a. What is O.A.L.? O.A.L.

is an abbreviation of overall length, which is the maximum length of the truck includes accessories protruding in front and rear, such as bumpers, tail lamps, etc. In taking measurements, tailgate and other protuberance of a similar nature must be in their closed position. Front mounted view mirrors must not be included in the measurement. b. What is O.A.W. O.A.W. stands for overall width, which is the maximum width of the truck includes accessories and equipment. Rear view mirrors protruding sideways must not be included in the measurement. c. What is O.A.H. O.A.H. is short for overall height, which is the height from the ground to the highest point of the vehicle. Tires must be inflated to maximum pressure for the loading capacity. The antenna pole must be at its lowest level

What is WHEELBASE? In a two-axle vehicle, this is the distance between the center lines of the front and rear axles. In a three-axle rigid, it is the distance between the center lines of the front and third axle (Fig. 1). In a crane carrier with tandem rear axles, the wheelbase is the distance between the center lines of the front axle and the midpoint between the two rear axles. In a crane carrier with four axles, it is the distance between the midpoints of the two front axles and the two rear axles (Fig. 2). In some countries, the wheelbase of vehicles with tandem rear axles is measured from the center line of the front axle to the midpoint between the center lines of the rear two axles (Fig. 3). For comparative purposes, it is important that half of the distance between the two tandem axles be added to this type of wheelbase measurement -- this is to obtain figures comparable with the standard wheelbase measurement method for tandem rear axle trucks as obtained in the case of Fig. 1.

It is evident that with a longer wheelbase, a longer cargo body can be mounted on the chassis. However, as the wheelbase becomes longer, the turning radius will become proportionately greater.Longer body can be mounted on a forward-control chassis than on a normal-control one of equal wheelbase. What is C.A. DIMENSIONS? This is the distance from the rear of the cab to the center line of the rear axle. The C.A. (Cab to rear Axle) dimension gives a better indication of the length available on a chassis for mounting a body regardless of whether the truck is a forward or normal control type. In a truck equipped with tandem rear axles, the C.A. dimension is taken from the rear of the cab to the center line of the first rear axle.

What is TREAD? The tread is the distance between the centers of the two tires of an axle at the points where they contact the surface of a level road. Measurements of duals are taken from the midpoint of each pair of tires.Wider truck tread results in improved handling and stability because there will be less rolling (sideways movement) and also less likely the occurrence of sideslip. However, its turning radius will become greater.

What is GROUND CLEARANCE? This is the distance between the lowest point of the truck and the ground level. Normally the bottom of the differential gear-housing is the lowest point. A truck with higher ground clearance is better suited for operating over off-road rough terrain.

What is OVERHANG? The front overhang is the distance between the center line of the front axle and the front edge of the truck. The rear overhang is the distance between the center line of the rear axle and the rear end of the truck. When the front overhang is large, the vehiclefs actual turning radius within a walled circle will be more than its rated minimum turning radius. If a truck with a long rear overhang is loaded with lengthy or heavy cargo, then the load on the rear axle will become excessive. This can cause the front tires to lose their grip on the road and render steering difficult. Consequently, some countries limit the permissible extent of the rear overhang to less than one-half of the wheelbase for trucks other than vans. In the case of a van, the overhang is limited to less than two-thirds of the wheelbase.

A. What is Kerb Weight? The sum of weights of the cab and chassis with a full tank of fuel, specified quantity of oil and coolant, exclusive of spare-tire and tools. However, spare tire carrier and tool box, if supplied, are included. The truck must be in running order. B. What is Empty Vehicle Weight? The sum of kerb weight and weight of body. C. What is Gross Vehicle Weight? This is the empty vehicle weight plus weight of payload and crew. The actual G.V.W. may be less than but must not exceed the max. G.V.W. rating because the weight on each axle of the vehicle with load evenly distributed must not exceed the axlefs weight rating. This will be explained more comprehensively in a following section titled gpayload capacity and weight distribution.h The Mitsubishi specifications for special types of vehicles (such as tankers which can carry only specified loads) list only the G.V.W. figures, omitting the maximum G.V.W. D. What is Maximum Gross Vehicle ? The sum of the weight ratings of the front and rear axles. The gross axle weight rating is defined as the lowest capacity of any load-carrying components springs, tires and axle. Payload Capacity and Weight Distribution? In order to ensure good stability and ride, and so that the gross axle weight rating of neither front nor rear axle is exceeded, the weight of the payload (cargo) must be properly distributed. Improper distribution of the load may cause over loading of the front or rear axle, even if the max. G.V.W. is not exceeded. The specification of payload capacity of Mitsubishi trucks has been established to be compatible with the requirements of proper load distribution.

When the load center coincides with the center of the rear axle, the payload distribution on the front axle is zero (Fig. 7). This would make the weight on the front axle extremely light and render steering difficult if not impossible. Furthermore, since the total payload would be placed on the rear axle, it cannot be greater than the rated capacity of the rear axle. In other words, the payload capacity of the vehicle would be less than when the load is optimally distributed between the front and rear axles. The method by which payload capacity is determined will be explained using the Fk615H Series, J Wheelbase as an example.

When the load is uniformly applied to the body, the load center will be its center. The distance between the load center and the rear axle center is the offset (O.S.). In this example it is 695mm: In accordance with the lever principle, the distribution of payload (P) on the front axle (P3) and rear (Pr) can be readily calculated from the following formulae: From these two, the following equations are derived: The FK615's gross weight rating of the rear axle is 7,700kg, and the distribution of the empty vehicle and weight of the crew on the rear axle is 1,755kg and --10kg*1, respectively. Hence, the rear axle can sustain a payload of 5,955kg: Consequently, the maximum amount of payload the truck could support can be calculated by substituting Pr = 5,955 in formula (2)'. This indicates that a maximum load of 7,054kg can be loaded on the truck before the total load distribution on the rear axle reaches 7,700kg the gross weight rating on the rear axle. According to the formula (1), the payload distribution on the front axle is: The total load applied on the front axle is obtained by adding the front empty vehicle weight of 2,205kg and the front weight of the crew 205kg*2 to the above. The sum, 3509kg, exceed the front axle gross weight rating of 3,300kg. In other words, the payload cannot be as much as 7,054kg. Next, following the same method as we employed for the rear, we find the distribution of payload that the front can sustain is as follows: Substituting this value into formula (1)', we obtain: This means that a maximum load of 5,711kg can be loaded on the truck with a gross weight rating of 3,300kg on the front axle. In this instance, the payload distribution on the rear axle is as follows according to formula (2):

Here, the total load applied on the rear axle is obtained by adding the rear empty vehicle weight of 1,755kg and the distribution of the crew weight on the rear --10kg*1 to the above value of 4,821 (kg). The 6,566kg is within the gross weight rating of the rear axle. Hence, we conclude that the actual payload capacity of the truck is 5,711kg. The payload capacity thus determined by adding the empty vehicle weight and crew weight to the above 5,711 is less than the maximum gross vehicle weight of 11,000kg.: What this means is that the rear axle can accept an additional marginal load of 1,134kg. Nonetheless, because any additional weight exceeding the calculated payload of 5,711kg would exceed the rating of the front axle, 5,711kg is the maximum payload acceptable for the truck. This maximum permissible payload is the actual gpayload capacity.h Since the offset of each type of body is rationally adjusted so as not to leave any undue margin of imbalance on either the front or rear axle, you can make an approximate estimate of the payload capacity by deducting the empty vehicle weight and weight of crew from the max. G.V.W., which in this instance would be: *1 Weight of the offset; offset is usually calculated by 10kg in all models. *2 65kg/person x 3+10kg (offset) = 205kg

F. What is Maximum Gross Combination Weight (Max. G.C.W.)? This gives the total weight allowance of tractor plus trailer, crew and cargo; it is determined by the tractorfs engine horsepower, running performance and hill-climbing ability. The max. G.C.W. for each model of Mitsubishi tractors is given in its specifications. It is important that this total weight limit not be exceeded. G. What is Weight of Crew? The weight of each person of a crew is assumed to be 65kg, unless otherwise specified by local regulations. In Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, it is assumed to be 55kg. H. What is Carrying Capacity? This term is not used by Mitsubishi. Occasionally it can be found in the sales literature of other manufacturers. It indicates the max. G.V.W. less the kerb weight. Table 1 Specific Weight of Goods Specific weight of a cargo varies depending on its ambient conditions (temperature, etc.) and moisture content. For practical purposes, Mitsubishi Motors uses the figures given in Table 1 for the specific weight of cargoes, unless otherwise specified by local regulations or customer's requirement. The table gives data only on cargoes commonly hauled. In the previous chapters, we have considered the terms used to describe the vehicle in its stationary state. We will now consider the capabilities of the truck to haul payloads.

The running performance of a truck is measured by its road speed and hill climbing ability in accordance with the following formulae. These formulae can be applied to determine the running performance of any make of truck, when the following data are available.

A. Road Speed - Velocity (km/h) This is determined by the following factors: engine speed, rear axle ratios, transmission gear ratios and driving tire size. The formula for determining road speed is:

Where: Radius of driving tire in meters Radius of driving tire in meters Radius of driving tire in meters Rear axle ratio = 3.14 The explanation of each of the factors of the above formula are: The length of the circumference of the tire - the distance in meters it travels horizontally in one revolution. Tire revolutions per minute Gives revolutions of wheel per hour. Coefficient for converting meters into kilometers. The formula can be simplified into the following:

Example The following example shows how this formula is applied to determine the road speed of the FK615-H series, J Wheelbase model, according to its specifications listed in the sales catalogue: Engine max. torque: T = 44kgm/1,800rpm (JIS) Engine max. rev.: N = 3,100rpm Transmission gear ratios to 1: First through overdrive = 6.875 / 4.189 / 2.311 / 1.409 / 1.000 reverse = 6.875 Rear axle gear ratio to 1: 5.428 Driving tire size: 8.25-20-14PR: R = 0.468m by Table 2 Max. G.V.W.: W= 11,000kg The maximum road speed (velocity) of this truck is determined by formula (3). The maximum road speed will obviously be reached at the maximum engine speed (N = 3,100). According to Table 2, the rolling radius of the driving tire is R = 0.468 meters. In calculating the maximum road speed, the highest numerical transmission gear speed or the lowest gear ratio is used. In this example,rt is 1.000:1, and the rear axle ratio (ra) is 5.428 : 1. Substituting these values in formula (3), the maximum road speed of FK615-H is calculated: It is Mitsubishifs rule that only fractions greater than 0.9 shall be rounded up to the higher unit in calculating road speed. Hence the calculated maximum road speed of this example will be: The maximum road speed of this vehicle in any other gear can be found by inserting the relevant rear axle gear ratio in place of 5.428 in the above example. For example, to find the respective speeds of the rear axle ratio 4.875, where rt = 1.000; and ra = 4.875, it will be: In the case of the third gear, where rt = 2.311; and ra = 5.428, it will be: Since an inverse relation exists between road speed and rear axle ratio, it is possible to select a rear axle ratio ( rx ) that will produce a desired speed. For instance, the maximum speed possible, in the case of the FK615, with the standard rear axle ratio (5.428 : 1) is 100km/h. If a customer requests a reduced maximum speed of 90km/h, the required rear axle ratio ( rx ) to effect without changing the transmission can be obtained by using the above formula as follows:

From this rx can be calculated as follows: Consequently, a rear axle with a ratio of 6.077 : 1- or as close to this value as possible - will fill the requirements of the customer. In the case of FK615, a rear axle ratio of 6.166 : 1 is available as an option; it should suit the customer's need. Your attention is called to the following relations:

These two equations are approximately equal to each other: In other words, the ratio of the rear axle and road speed are in inverse relation to each other. As the rear axle ratio increases, the road speed is reduced proportionally. And rx = 6.166 is obtained. The foregoing information is very important and application of it is easy.

B. Gradability (Hill-climbing ability) This is the numerical index of gradability that a truck of specified G.V.W. - G.C.W. in the case of a tractor - can negotiate in first gear. Three types of indexes are employed for indicating gradability. They are tangent, sine and percent. Mitsubishi uses the percent (%) index. 1. Tangent

Gradability is expressed by tan, which is the value obtained by dividing the side opposite the angle by the side adjacent: This gives the ratio of the vertical distance climbed in relation to the horizontal distance. 2. Sine Gradability is expressed by sin, which measures the actual distance climbed in relation to the distance of the hill covered. It is obtained by dividing the side opposite the angleZ by the hypotenuse. When tan is compared with sin, the numerical value of the former is found to be larger. Consequently, it is important that the nature of each index be understood in evaluating the gradability specification of a truck. 3. Percent This measures the percent (%) of vertical distance covered over a given horizontal distance. In the above example, it is given by Table 3 is a conversion table giving equivalent values for degrees, sin, tan and % Gradability is determined by the following factors: Tractive effort, rolling resistance, grade resistance and air resistance.

Tractive Effort (F) The power from the engine is transmitted through the transmission, rear axle, and driving tires to the surface of the road. Tractive effort (F) is determined by the following factors: Engine torque, transmission gear ratios, rear axle ratio, driving tire size. It is expressed by the following equation: Engine torque (kgm, JIS) Transmission gear ratio Rear axle ratio Radius of driving tire (m) ; see Table 2

Mechanical efficiency of power train

The engine torque (T) given in the truck's specifications conforms to the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS). It is multiplied by a factor of 0.95 to compensate for the 5% loss resulting from restrictions placed on air taken in through the air cleaner and the back pressure in the muffler and tail pipe. The torque (T) is also multiplied by a factor - normally 0.913, representing mechanical efficiency - to compensate for the mechanical loss of torque due to friction of the transmission, propeller shaft, and rear axle. The value of this factor differs with the type of drive system used, as indicated in Table 4.

Rolling Resistance (Rr) The rolling tires of the truck invariably encounter resistance from the road surface. Under the load of the truck, the shape of the tires is distorted; on an unpaved road with soft surface, the tires sink into the surface, creating a small incline in front of it. These constitute rolling resistance. The greater the weight of the truck and softer the road material, proportionately greater is the rolling resistance (Rr) encountered, which can be expressed by the following equation: Where: The weight of the truck (G.V.W.) transmitted to the ground through the tires The grade of the road over which the truck is travelling Coefficient of resistance In Fig. 10, W cos is the weight (W) of the truck acting at right angle to the ground. The equation formula (5) indicates that the rolling resistance is directly proportional to the weight (W cos) and its coefficient of resistance (). Also, rolling resistance increases with increasing softness of the road surface. For instance, on a hill of a given gradient, the rolling resistance is greater on a gravel road than on paved asphalt. This fact is expressed in the

value of the coefficient of resistance () which is 0.01 on a dry paved road, may not increase to 0.025 on a gravel road. For example, in the case of a truck with G.V.W. of 10,000kg, running on a level road: The rolling resistance encountered by the truck is: However on a gravel road: Please note that, almost invariably, the gradability ratings of truck manufacturers are calculated values, assuming an incline with a dry paved road surface. Consequently, the comparative performance of competing makers'trucks with various combinations of power lines can be readily evaluated by checking their gradability tested over paved roads. Grade Resistance (Rg) When a truck is climbing a hill, the force of gravity acts to pull it downhill; this is grade resistance. Gravitational force - grade resistance becomes greater as the grade of the hill becomes steeper, and as the weight of the truck increases. The force is expressed by the following formula: In the case of a hill negotiable by a truck, the value of sin and % figure as given in the conversion Table 3 on page 19 - will be approximately equal. Hence, on a 10% hill, sin 0.1; and on a 20% hill, sin?.2. Consequently, the grade resistance (Rg) a truck with a load (W) of 10,000 kg will encounter on a 10% grade will be: The rolling resistance encountered by the truck is: Air Resistance (Ra) This is the resistance drag a truck encounters from the air while in motion. It is proportional to the projected front area of the truck, and increases with the square of the truck's speed: Air resistance:

Where: projected front area of truck (m2) Speed of truck in motion (km/h) Coefficient of resistance The gradability of trucks is given for the first gear, where the speed is very slow - about 10 km/h. In the case of trucks, their projected frontal area average about A = 4.5 m2 and the coefficient is approximatel = 0.0035. Hence the air resistance of trucks running at 10km/h is about Ra = 0.0035X4.5X102 (kg), or approximately 1.5kg - a negligibly small value Method for Determining the Gradability of Trucks From the foregoing sections, it is evident that the factors determining the gradability of trucks are:

For any combination of engine output, gear ratio of transmission, differential ratio, and size of tire of a truck, tractive effort is a constant; however, rolling and grade resistances vary according to the grade of the hill it encounters. Consequently, at a certain grade, the sum of these resistance plus air resistance will balance with its tractive effort. This grade (angle), expressed as (tan)%, is the gradability of the truck. It will not be able to negotiate a grade greater than this. This formula can be rearranged as follows: n this equation, is approximately 1.5kg as explained in the AIR RESISTANCE section. If the G.V.W. of the truck is taken to be W = 10,000kg then = 0.00015a negligible value, which can be ignored.

Consequently, When, the values of formula (4) are substituted in the above equation, the

following equation is obtained: Where: Grade of hill G.V.W. or G.C.W. (kg) Radius of driving tire (m) Engine torque (kg-m, JIS) Transmission gear ratio Rear axle ratio Mechanical efficiency of power train From the prior equation, tan(%) - gradability - can be obtained from the following procedure: (1) The value of (sin+ cos) of the prior equation is obtained by substituting the values for W, R, T, rt, ra , and (2) Next, the value of tan(%) is obtained from Table 5, which converts (sin+ cos) into tan(%). For example, if the value of (sin+cos), obtained in (1), above, is 0.2730, then in the following Table 5, it would be between 0.2703 and 0.2748, or between tan(%) = 27.0 and tan(%) = 27.5. As a rule, the lower value of tan(%) is taken for the value of the grade. Hence in this instance, the value we seek will be 27. The Mitsubishi model FK615 will again be used in calculating gradability: Engine max. torque: T = 44 kg-m at 1,800 rpm (JIS) Transmission gear ratios to 1 (rt) : 6.875 / 4.189 / 2.311 / 1.409 / 1.000; everse 6.875 Rear axle ratio to 1 (ra) : 5.428 Driving tire size: 8.25-20-14PR: R = 0.468 m Max G.V.W.: W = 11,000 kg The mechanical efficiency of the FK615 is 0.913 according to Table 4. Since the maximum gradability is obtained in the first gear, rt = 6.875. When the above values are substituted in formula (8), we get:

Thus, the maximum gradability is tan(%) = 27.5 from Table 5. Likewise the gradability of other gears can readily be calculated. For instance, by substituting the ratios of the direct gear and the third gear for rt = 6.875 in the forgoing example, we obtain: : Direct gear

3rd gear:

We must be aware of the fact that when a gear other than first is used, the increase speed will encounter a proportional increase in air resistance. Furthermore, when the direct gear is used, the mechanical efficiency = 0.913 will increase to about 0.931. Nonetheless, the foregoing formula will still be valid in calculation the estimated gradability of the truck. Gradability and rear axle ratio are proportionate: As the ratio of the rear axle increases, gradability also increases proportionately. In the previous example, the FK615 gradability was 27.5%. If a customer desires more, say 32%, then the necessary ratio can be obtained from the following equation:

In other words, a rear axle with a ratio of approximately 6.32 to one will fill the customer's requirements. A rear axle with a ratio of 6.166:1 is available as an option with the FK615 which meets the customer's need. This can be confirmed by substituting 6.166 for ra in the foregoing equation:

Thus we obtain a close approximation of the 32% the customer seeks

In the previous chapter, specifications of trucks as listed in sales catalogues - such as engine torque and maximum revolutions, gear ratios, etc. - were studied in order to understand vehicle performance. However, they do not provide sufficient data for evaluating the actual truck's performances. For instance, trucks are seldom run at their rated maximum speed. In fact, they are usually operated with engine speed at maximum torque or at the speed where fuel consumption is minimized. In climbing hills, there may be occasions when the engine revolution is raised to its maximum to produce the maximum horsepower; however the most efficient method of operation is to use the range of engine speed, which maximizes torque. If an engine's speed range, producing maximum torque, is extremely narrow, a slight increase of rpm will cause a substantial loss of power - a sign of poor performance characteristic. In other words, engines with high maximum torque and horsepower are not necessarily the most "gpowerful engine." Factors other than the maximum values of the torque and horsepower must be evaluated in determining the practical performance of engines. Furthermore, a high performance engine must be combined with the correct transmission and differential in order to produce the desired running performance. In addition to learning about the maximum-performance characteristics of the truck - explained in the previous chapter - it is necessary to understand the factors affecting its ease of operations. For this purpose, you must learn to interpret engine and vehicle performance curves. The following chapters will provide you with the know-how to comprehend the significance of these performance curves Before discussing the vehicle performance curves, interpreting the engine performance curves will be explained. A.Torque

Torque is the twisting or rotating force that the engine exerts on the crankshaft; it is normally expressed in terms of kg.m and is measured at a radius of one meter from the crankshaft'fs center. For instance, when a braking force of 44kg is required to stop an engine, equipped with a flywheel one meter in radius, its torque is 44kg.m. The torque curve of the 6D14-3A engine, mounted on the FK615 truck is given in Graph 1. The engine speed (revolutions per minute), ranging from 1,200 to 3,100 rpm is charted on the horizontal axis. The numerical value of the torque, ranging from 36 to 44 kgEm, is charted on vertical axis. As engine speed increases from 1,200 rpm, the torque describes a convex curve; the curve is approximately flat between 1,600 and 2,000 rpm. The maximum torque 44 kg.m is obtained at 1,800 rpm. The flatter the curve, the less will torque be affected by fluctuations in engine speed- this translates into relative ease of operation of the truck. In the case of an engine where the curve, in the shape of a peak, drops precipitously from the point of maximum torque, the shift of engine rpm from the point of maximum torque will cause a loss of power. Even if the maximum torque of the engine is great, with such an engine, a constant shifting of gears would be required to negotiate hills making tiresome operation.

The rpm range over which maximum torque is supplied by the engine is an important consideration. If the maximum torque range is established in a very low rpm range, starting the truck from a stop may be easy. But, when the engine rpm is raised beyond this range, power will decrease; in order to maintain power, a rapid shift-up of gears will be necessary. However, if on the other hand,the maximum torque is established too high in the rpm range, a small drop in rpm would require a shift down of the gears to avoid knocking of the engine. From the foregoing, it is evident that in addition to high torque, the shape of the torque curve, and the range of the engine rpm at which effective high torque is obtained are also very important.

Before discussing the vehicle performance curves, interpreting the engine performance curves will be explained. A.Torque This is the measure of the mechanical power of an engine or the rate at which work is done per unit time. One horsepower equals the work done in raising 75 kg one meter in one second. The horsepower determines the time it takes to move a truck a given distance, or its speed. The relationship between horsepower (ps) and torque is expressed by the following formula:

Horsepowe Curve

Since horsepower is a measure of mechanical power of work performed per unit time, it increases with the increase in engine speed. It peaks at the point in speed where increasing friction and decreasing air-intake efficiency prevents it further increase. The peak value represents the maximum horsepower of the engine. Only the maximum horsepower is listed in the specification of catalogues. In Graph 2, 160 ps is attained at 3,000 rpm. When the horsepower curve of a Mitsubishi engine of a given maximum horsepower is compared with that of an engine with identical horsepower of that of another truck maker's, the comparison may indicate that, despite the identical horsepower at maximum rpm, the latter'fs output (indicated by the dotted line on Graph 2) is generally lower at any given rpm. Fuel Consumption Cuve The lowest curve illustrated on the graph of the engine performance curves is the one representing fuel consumption. The horizontal axis represents revolution per minute, while the vertical axis indicates the rate of fuel consumption (g/ps.h). The curve shows the grams of fuel consumed per hour per horsepower at a given engine speed.

Powerloss Resulting from Altituda above Sea Level The torque and horsepower curves represent measurements taken at sea level, or under atmospheric pressure of one atmosphere (760mmHg, according to JIS and DIN; 746mmHg according to SAE, gross). However, trucks are frequently operated at high altitudes high plateaus and in mountains. Because the air becomes thinner as the altitude increases, incomplete combustion accompanied by a loss of power results from the lack of oxygen. In other words, the rated power as listed in the catalogue, cannot be produced. The powerloss due to increasing altitude is about 10% per 1,000 meters. At 1,000 meters only 90% and at 2,000 meters only 80% of the rated power can be expected. If the amount of injected fuel at high altitude is kept at sea-level standard, combustion will be incomplete and

the exhaust emission will produce black smoke. Consequently, the fuel injection pump must be preadjusted suitably for attaining optimum combustion at the altitude at which the vehicle is intended for operation.

Now, we will examine the vehicle performance curves in relation to the engine performance curves. The performance of a truck can be evaluated in detail by examining its performance curves. Graph 4 shows the relation of vehicle speed at each gear of the transmission to engine speed, vehicle speed to tractive effort, and vehicle speed to running resistance. As explained in previous chapters, the running performance of a vehicle is determined not solely by engine power, but also by the gear ratio of the transmission, rear axle ratio, G.V.W., and tire size. The formulae for vehicle speed, tractive effort, and running resistance, introduced in Chapter 4, are represented as the vehicle performance curves. If any of the set of factors involved transmission gear ratio, rear axle ratio, tire size are changed, the shape of the performance curves will necessarily change. Each set of these specifications has its unique performance curves. Since it may at first be Graph 4 VEHICLE PERFORMANCE CURVES

difficult to understand the three curves in one graph, each will be explained separately. Engine Speed and Vehicle Speed When the engine rpm is increased in a gear, the speed of the vehicle will increase in proportion to the increase in rpm. This is clearly stated by the equation:

Graph 5

For a truck with a given set of specifications, the rear axle ratio"ra" and the radius of driving tire "R", are constants. Hence the above equation can be simplified.

It is evident from the above equation that "V"(km/h) and "N"(rpm) maintain a directly proportional relationship under any gear ratio "rt." Therefore, if the transmission is provided with four forward gears, there will be four curves on the above graph; if six gears, six curves on the graph; and so on. The curve for reverse gear is indicated by a broken line. Needless to say, when the rpm is zero, the speed will be zero. Each curve starts from the zero point as shown by a broken line; usually, only the usable range is shown by a solid line -e.g., as in Graph 6 for the range of 1,200 to 3,100 rpm. The horizontal axis shows the truck speed (km/h) and the vertical axis, the engine speed (rpm). From the graph, the engine rpm and speed for any given gear can be readily read. For example, when the engine performance curves show that maximum torque is available at 1,800 rpm, the truck'fs speed at that rpm in 4th gear is 41km/h (point in Graph 6). Likewise, in 3rd gear at the same Graph 6

rpm, the truck's speed is 25km/h (point on the graph).

Furthermore, the two extremes of each curve, representing the upper and lower limits of usable engine rpm, indicate the maximum and minimum vehicle speed for the gear. Referring to Graph 6, the maximum speed for 3rd gear is 43km/h (point ) and the minimum speed for 3rd gear is 17km/h (point ). From the foregoing, it is clear that the maximum vehicle speed listed in a catalogue represents the maximum speed in the highest gear -e.g., 5th gear -at the highest limit of rpm. In this example it would be 100km/h (point ). This is the maximum speed obtained on a level road. In reality, rolling resistance and air resistance may be enough to prevent the attainment of maximum rated speed. This will be discussed later Graph 7 Another important piece of information provided by the graph is the mutual relationship between adjacent gears. When the rpm reaches the point of maximum torque in a certain gear, and if the gear were shifted to a higher one with a large difference in ratio, the rpm may drop excessively accompanied by loss of power. For instance in Graph 7, there is a large difference in gear ratios of the 4th and 5th gears. Consequently, when 4th gear, at 1,800 rpm and 41km/h is shifted into 5th gear, the engine speed would drop to 1,271 rpm, accompanied with a loss of torque as indicated by the engine torque curve (Graph 8). On the other hand, when the truck running at a speed of 41km/h at 1,271rpm in 5th gear is down-shifted into 4th, the engine rpm will suddenly be pushed to 1,800rpm producing an excess of power. This type of truck would be difficult to handle. Graph 8

The ten-speed transmission and 2speed rear axle were developed to narrow the ratio gap between gears and facilitate ease of handling. As illustrated in Graph 9, the curves representing different gears overlap each other; which means that the truck can be operated in the maximum torque range while climbing a hill by frequent shifting of gears. From these examples, it is clear that a vehicle's performance is determined not only by the engine's horsepower and its maximum speed, but also by the choice of a suitable gear ratio in the transmission and in the rear axle. In general, the optimum gear ratios should be established so that when a vehicle running at the maximum limit of its engine speed and is shifted into a higher gear, the resulting change in rpm will still be greater than that which produces the maximum torque. This can be verified by the example illustrated in the saw-toothed curves shown in Graph 10 which indicates whether each of the gear ratios are located within the range of maximum rpm and the rpm at which the maximum torque is obtained. With this type of transmission, when a

Graph 9

Graph 10

gear, running at maximum engine speed, is shifted up to the next higher gear, the engine rpm would be somewhat greater than that needed for producing the maximum torque in the higher gear.

Running Resistance and Vehicle Speed As explained in a previous chapter, the truck encounters rolling, grade and air resistances while running. The relationship between the combined resistances -the running resistance and vehicle speed is illustrated in the running resistance curve on Graph 11. As stated: Rolling resistance: Grade resistance: Air resistance: Running resistance is the sum of these three and is expressed with the equation: = Running W(cos+ sin) + resistance Hence, when the G.V.W. (W in the equation above) of the vehicle is constant, the running resistance increases as the grade () of the hill increases. The air resistance grows at the rate of the square of the speed. This correlation is shown in Graph 11 for hills of various gradients -0, 3, 5, 10, 15... and 30%. The vertical axis gives the running resistance (kg), the horizontal axis the vehicle speed (km/h). When a vehicle is negotiating a 3% grade at 60km/h, the running resistance it encounters will be approximately 500kg (point as shown in Graph 12). The running resistance is not correlated with the gear in which the vehicle is running.

Graph 11

Graph 12

The curve gradually rises as speed increases. At low speed, air resistance is negligible; beyond about 100km/h, it gradually and perceptibly increases. In the case of a passenger car, subject to driving at high speed, the body is streamlined to reduce air resistance. C.Tractive Effortand Vehicle Speed The engine torque is multiplied by the transmission gear ratio, which in turn is multiplied by the rear axle ratio, and is finally transmitted to the driving tire. As indicated by the engine performance curves, torque changes with the engine speed. In any given gear, vehicle speed is proportional to engine speed: the torque -tractive effort -is correlated with vehicle speed. This relationship is shown in Graph 13. It gives the correlation between vehicle speed and tractive effort for each gear. Each of the convex curves in Graph 13 corresponds to the engine's torque curves. The vertical axis gives the tractive effort (kg) and the horizontal axis the vehicle speed (km/h). TAccording to Graph 14, point indicates that the tractive effort is 594kg when the vehicle is running in 4th gear at 60km/h. When the vehicle is running in 5th gear at the same speed, the tractive effort is 452kg (point ). The maximum tractive effort for each gear is the maximum point of each curve. For example, in first gear, the maximum tractive effort is 3,036kg (point ). This is also the vehicle's maximum tractive effort. what can be Learned from "The Vehicle Performance Curve" From the foregoing, the three correlations in the vehicle performance curves -Engine Speed and

Graph 13

Graph 14

Vehicle Speed, Running Resistance and Tractive Effort -are clear. They are reproduced in Graph 15. The horizontal axis expresses vehicle speed. The vertical axis on the left expresses both tractive effort and running resistance, and on the right vertical axis indicates engine speed. These two vertical axes are not correlated with each other. For example the 1,500kg on the left axis is in no way correlated with the 3,000rpm on the right. For sake of convenience, the graph was made this way to eliminate the necessity of referring to separate graphs. From these performance curves various performance characteristics of the vehicle can be read. Graph 15

Maximum Speed As explained in section on the relationship between vehicle speed and engine speed, maximum speed can be read from the running performance curve. The maximum speed of the vehicle illustrated in Graph 15 is 100km/h. However, if the running resistance on a level road is substantial as shown by the hypothetical dotted curve in Graph 15, and if the vehicle is running in fifth gear, the running resistance will equal the tractive effort (point ), and vehicle speed cannot be increased beyond this point. In other words, under these hypothetical circumstances, the actual maximum speed is 92km/h instead of the rated 100km/h. Gradabillty - Hill Cilmbing Performance The gradability listed in the catalogue is for the first gear and shows the gradient at which maximum tractive effort equals running resistance. To get the gradability of the first gear, read the % value of the running

resistance line tangent to the peak of the tractive effort curve. In the case of the first gear, the running resistance line tangent to the peak of the tractive effort curve is not shown. However, if a line parallel to the 25 and 30% lines is drawn tangent to the peak of the tractive effort curve, it will be located midpoint between the 25 and 30% lines. Consequently, the tangent will be at point A on Graph 15 with a value of 27.5% Gradabillty - Hill Cilmbing Performance According to Graph 15, the tractive effort of the vehicle running at 40km/h in 3rd gear is about 870kg (point ). When climbing a 3% grade, the running resistance it encounters is 465kg (point ). The difference between the tractive effort and running resistance is the surplus tractive effort: This surplus of tractive effort will enable the vehicle to accelerate and negotiate rough road conditions when necessary. When the gear is shifted from 3rd to 4th, the tractive effort is reduced to 555kg (point ) and the surplus tractive effort is lowered by 90kg: This leaves hardly any margin of tractive effort for acceleration, when needed. From the above, it is evident that the greater the surplus tractive effort, the greater is the versatility and handling ease of the vehicle. Engine Performance Examples

Output indicates the amount of work the engine does per unit time. Output units are either PS or kW. The maximum value is called maximum output. In general, the greater the output, the more speed the vehicle can generate. In the above example, the engine can produce 120PS (89kW) at 3,200rpm. This value shows the state at which the engine provides maximum power. (Units conversion: 1PS = 0.7355kW) Maximum Torque Torque is the rotating or twisting force generated by an engine. Torque units are either kgf-m or N-m. The maximum value is called maximum torque. In general, the greater the torque, the greater the pulling force, enabling the vehicle to more easily start from a stop and climb hills. In the above example, the engine can generate 30.0kgf-m (295N-m) at 1,800rpm. This value shows the state at which the engine provides the most pulling force. (Units conversion: 1kgf-m = 9.8067Nm) These engine performance values show maximum output, maximum torque, and the rpm at which they are attained. In order to get a more complete understanding of engine character, you need to look at engine performance curves. Engine Performance Curves Torque indicates how many kilograms of rotating force is generated one meter from the center of the crankshaft.

1PS indicates that a 75kg weight can be lifted one meter in one second.

Engine performance curves show engine performance characteristics per engine rpm. They include the 1output curve, 2torque curve, and 3brake specific fuel consumption curve.

1Output Curve The output curve shows output per engine rpm. It rises steeply with increasing rpm. In the graph at left, the maximum output is attained at 3,200rpm, corresponding to 120PS on the vertical axis. At 2,000rpm, the output is 83PS. In general, the higher the engine rpm, the higher the output. However, increasing the rpm reduces the combustion efficiency and increases mechanical loss. After exceeding a certain rpm, the effects of mechanical loss become significant, resulting in a sudden drop in output. 2Torque Curve The torque curve shows torque per engine rpm. This curve is generally flater. In the figure at left, the maximum torque is attained at 1,800rpm, corresponding to 30.0kgf-m on the vertical axis. At 2,000rpm, the torque is 29.7kgf-m. In general, the less torque changes with rpm, the easier the engine is to handle. In theory, the torque should remain constant. In actuality, as the rpm increases, combustion efficiency drops and mechanical loss increases, resulting in a drop in torque. Therefore, vehicles are usually set up to use the engine most efficiently by keeping the rpm range that generates maximum torque within the normal operating range. 3Brake Specific Fuel Consumption Curve The brake specific fuel consumption curve shows fuel consumption per rpm. Brake specific fuel consumption is indicated in units of grams of fuel consumed per unit PS per hour (g/PSh). In general, engine fuel consumption depends greatly on the combustion efficiency and often has an inverse relationship with the torque curve. The above figure shows that the fuel consumption is at a minimum (and fuel efficiency at a maximum) at 1,800rpm.

In general, the engine rpm values that produce maximum combustion efficiency and maximum torque are nearly the same

Engine performance curves can tell you this kind of information. Calculating the fuel consumption (at full throttle) In this section, we will calculate fuel consumption at maximum torque a (1,800rpm: torque = 30.0kgfm, at full throttle). Fuel consumption can be estimated to be at a minimum at this point. You can also see that, at 1,800rpm, the output and the fuel consumption per unit PS and unit time are 75PS and 156g/PSh respectively: b,c .

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Calculate the fuel consumption as follows. If the engine is run for one hour at 1,800rpm: Fuel consumption = 156g/PSh x 75PS x 1hour = 11700g Since the specific gravity of diesel fuel is about 0.85g/cc, 11700g 0.85g/cc = 13764.7cc. Trucks are designed for a variety of purposes. Each truck is equipped with the engine most suitable to its purpose. Engine performance curves can therefore tell you for what kind of truck an engine is designed. The various performance curves can tell you about an engines character. Examples1 Examples2

The flat torque curve indicates an engine that generates power throughout the entire rpm range, offering driving ease. Dump trucks

This engine generates stable power in the high rpm range. Long distance cargo carriers are generally equipped with this type of engine.

Vehicle Performance Curves Vehicle performance curves indicate the performance of the vehicle, not just the engine. These curves are arranged on a single graph, showing relationships between vehicle speed, engine speed, and the tractive effort in each gear, and the running resistance. Vehicle performance curves are determined not only by engine performance, but also by transmission gear ratios, differential gear reduction ratio, and tires. These performance curves can tell you about the overall performance of the vehicle itself. 1Running Resistance These curves show the relationship between the vehicle speed and the resistance to running when driving in a straight line. This resistance is incurred by factors such as road friction, air resistance, and grade. Running resistance curves are shown for various grades. The grade is shown in units of percent (%). For example, 0% equals a flat surface. 3% indicates a surface that climbs three meters every 100 horizontal meters.

2Vehicle Speed These curves show the relationship between engine rpm and vehicle speed for each transmission gear. This speed is determined by the total gear ratio of the driveline (including the transmission, differential gear, tires). 3Traction These curves show the relationship between the tractive effort kilograms of force at the point of contact with the road surface by the driven wheel and the vehicle speed for each transmission gear.

driven wheel and the vehicle speed for each transmission gear. * This value is calculated with the torque that remains after subtracting lost torque (consumed by the muffler, catalytic converter, and other equipment) from the torque at full throttle. These curves show that the tractive effort decreases as the transmission is shifted into higher gears.

The higher the gear, the lower the tractive effort. This is because the transmission gear ratio decreases.

Interpreting Vehicle Performance Curves 1 Vehicle performance curves can give you a lot of information.

Maximum Speed The maximum speed is defined as the fastest speed attainable by a fully loaded truck (GVW Basis) on a flat road (0% grade). A vertical line A drawn from the maximum value at the end Maximum Hill Climbing Ability

(Gradeability)

about 34%. Moreover, the graph shows you that when running at 80km/h (vertical line ), the maximum climbable grade is 2% in fifth gear, and 3% in fourth gear. You can also see from the intersections of the vehicle speed curve and line C that the engine rpm is 2,400rpm in fifth gear, and 3,400rpm in fourth gear. This graph also shows you that the vehicle cannot climb a 5% grade in fifth gear. The fourth gear tractive effort curve shows that, while it can climb this grade in fourth gear, the speed must be dropped to 40km/h D. Surplus Tractive Effort The surplus tractive effort is the difference between the tractive effort curves for each transmission gear and the running resistance curves. (Note that the running resistance curves show the loss of tractive effort incurred by the vehicle running conditions.) This surplus tractive effort is available for acceleration and traction. Lets determine the surplus tractive effort when the vehicle is driving at 50km/h on a 0% grade in fifth gear: The value at the intersection of the vertical line from 50km/h E and the fifth gear tractive effort curve is 280kg. The value at the intersection of line E and the 0% running resistance curve is 90kg. The difference between these two values, 280kg - 90kg = 190kg, is the surplus tractive effort for these running conditions. This same procedure shows that the surplus tractive effort in fourth gear is 350kg (440kg - 90kg)

Interpreting Vehicle Performance Curves 2 It is a mistake to judge vehicle superiority simply by comparing maximum values read from the vehicle performance curves. For example, in the case of speed, the maximum speed is determined by the driveline gear ratio, and not just the output or torque. Therefore, a truck for low speeds, such as a dump truck, and a truck for high speeds, such as a long distance cargo carrier, will differ greatly in maximum speed. We can learn about truck character by comparing vehicle performance curves for different trucks. 1High-speed truck (cargo carrier, etc.)

2Low-speed truck (dump truck, etc.)

In the above two graphs, all specifications are identical, except for the differential gear ratios. 1 is the vehicle performance curve for a high-speed truck. 2 is for a lowspeed truck. Comparing the tractive effort curves of 1 and 2 shows that 2 has better gradeability. Comparing the vehicle speed curves shows that 1 can run at a higher speed. This comparison shows that 1 is a speed-oriented truck, while 2 is poweroriented. Therefore, the driveline is selected based on a thoroug h consideration of how the truck will be used.

Engine Performance Curves & Vehicle Performance Curves You can combine the engine performance and vehicle performance curves to get even more information. 1Engine Performance Curve

2Vehicle Performance Curve

For example, you can find the maximum speed attainable at the maximum torque. This is generally considered the most economical driving speed. First, on the torque curve in graph A , find the rpm at which the maximum torque is generated. In this case, it is 1,800rpm. Next, on graph B , draw a horizontal line from the 1,800rpm point to its intersection with the vehicle speed curve for fifth gear (the gear with the lowest gear ratio). Draw a line vertically to the x-axis to find the speed, which is 60km/h. This tells you that this truck will drive most economically at 60km/h in fifth gear. You can also see that at these conditions the climbable grade is about 3% and the tractive effort 300kg. The key to customer satisfaction is selecting engine characteristics and power train (consisting of transmission, propeller shaft, final gear, tire) according to the users purpose and running conditions. OK, I see. The engine performance and vehicle performance curves are important factors to consider when proposing a suitable vehicle type.