DB DB DB DB DB DB DB LE 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 D+

Table 5.3 Pin Configuration of JHD 162A A general purpose alphanumeric LCD, with two lines of 16 characters.LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An external

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dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements. Small monochrome displays such as those found in personal organizers, or older laptop screens have a passive-matrix structure employing super-twisted nematic (STN) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technologythe latter of which addresses a colorshifting problem with the formerand color-STN (CSTN)wherein color is added by using an internal filter. Each row or column of the display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time by row and column addresses. This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs 5.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 5.8 Block diagram of DVR hardware

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As shown in the block diagram the line voltage is sensed by the potential transformer and the sensed voltage is then given to the signal conditioning circuit in which sensor signals must be normalized and filtered to levels suitable for analog-todigital conversion so they can be read by computerized devices. After the passing through the signal conditioning circuit the sensed signal is given to the microcontroller in which the artificial neural networks algorithm takes care of the PWM signal which is the output of the microcontroller. These PWM signals are used as the gate trigger pulses. Before they are used for the mosfet gate the PWM pulses are given to the gate driver circuit for amplification purpose. These pulses are then used as the firing pulses for the gates of the mosfet devices used in the inverter circuit. The output from the inverter circuit is then given to the injection/boost transformer which is in series with the line. The necessary voltage is then injected into the line.

5.3 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

POWER SUPPLY FOR INVERTER

POWERSUPPLY TO DRIVE CKT AND MICROCONTROLLER

Fig 5.9 Hardware Snapshot of DVR

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5.3.1 Signal Conditioning Circuit

1 2 4 3

1. 2. 3. 4.

Diodes IN4004 Potentiometer 10K Capacitor 1000uf Zener Diode

Fig 5.10 Signal Conditoning Circuit In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analogue signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing. Most common use is in analog-to-digital converters. In control engineering applications, it is common to have a sensing stage (which consists of a sensor), a signal conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the signal is done) and a processing stage (normally carried out by an ADC and a micro-controller). Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly employed to carry out the amplification of the signal in the signal conditioning stage. 5.3.1.1 Signal Conditioning Circuit Inputs The input to the signal conditioning circuit is an AC voltage which produces the respective output voltage.

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5.3.1.2 Applications of Signal Conditioning Circuit It is primarily utilized for data acquisition, in which sensor signals must be normalized and filtered to levels suitable for analog-to-digital conversion so they can be read by computerized devices. Other uses include preprocessing signals in order to reduce computing time, converting ranged data to boolean values, for example when knowing when a sensor has reached certain value. Types of devices that use signal conditioning include signal filters, instrument amplifiers, sample-and-hold amplifiers, isolation amplifiers, signal isolators, multiplexers, bridge conditioners, analog-todigital converters, digital-to-analog converters, frequency converters or translators, voltage converters or inverters, frequency-to-voltage converters, voltage-to-frequency converters, current-to-voltage converters, current loop converters, and charge converters. 5.3.2 Gate Driver Circuit
1 4 2 1 4 2 2 3 2 3

1. 2. 3. 4.

MCT 2E Optocoupler SK 100B Transistor 2N2222A Transistor 1000uF capacitor

Fig 5.11 Gate Driver Circuit

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The gate driver circuit is used for the amplification of the PWM output obtained from the microprocessor. Since the PWM output is of low magnitude the gate driver circuit is used with transistors in amplification mode to give the required firing angle pulses to the MOSFET gate. 5.3.3 Microcontroller and PWM Generator Circuit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. RESET SWITCH IC 7805 PIC16F870 1000uF Capacitor 0.01pF Capacitor POT Crystal Oscillator 4MHz JHD162A LCD Display

1 2 4 7 6 8 5 3

Fig 5.12 Snap Shot of Microcontroller and PWM Generator Circuit This circuit is the main part of DVR hardware the PIC controller is used to sense the PT voltage and produce PWM pulses of the required width to ensure that the line voltage is compensated. The crystal oscillator is used for constant 4MHz operation of the PIC controller. The 7805 IC is used to give a constant 5V supply to the PIC microcontroller for working.

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CHAPTER 6 SIMULATION AND HARDWARE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

46

6.1 SIMULATION RESULTS 6.1.1 VOLTAGE SAG

Fig 6.1.1 (a) Output of system with Sag

Fig 6.1.1 (b) Injected Voltage from DVR

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Fig 6.1.1 (c) System Output After Sag Compensation By DVR The first simulation shows three phase voltage sag. The Figure 6.1.1 (a) shows a 15% voltage sag initiated at 0.20s and it is kept until 0.30s, with total voltage sag duration of 0.10s. Figure 6.1.1 (b) shows the voltage injected by the DVR to compensate the voltage sag produce in the system. The DVR injects a voltage of 0.15pu, during the time 0.20s to 0.30s, in phase with the line voltage. Figure 6.1.1 (c) shows the load voltage with compensation. As a result of DVR, the load voltage is kept at 1 pu. The voltage parameters before and after compensation are as follows: Parameters Before Compensation Voltage Of Normal System 15.55KV Voltage At Time 0.20s To 0.30s 13KV Voltage Sag Value 2.55KV Parameters Of Injected Voltage Voltage During Time 0.20s < Time > 0.30s 0KV Voltage During Time 0.20s To 0.30s 2.55KV

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Parameters After Compensation Voltage Of The System For Time > 0 15.55KV 6.1.2 VOLTAGE SWELL

Fig 6.1.2 (a) Output of system with Swell

Fig 6.1.2 (b) Injected Voltage from DVR

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Fig 6.1.1 (c) System Output After Swell Compensation By DVR The first simulation shows three phase voltage sag. The Figure 6.1.2 (a) shows a 16% voltage swell initiated at 0.20s and it is kept until 0.30s, with total voltage swell duration of 0.10s. Figure 6.1.2 (b) shows the voltage injected by the DVR to compensate the voltage swell produce in the system. The DVR injects a voltage of 0.6pu, during the time 0.20s to 0.30s, which is opposite to the line voltage. Figure 6.1.2 (c) shows the load voltage with compensation. As a result of DVR, the load voltage is kept at 1 pu. The voltage parameters before and after compensation are as follows: Parameters Before Compensation Voltage Of Normal System 15.55KV Voltage At Time 0.20s To 0.30s 25.55KV Voltage Swell Value 10KV Parameters Of Injected Voltage Voltage During Time 0.20s < Time > 0.30s 0KV Voltage During Time 0.20s To 0.30s 10KV

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Parameters After Compensation Voltage Of The System For Time > 0 15.55KV 6.2 HARDWARE RESULTS

1V

0 0.1 1 PU

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9s

Fig 6.2 (a) PWM Pulses Generated by The PIC Microcontroller

0.56

0.0

-0.56

-1.0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0s

Fig 6.2 (b) Voltage Output With Sag

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0.44pu 0 -0.44

0.1 1.0ms

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9s

Fig 6.2 (c) Voltage Injected by the DVR

1 pu

-1pu 0 ms 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9s

Fig 6.2 (d) Compensated Voltage Output The figure 6.2 (a) shows the PWM pulses which are the output of the PIC microcontroller for the corresponding sag produced in the system as shown in figure 6.2 (b) .The figure 6.2 (b) shows the output voltage of hardware as 0.56pu. This is due to the sag produced in the system. The DVR then injects a voltage of 0.44pu to make the output as 1pu. The injected voltage is shown in the figure 6.2 (c) indicating voltage of 0.44pu. the figure 6.2 (d) shows the compensated normal voltage of the system with 1pu voltage output

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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

53

CONCLUSION The power quality problems prevalent in the industries have been discussed and a custom power device called Dynamic Voltage Restorer is simulated and implemented. The control technique adopted has been discussed. This Dynamic Voltage Restorer is more efficient in mitigating the voltage sags and swells. From the simulation and hardware results it is found that the DVR can handle both sag and swell very effectively and respond in a faster manner.

FUTURE WORK To design a neural network controller with un-supervised learning. To enhance the performance of DVR with better energy storage devices. To implement multi level inverter in the existing system.

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APPENDIX - I

55

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICRO CONTROLLER PIC 16F870

56

PIC 16F870 Register File Map

57

PIC 16F870 Key Features

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS Absolute Maximum Ratings Ambient temperature under bias : -55 to +125C Storage temperature : 65C to +150C Voltage on any pin with respect to VSS (except VDD, MCLR. and RA4) : 0.3V to (VDD + 0.3V) Voltage on VDD with respect to VSS : -0.3 to +7.5V Voltage on MCLR with respect to VSS (Note 2) : 0 to +13.25V Voltage on RA4 with respect to Vss : 0 to +8.5V Total power dissipation (Note 1) : 1.0W Maximum current out of VSS pin : 300 mA Maximum current into VDD pin : 250 mA Input clamp current, IIK (VI < 0 or VI > VDD): 20 mA

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Output clamp current, IOK (VO < 0 or VO > VDD) : 20 mA Maximum output current sunk by any I/O pin : 25 mA Maximum output current sourced by any I/O pin : 25 mA Maximum current sunk by PORTA, PORTB : 200 mA Maximum current sourced by PORTA, PORTB : 200 mA Maximum current sunk by PORTC : 200 mA Maximum current sourced by PORTC : 200 Ma

PERIPHERAL FEATURES: Timer 0: 8-bit timer / counter with 8-bit prescaler Timer 1: 16 bit timer / counter with prescaler, can be incremented during sleep via external crystal/clock Timer 2: 8 bit timer / counter with 8 bit period register, prescaler and postscaler Two capture, compare, PWM modules Capture is 16 bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns Compare is 16 bit, max. resolution is 200 ns, PWM max. resolution is 10 bit 12 bit multi channel Analog-to Digital converter On-chip absolute band gap voltage reference generator Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master Mode) and I 2 C Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter, supports high / low speeds and 9 bit address mode (USART/SCI) Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bits wide, with external RD, WR and CS controls Programmable Brown out detection circuitry for Brownout Reset (BOR) Programmable Low-voltage detection circuitry

59

MOSFET IRF840 RATINGS

60

TRANSISTOR 2N2222A SPECIFICATIONS

61

ELECTRICAL CHARATERISTICS OF MCT2E OPTOCOUPLER

62

APPENDIX II

63

PROGRAM TO CREATE AND TRAIN NEURAL NETWORK CONTROLLER load po; load pon; load pond; a1=po1(2,:); a2=pon1(2,:); b1=pond1(2,:);

P=[a1; a2]; T=b1;

% Input to NN % Output to NN

% input1=input1(:,1); % output=output(:,1); vl=[min(a1) max(a1)]; % min and max values of above datas v2=[min(a2) max(a2)]; net=newff([vl; v2],[2 1],{ 'tansig' 'purelin'}); % new feed forward network net.trainparam.show=10; % Display show of epochs net.trainparam.lr=0.01; % learning rate net.trainparam.mc=0.9; % momentum of BP net.trainparam.epochs=1000; % No. of training epochs net.trainparam.goal=1e-5; % Error goal net=train(net,P,T); % Training of NN y=sim(net,P); % simulation of trained NN gensim(net,.01) %,'trainscg'

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REFERENCES

1. R. H. Salimin, M. S. A. Rahim, Simulation Analysis of DVR Performance for Voltage Sag Mitigation, The 5th International Power Engineering and Optimization Conference (PEOCO2011), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia : 6-7 June 2011. 2. S.N.V. Ganesh ,Dr. K. Ramesh Reddy, Dr. B.V. Sanker Ram,Different Control Strategies for Power Quality Improvement Using Dynamic Voltage Restorer Proceeding of the 2011 IEEE Students' Technology Symposium 14-16 January, 2011, IIT Kharagpur ,978-1-4244-8943-5/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE. 3. D.N. Katole and K.D. Joshis ,Analysis and Mitigation of Balanced Voltage Sag with the Help of Energy Storage System, Third International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Technology. 4. A.Kazemi and A. Azhdast,Implementation of a Control Strategy for Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) and Dynamic Voltage Compensator (DVC),IEEE Power Systems Conference and Exposition. 978-1-4244-3811-2/09/$25.00 2009 IEEE. 5. D.M. Vilathgamuwa and Wijekoon H.M., Interline Dynamic Voltage Restorer: A Novel and Economical Approach for Multiline Power Quality Compensation. 0093-9994/04$20.00 2004 IEEE. 6. O. Anaya-Lara, E. Acha, Modeling and Analysis of Custom Power Systems byPSCAD/EMTDC, IEEE Trans., Power Delivery, PWDR vol-17 (1), pp. 266272, 2002. 7. Bingsen Wang, Giri Venkataramanan and Mahesh Illindala, Operation and Control of aDynamic Voltage Restorer Using Transformer Coupled H-Bridge Converters, IEEEtransactions on power electronics, VOL. 21, NO. 4, 2006 8. H. Hingorani Introducing custom power IEEE spectrum, vol.32 no.6 June 1995 p 41-48.

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