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CONCRETE CRACKS: CAUSES, CORRECTING, and COATING Gail Winterbottom and Fred Goodwin, Principal Scientists Degussa Construction

Systems Americas Shakopee, MN 55379

Abstract: Cracks in a concrete substrate pose a challenge for coatings. Cracks that are not properly identified and addressed can lead to premature failure of the coating. This paper will discuss the forces that cause cracking in concrete structures, as well as crack types and repair techniques.

they are the symptom of an underlying problem. Changes in chemistry and temperature cause stresses within the concrete itself. External loads or traffic can exceed the strength of the concrete, causing cracks. Preventive measures can be taken to minimize these forces, thereby lessening the detrimental impact on the concrete.

INTRODUCTION Ever since the Romans mixed volcanic ash from Pozzuoli, Italy with lime to build the Appian Way, builders have been faced with a stark reality: concrete cracks. Although actions can be taken to minimize the extent and severity of the cracking, it is rarely possible to avoid them entirely. Concrete starts out as a fluid, lowstrength material and undergoes physical and chemical changes as it gains strength and hardens. In the prehardened plastic state, it is susceptible to cracking when exposed to relatively small stress. Even when it reaches its full hardness, the tensile strength of concrete is only about 10% of its compressive strength (1), making it less resistant to tensile stress than many other building materials. The forces that cause cracking in concrete are both internal and external and likely are the result of several combined factors. Cracks are not only something that that must be dealt with, If cracks do form, there are many repair practices at the builder s disposal. Some crack repair techniques are designed to prevent significant structural failure or leaking, others are purely cosmetic. The exact practice required depends upon the length, depth and number of cracks, whether they are active or dormant, whether they affect structural integrity or not, and the purpose of the concrete structure itself. This paper will discuss the forces that cause cracking in concrete structures, as well as crack types and repair techniques.

CRACK CAUSES Chemistry: Concrete is a composite material that consists of an inorganic hydraulic binding medium (cement) embedded with fine aggregate (typically sand) and coarse aggregate (typically gravel), water and admixtures (2). The rate of strength development and the final strength depend on many factors

including mix formula, water/cement ratio, placement procedure, type and size of aggregate, and curing conditions. Cracks follow the weakest path through the concrete once the tensile stress has been exceeded at any point. If the crack passes through a piece of aggregate, this is an indicator that the aggregate was weaker than the cementitious portion of the concrete (or happened after the concrete had developed significant strength). The more equalized the stresses (i.e. homogeneity of the concrete), the finer the pattern of cracks. More defects and higher stresses in the concrete produce more rapid and severe cracking. Cracks in concrete may be classified into those that develop before hardening (plastic) and those after hardening. Plastic Cracks: Plastic cracks are usually caused by construction movement (such as subgrade or formwork movement), settlement shrinkage (such as reinforcement being too close to the surface or sudden changes in placement depth), and setting shrinkage (due either to plastic shrinkage or drying shrinkage). Hardened Cracks: The changes in temperature, volume, and chemical makeup that occur during the hydration of the cement produce forces that cause tensile stresses often resulting in cracks. Hardened cracking can result from physical causes (drying shrinkage, moisture movements), chemical action (unsound cement, reactive aggregates, reinforcement corrosion), thermal conditions (heat of hydration, fire, coefficient of thermal expansion differences, and freezing), stress

concentrations (restraint from reinforcement, creep, and geometrical form), structural design, and accidents. The hydration of portland cement is exothermic and can generate sufficient heat in massive concrete to cause cracking from the thermal differential volume changes (3). As the concrete cools, it contracts causing stress forces. To prevent cracking due to thermal stress, it is important to minimize the temperature variation within the concrete structure during curing and to control the rate of cooling. Once concrete is placed, settlement of the sub-grade, entrapment of air or water pockets in the concrete, movement of formwork, vibration during setting, premature loading, and improper consolidation all create internal weaknesses where the cracking process begins. These inherent weaknesses combine with environmental stresses to cause the beginning of the first crack, which may be invisible. The initial crack either continues to grow and widen, or encountering obstacles to its forward path branches out to form a network of cracks. Shrinkage cracks: Shrinkage is the decrease of concrete volume over time. Some shrinkage is inevitable, and to a large degree controllable. Control joints are used to relieve the stress that occurs due to shrinkage in order to prevent cracking. Reinforcing steel and aggregates provide internal restraint that diminishes shrinkage cracking. Prestressed and post-tensioned reinforcement prevents shrinkage cracking by maintaining the concrete in a continuously compressive condition. Shrinkage can also be offset by the use

of shrinkage compensating cement or admixtures. In concrete, there are five basic types of shrinkage: plastic, settlement, drying, autogenous and carbonation (4, 5). Plastic shrinkage occurs when water evaporates quickly from the surface of the concrete prior to initial setting. The concrete at the surface decreases in volume faster than the underlying concrete, causing cracks to form. The occurrence of plastic shrinkage cracks can be reduced by incorporation of synthetic fibers into the mixture, following proper curing procedures, avoiding placement in hot, windy, or low humidity conditions and finishing concrete in the shade. Use of evaporation retarders ( finishing aids or curing compounds ), water fogging or tarping are employed to prevent rapid evaporation of water, but caution must be used not to weaken the surface of the concrete with too much water. Settlement shrinkage can occur within the concrete paste itself as air voids collapse and the aggregates wet out. As the concrete paste settles, cracks may form in the weak concrete at areas where there is a restraint such as over a reinforcing bar or a sudden change in the placement depth. The usage of lowslump concrete, vibration during placement, and greater concrete cover over reinforcement help to minimize plastic settlement. Reentrant corners (i.e., inwardly directed or L shaped sections) and sudden changes in placement depth cause stress concentrations prone to crack formation.

Autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage are both due to the loss of moisture. Autogenous shrinkage is due to the loss of water from the pores of the concrete due to the hydration reaction with the cement (self-desiccation), as well as changes in the volume of reaction products forming from the hydration of the cement (chemical shrinkage). High cement contents and low water to cement ratios contribute to autogenous shrinkage. Drying shrinkage is the decrease in volume due to the loss of free moisture from the concrete through evaporation. Volumetric differentials due to variations in moisture loss and restraints to the decrease in volume cause stresses to develop. An example of this is the curling seen in slab on grade placements where the top surface of the slab loses water due to evaporation and the bottom of the slab remains moist. Typically this shrinkage is compensated for with control joints, but often some cracks will develop, frequently parallel with the control joints or bisecting the corners of the slab. Drying and autogenous shrinkage can be minimized by techniques to maximize creep and/or keep water in the concrete such as adjusting the water-cement ratio, proper curing, use of slower hardening mixtures, and shrinkage reducing admixtures. Creep is the time-dependent increase of strain in hardened concrete subjected to sustained stress or in other words, a slow irreversible flow under load. A high water to cement ratio may reduce autogenous shrinkage, but typically increases drying shrinkage. A high water to cement ratio also reduces

strength, abrasion resistance, and increases permeability. For some structures where shrinkage must be minimized, expansive hydraulic cements such as ASTM C 845 type K, M or S may be used to counteract the decrease in volume (6). These cements contain ingredients that react with the hydrating cement and water to form reaction products such as ettringite, which are greater in volume than the initial materials. Concrete made with expansive admixtures usually contains reinforcement to create compressive stresses that offset the tensile stresses of drying shrinkage. Carbonation shrinkage is the decrease in volume due to the reaction of the Calcium Hydroxide in the concrete with Carbon Dioxide to make Calcium Carbonate. Calcium Carbonate has a lower volume than the Calcium Hydroxide. Carbonation can cause significant surface crazing if the freshly placed concrete is exposed to higher levels of Carbon Dioxide, such as when a combustion heater is used in coldweather applications. Not much can be done to prevent carbonation except to insure that combustion heaters are properly vented. Carbonation is also an effect that occurs over a long period of time as atmospheric carbon dioxide diffuses into the concrete under suitable humidity conditions. Since the carbonation rate is a function of diffusion, the depth of carbonation adjacent to a crack can sometimes provide an indication of when the crack formed. This type of carbonation will be discussed in the next section.

Cracks Due to Expansive Reactions Carbonation can also cause cracking in concrete by contributing to the corrosion of the steel reinforcement. The high alkalinity of concrete helps to prevent the rebar from corroding by formation of a passive layer on the surface of the steel. The reaction of carbon dioxide with calcium hydroxide lowers the pH of the concrete. If the pH of the concrete surrounding a steel reinforcement falls below about 8.5, the corrosion of the steel begins, even in the absence of chloride ions (7). The presence of chloride ions (whether introduced in the concrete mix or penetrating into the concrete through cracks or diffusion) further accelerates the corrosion of reinforcing steel. Lowering the pH and increasing the chloride ion concentration synergistically control the corrosion rate of the imbedded reinforcing steel. As the steel reinforcement rusts, the conversion of iron to iron oxide produces an expansive reaction product causing cracking and spalling of the concrete. The carbonation and chloride ion penetration into the concrete will progress deeper as the concrete ages. If the steel reinforcement does not have enough concrete cover, the corrosion of the steel will occur much earlier than if properly imbedded. An alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) can be produced when some types of aggregate react with the sodium and potassium alkalis present in the concrete to cause localized expansion resulting in cracking of the concrete (8). Alkali silicate reaction (ASR) occurs when hydroxide ions associated with the alkalis in concrete react with poorly crystallized silica resulting in a gel-like material. Alkali carbonate reaction

occurs when hydroxide ions react with certain dolomitic limestones to form an expansive reaction product. These gellike materials can expand when exposed to water. The expansive forces can cause cracking. To avoid these problems, it is important to carefully select non-reactive aggregates when high alkali cements are used. Sulfate attack is another expansive deterioration mechanism (9). Sulfates either permeating into the concrete or present in excess in the concrete mixture react with aluminates in the cement to form ettringite. The same reaction is useful in some types of shrinkage compensating concretes, but unless controlled the expansive formation of ettringite within the pores of the concrete will create sufficient pressure to produce spalling and cracking. Use of sulfate resistant cements and pozzolan admixtures in sulfate bearing environments will usually prevent this type of problem. Load and Thermal Stresses Thermal stress can cause cracks to form in concrete. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete varies with concrete makeup but is approximately 8 - 12 x 10-6/C. (4 - 7 X 10-6 / oF) (10). This means that a 100 length of concrete undergoing a 100oF change in temperature can change in length by about 7/8 in. Polymeric materials bonded to concrete can have dramatically different coefficients of thermal expansion. If sufficient temperature swings occur the difference in expansion produces debonding of the polymer from the concrete, typically by rupture of the concrete surface.

Settlement of the foundation or footing on which part or all of a concrete structure is based can cause significant cracking. Concrete structures must be properly designed and supported to avoid this. Soil compaction must be sufficient to prevent settlement under the load of the concrete structure. Drainage should prevent erosion of the supporting soil under concrete structures. Seismic considerations must be accommodated based upon regional codes. The strength development and hardened properties of the concrete need to be considered as an integral component of the structure. When settlement is expected, construction methods such as hinge joints may be employed to relieve the stress before cracking occurs. The use of proper structural design, concrete composition, and reinforcement techniques can minimize the chances of damage due to settlement. Freezing and thawing can cause cracking. Freeze/thaw damage is worsened by the ingress of moisture, porous concrete, the presence of deicing salts and of course freeze/thaw cycling. The stress caused by freezing water can cause cracking and spalling. Cracks that give water transport into a structure can be widened when subject to freezing. The use of air entraining agents in the concrete can reduce freeze/thaw damage by producing small, correctly sized and uniformly distributed air bubbles that provide the freezing water a place to expand into. For concrete that will be exposed to freezing and thawing, it is beneficial to use a low water-cement ratio and allow curing for at least 30 days before exposure to deicing salts. Concrete that is dry (both internally and externally) suffers little freeze thaw distress.

Concrete cracks due to exposure to excessive load stress. Since the strength of concrete develops with time, different loads may be accommodated at different ages. Fresh concrete can crack if the forms are removed too soon, or if it is exposed to load before sufficient strength is achieved. Fully hardened concrete will crack if it is exposed to loads or traffic that it is not strong enough to withstand. Detecting Cracks Before repairing cracks, one must first find them. The most obvious way of detecting cracks is visually however; not all cracks are visible on the surface. Some fine cracks may require magnification to be seen. Dampening of the concrete surface will often highlight very fine cracks. Some cracks are not visible on the surface because they occur within the concrete matrix. These cracks may be detected with pulse velocity devices (11). These devices are used to detect cracks and voids in concrete by measuring their effect on the velocity of sound waves traveling through the concrete. Impact echo devices detect echoes that occur when a short duration pulse is reflected by a flaw within the concrete. Cracks may be classified by direction, width, and depth (4). Surface cracks (i.e., map, mud, or pattern cracks) consist of a roughly hexagonal pattern of short cracks indicating that the concrete surface had more restraint than the concrete interior or substrate. Directional cracks tend to run in relatively straight lines and may have

parallel companion cracks at fairly regular intervals. Directional cracks indicate restraint perpendicular to the crack direction. Directional cracks may also propagate from reentrant corners or penetrations through the concrete. Active cracks continue to grow after the concrete has hardened. Dormant cracks consist of plastic cracks and those formed by temporary overloading of the concrete. When a surface crack is detected, the movement of the crack over time may be monitored with devices such as glued-inplace crack gauges, optical comparators and extensiometers. Whether active or dormant, a crack remains a plane of weakness where movement is most likely to occur when the concrete is subjected to stress. Determining the Correct Crack Repair Method The proper repair method for cracked concrete depends on a number of factors: What is the purpose of the structure Is the crack active or dormant? Is the crack horizontal or vertical? Is the concrete structural or nonstructural? What is the number of cracks? Is the crack isolated or part of a pattern? What is the location of the crack? (i.e., on the surface, underneath, or near a joint) What is the crack depth? What is the crack orientation in relation to the structure? (i.e., transverse or longitudinal) Is weather resistance required?

What kind of chemical resistance, if any, is required? What is the type of crack? (i.e., did it occur in the plastic phase or the hardened phase?) Must the repair be waterproof? Before attempting crack repair, the cause of the crack or the source of the stress must be identified. The repair must first address the cause, not simply the symptoms. Structural Crack Repairs Repairs of cracks that affect structural integrity must restore the strength of the concrete, and frequently require the advice from a specialist engineer. The cause of the stress that produced the crack must be addressed and corrected, or cracking can recur. If a crack that affects structural integrity is not dormant and future movement is expected, it may be necessary to modify the structure to include an expansion joint. Epoxy Resin Injection (5) Epoxy resin injection is a common way of repairing structural cracks. Twocomponent liquid epoxy conforming to ASTM C 881 is injected through injection plugs that have been fitted into holes that were drilled along the crack (12). Epoxy has excellent cohesive strength and provides a repair with strength comparable to or greater than that of the concrete. However, epoxy resin repair will not be successful if movement occurs. If the stress that caused the crack continues, the epoxy repair will likely not fail, but a new crack will form in an adjacent location. Epoxy resin injection repair is not practical if the crack is wet or if the cracks are too numerous.

Stitching and Doweling Structural cracks can also be repaired with steel reinforcement to restore tensile strength across the crack. Metal staples or stitching dogs may be attached across the crack where holes are drilled on either side of the crack and the legs of the staple are anchored into the holes with epoxy or other suitable grout. The number, size and spacing on the staples are determined by what is necessary to restore the tensile strength across the crack. As with epoxy repair, stitching provides restraint, which will cause cracks to occur elsewhere if continued movement occurs. Steel reinforcement can also be used to repair structural cracks by embedding steel reinforcing bars across the crack (doweling). In this method, channels are drilled roughly perpendicular to the crack from one side of the cracked section to the other and steel bars are epoxied in place so as to bridge the crack. The number and location of the steel reinforcements are as necessary to restore tensile integrity across the crack. This method may be used in combination with sealing to provide additional reinforcement. Another method of reinforcement used to repair longitudinal cracks in roadways and airport runways is the cross-stitching method. In this method, holes are drilled at approximately 35o angles through the crack with the next hole being drilled through the crack at the same angle from the opposite direction. Steel bars are embedded into the holes with epoxy. This crisscrossstitching is repeated as necessary to adequately strengthen the crack.

Bandaging When the crack will remain active and movement can be tolerated, a surface seal or bandage may be used. A flexible strip is placed over the crack with only the edges of the strip attached to the concrete. In areas with traffic, coating with a wearing course or aggregate broadcast is commonly used to protect the bandage. This technique is especially useful if movement will occur in more than one plane. Post Tensioning Structural crack repairs can be made by application of a compressive force across the crack using reinforcing tendons. The post tensioning system must be designed to provide adequate anchorage, and control the tensioning force and eccentricity on the structure. External post-tensioning methods locate the tendons outside of the concrete but attached across the structure. Internal post-tensioning methods involve coring a duct through the structure and embedding anchorages at the entry points Additional loading capacity can also be achieved through properly designed external or internal posttensioning methods. Non-structural Crack Repair Most cracking in concrete is nonstructural and there are numerous ways of repairing non-structural cracks. The selection of the method listed below is dictated by the factors discussed previously under Determining the Correct Crack Repair Method. Routing and Sealing The most common method of repairing non-structural cracks is routing and sealing. In this method, a groove is

routed the length of the crack and is filled with a \suitable sealant. The sealing material used depends upon the expectations of the seal. Epoxy compounds may be used if the crack is not dynamic. If the crack is active, elastomeric sealants such as polysulphide and polyurethane sealants should be used. In a flexible-sealant repair, it is advisable to place a bondbreaker or backer rod at the bottom of the routed groove to ensure that the sealant adheres only to the sides. If the sealant is not restrained along the bottom of the groove, it is better able to accommodate movement without failing. If elastomeric sealants are used, hardwheeled traffic may cause crushing of the edges of the sealed crack repair. Injection and Vacuum Sealant Application Epoxy injection was discussed above as a method of repairing structural cracks. Epoxy and other polymers can be injected into concrete cracks to seal them where no structural repair is necessary. One component urethane sealants can be injected into cracks to form a leakproof seal in hydraulic structures or in below grade applications. The urethane reacts with water to form expansive foam that seals the crack. Acrylamide grouts, which react with water forming a solid precipitate, are also used to seal cracks in moist environments. Unlike epoxy, these systems can be used in cracks that experience a small degree of movement. Other polymers such as methyl methacrylate (MMA) and high molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM) can also be used in polymer injection crack repairs. Another way of introducing polymeric sealant into cracked concrete

is through vacuum impregnation. In this application, holes are drilled into the concrete through which vacuum ports are attached. A partial vacuum pulls the sealant into the concrete. The viscosity of the crack sealant will vary depending upon nature of the cracks. Microcracks require a low viscosity is required in order for the sealant to penetrate. Sealing polymers such as some acrylates may have a viscosity as low as water. Higher pressure injection allows for deeper crack penetration, but the hydraulic pressure may widen cracks being injected. A higher viscosity, such as a gel or foam is necessary for larger cracks. Gravity-Soak Technique On horizontal applications, polymers can be applied with a squeegee onto cracked concrete and allowed to soak in. Epoxy, urethane, MMA and HMWM are widely used in this application. This technique is much simpler to apply than injection or vacuum methods in that it does not require injection ports, expensive equipment or highly trained personnel. However, this technique has limited depth of penetration and is unsuitable if the crack runs through to the underside. Overlays and Toppings Covering the cracked concrete with an overlay or topping is frequently used to prepare a cracked concrete surface to receive a coating. Bonded overlays may telegraph or reflect through the applied overlay if the cracks are active. Non-bonded toppings and overlays help eliminate this problem, however sufficient strength in the overlay itself is necessary to provide support across the structure as the overlay floats over the

cracked concrete. Often the thickness of the topping or overlay will be significant to the loading and clearances of the repaired structure. Hydraulic Cement Based Crack Repairs Hydraulic cement based materials are sometimes used to repair dormant cracks, or replace severely cracked concrete sections. Different consistencies and formulations, from fluid to dry pack, may be used depending upon the repair configuration. Full depth or partial depth replacement of severely deteriorated concrete is commonly used, however care must be taken to address the cause of the deterioration, the geometry of the repair, surface preparation, and curing of the repaired area to avoid compounding the problem. If moisture sensitive coatings are applied over the freshly placed cement based repairs, the moisture from the repair must be addressed. Autogenous Healing Concrete in some situations may heal fine cracks through the process of autogenous healing. This occurs in saturated concrete in dormant cracks without tensile stresses or the flow of water through the crack. Cement hydration and carbonation products such as calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate crystallize into the crack forming an interlocking network of precipitate that can restore some portion of the original concrete strength. COATING THE REPAIRED CONCRETE The multiplicity of coatings and surface treatments that are used over concrete are too numerous to cover in this paper. The choice will vary with function,

environment, substrate and desired appearance. Proper Surface Preparation is Critical Concrete presents particular challenges as a substrate for coating. Its low cohesive strength compared to other substrates makes proper surface preparation critical for coating adhesion. The outermost concrete layer is often substantially weaker than the inner concrete due to laitenance or overtroweling. Form release agents may be present which will interfere with the bond of a coating. If curing compounds were used on the concrete, removal or verification of compatibility with the coating is required. A questionable surface should be abraded off. Impact onto the concrete surface causes bruising . Bruising is defined by ICRI as a surface layer weakened by interconnected microcracks in concrete substrates caused by impact (2). Typically bruising occurs during concrete surface preparation using impact methods such as jackhammers, scabblers, and scarifiers. Unless corrected through abrasive methods such as blasting with sand, steel shot, or highpressure water which selectively remove softer or damaged concrete; the microcracks will provide a starting point for further deterioration of the concrete and adhesive failure of applied coatings. FACTORS AFFECTING COATING SELECTION Chemical Exposure Frequently the chemical and environmental exposures dictate the chemistry and thickness of the coating. Since concrete is an alkaline substrate, coatings for concrete, particularly fresh concrete must be alkaline resistant. A coating that is not alkaline resistant will

eventually deteriorate unless an alkaline resistant undercoat (or primer) is used. Mild chemical exposure such as deicing salts may require a barrier with modest chemical resistance such as asphalt, coal tar, methyl methacrylate or other coatings. Harsher environments may require more chemical resistant multiplecomponent systems such as epoxy, polyurethane, polyester or other coatings systems. Generally, harsher chemical conditions also necessitate a thicker barrier. Mild exposure barriers are typically less than 40 mils where more severe exposures can require barriers that are over 250 mils thick. (13) Hydrostatic Pressure Resistance Below-grade treatments must withstand hydrostatic pressure (such as ASTM C1306) (14). There are many coating systems that are used in positive side hydrostatic pressure applications, such as bituminous barrier systems, liquidapplied barriers, sheet-applied barriers, preformed barrier systems, and cementitious membranes. A coating may also be required to withstand negative side hydrostatic pressure. In this case, the bond strength must be greater than the hydrostatic pressure. Cementitious, metallic oxide and crystalline capillary waterproofing materials are used in negative side hydrostatic pressure applications. (15) Curing Compounds The ability of water and water vapor to move through a coating influence coating choice. Curing compounds are applied to fresh concrete in order to prevent the loss of water during the early hardening period. (16) The use of curing compounds increases the hardness and abrasion resistance while diminishing the chance of cracking, scaling and

dusting. However, if the curing compounds are not compatible with subsequent coatings, they can cause delamination and must be removed prior to coating. Breathability Some systems may require the coating to be able to breathe , that is, to allow water vapor to pass through. Cementitious and latex coatings are often used in applications that require higher water vapor permeance, such as in some above-grade exterior applications. Requirements for resistance to the transmission of water and water vapor must be clear before an appropriate coating system can be identified. Failure to do so can result in water becoming trapped in the concrete causing freeze-thaw damage or coating failure. Clear Water Repellants Not all concrete coatings are film forming. Clear penetrating sealers such as silane and siloxane water repellents are composed of silicon functional groups that bond to the substrate and an organo-functional group that imparts hydrophobicity. These materials will bead water but do not impede the transmission of water vapor, appreciably change the appearance of the concrete, nor resist much hydrostatic pressure. They may have some ability to waterproof extremely fine cracks, but require reapplication every few years. Function and Performance Whether a substrate has dormant or active cracks affects what coating system would be appropriate. If the concrete has dormant cracks, then more rigid systems such as cementitious coatings, non-elastomeric latex coatings,

or solvent-based sealers can be used. When applying a coating over concrete with repaired active cracks, an elastomeric coating should be used; otherwise the coating will fail over the crack. Elastomeric coatings will stretch and accommodate limited substrate movement. The polymer chemistry of the elastomeric coating depends on the coating purpose and expectations. For example, an elastomeric neoprene or neoprene-bituminous blend waterproofing barrier will resist the hydrostatic pressure of a below-grade application, but lacks the requisite weather resistance to be used exterior above-grade. Acrylic or silicone elastomeric emulsion coatings have good resistance to ultraviolet light and would be more appropriate for above-grade exterior applications. More wear resistant systems such as elastomeric polyurethanes would likely be appropriate for traffic areas. Textured coatings are often used over concrete in order to provide a more uniform finish, particularly over areas that have crack repairs. Floor coatings often contain texture for slip resistance. Conclusion Coating concrete can extend the life of the structure by preventing water, carbonation, and deicing salts from reaching the reinforcing steel and causing corrosion. Concrete coatings can act as vapor barriers and waterproofing membranes to control moisture movement through the structure. Without consideration of cracks in the concrete, deleterious chemicals and moisture can short circuit the protective coating barrier and cause rapid deterioration of an otherwise sound structure. Although coating cracked

concrete presents significant challenges, proper crack treatment and coating selection can extend the life of a structure for decades.

REFERENCES 1 Taylor, H.W.F., Cement Chemistry, Academic Press, 1990, pp. 268 269. 2 ICRI Concrete Repair Terminology, http://www.icri.org/onlineresources/inde x.asp 3 ACI 207.1R Mass Concrete, Manual of Concrete Practice, ACI International, Farmington Hills, MI. 4 Mailvaganam, N., Repair and Protection of Concrete Structures, CRC Press, 1992, pp175-179. 5 ACI 224.1R Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures, Manual of Concrete Practice, ACI International, Farmington Hills, MI. 6 ASTM C 845 Standard Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.01, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. 7 ACI 222R Corrosion of Metals in Concrete, Manual of Concrete Practice, ACI International, Farmington Hills, MI. 8 ACI 221.1R-98 State-of-the-Art Report on Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity, ACI International, Farmington Hills, MI. 9 Taylor, H.W.F., Cement Chemistry, Academic Press, 1990, pp. 396-400. 10 ACI 209 R Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures, Manual of Concrete Practice, ACI International, Farmington Hills, MI.

11 ACI 228.2R Nondestructive Test Methods for Evaluation of Concrete in Structures, Manual of Concrete Practice, ACI International, Farmington Hills, MI. 12 ASTM C 881 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.02, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. 13 ACI 515.1 R A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective, and Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete Manual of Concrete Practice, ACI International, Farmington Hills, MI. 14 ASTM C 1306 Standard Test Method for Hydrostatic Pressure Resistance of a Liquid-Applied Waterproofing Membrane, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.07, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. 15 Kessi, Alfred, Negative Side Waterproofing , ICRI Concrete Repair Bulletin September/October 1996 16 ASTM C 309 Standard Specification for Liquid MembraneForming Compounds for Curing Concrete, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.02, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Concrete Repair Manual, 2nd Edition, published jointly by ACI International, Concrete Society, BRE, ICRI, 2000. Champion, S., Failure and Repair of Concrete Structures, London, Contractors Record, 1961. Emmons, Peter H., Concrete Repair and Maintenance Illustrated, Means, 1993. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice

Mokarem, David W., Weyers, Richard E., and Lane, D. Stephen, Development of Portland Cement Concrete Shrinkage Performance Specifications, Virginia Transportation Research Council, 2003. Ferraris, Chiara F., Alkali-Silica Reaction and High Performance Concrete, NISTIR 5742, Gaithersburg, MD, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1995. Guide for Design, Installation and Maintenance of Protective Polymer Flooring Systems for Concrete, NACE Publication 02203/ICRI Technical Guideline 03741/SSPC-TR 5, ICRI, NACE International, SSPC, 2003. Holland, Terence, Troubleshooting Hardened Concrete, World of Concrete Seminar 02-85, March 2, 2001, The Aberdeen Group, 2001. A Troubleshooting Guide: A Collection of Articles from Concrete Construction, The Aberdeen Group, 1992.

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