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Electromagnetics

in Biomedicine


MEDE 2002


Course Lecturer: Dr. Philip W. T. Pong
ppong@eee.hku.hk

Assessment: Homework assignment 20%
Examination 80%

Lecture hours: Tuesday 14:00-14:55 MB103
Friday 9:30-11:25 LE3
Office hours: Wednesday 16:00-17:00
Course homepage:
http://www.eee.hku.hk/courses/mede2002/

Reference:
W. H. Hayt, Jr. & J. A. Buck, Engineering Electromagnetics,
7th edition, McGraw Hill, 2006

D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics,
2
nd
edition, Addison Wesley, 1989





Opening
To excel in this course:

Come for the lectures
Come for the tutorials
Complete homework assignments
Be interested in electromagnetics

Introduction

I am sure you all have this question in mind: why do we study electromagnetic
theory?

Answer:
Understanding and appreciating the laws of Nature that govern speed of
even the smallest computer chip or largest power line is fundamental for every
biomedical engineer. It is the explanation for why electrons and protons behave as
they do, and thus why resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors and ultimately all
biomedical devices work.
You better learn it by heart because many practicing engineers review
electromagnetic theory constantly and regret their inattention. This subject really
constitutes the core of a biomedical engineer.
Useful for everyday life. It helps you understand the behaviour of
electricity. E.g. is the driver safe if the lightning hits on his car? Can you foresee
the imminence of lightning strike? Can we make use of electromagnetic field to
develop an instrument to cure cancer? Would it present any threat to human
being? How do biological systems respond to electromagnetic field? What are the
interactions between cells, tissues, organs, and electromagnetic field?
Bioelectromagnetics is the study of how electromagnetic fields interact with and
influence biological processes. Will it do any good to human health if EM can be
combined with nanotechnology?

























Course components

A. Fundamental electromagnetic theory

B. More on electromagnetic theory

C. Biological aspects of electromagnetics

I. Bioelectromagnetism (electromagnetism from biological systems)

II. Bioelectromagnetics (the interaction between electromagnetic fields and
biological systems)

D. Case study: particle accelerator in medical application
[Acknowledgement: Thanks Alex Yuen (Med Eng) for his assistance in preparing the lecture notes for this part
in summer 2009]

E. If time allows, electromagnetic hazards and environment, magnetic
nanoparticles for cancer therapy, latest scientific research on electromagnetic
field for curing tumors (Dr. Philip Pong)






















History

1
st
Century South-pointing compasses became common in China.

1086 Shen Kua (1031-95): his Dream Pool Essays make the first
reference to compasses used in navigation.

1600 William Gilbert (English physicist, 1544-1603): gaves the name
"electric" to the substance behind electrical phenomena and showed
the earth to be a magnet.

1730 Charles-Francois du Fay (French chemist, 1698-1739): discovered
that electric charges are of two types and that like charges repel
while unlike charges attract.

1740 Benjamin Franklin (American scientist, statesman, editor, 1706-
1790): demonstrated lightning is a form of electricity and proposed
conservation of electric charge.

1830 Joseph Henry (American scientist, 1797-1878): developed
electromagnets and electric motors.

1840 Michael Faraday (English physicist, 1791-1867): built the first
electric generator.

1850 James Clerk Maxwell (Scottish physicist, 1831-1879):developed
famous Maxwells equations demonstrated that electricity,
magnetism and even light are all manifestations of electromagnetic
field.

1887 Heinrich Hertz (German physicist, 1857-1894): experimentally
produces electromagnetic radiation with radio waves and verified
Maxwells equations.














Electrostatics Statics_A_1
Basic properties of electric charges
Continuous charge distribution
Electric flux
Application of Gausss Law
Divergence of a vector quantity
Gausss Law in differential form
Electric scalar potential
Equipotential surfaces
Potential gradient
Electric fields in materials
Conductors
Dielectrics
Dielectric strength
Polarization loss
Capacitance
Poissons and Laplaces equations
Work and electrostatic energy
Forces in electrostatics

1
3
9
12
Statics_B_1
3
5
11
12
Statics_C_1
1
5
11
11
12
Statics_D_1
6
9

Magnetism Magnetics_A_1
Electric current
Steady magnetic field
Amperes Circuital Law
Curl
Stokes Theorem
Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density
Force due to magnetic fields
Force and torque on close circuits
Magnetic materials
Magnetization and permeability
Ferroamgnetics
Scalar magnetic potential
Maxwells equations for static electric fields and steady
magnetic field
Time varying fields electromagnetic induction
Faradays Law
Energy in magnetic fields
Magnetic forces
Hysteresis loss
Mutual and self-inductance
Maxwells Equations with time varying fields
Poyntings Theorem
Wave Equations
Uniform plane EM wave in perfect dielectric
1
3
6
9
11
12
14
17
Magnetics_B_1
5
8
11
Magnetics_C_1

2
3
8
10
13
15
Magnetics_D_1
5
7
8

A. Fundamental electromagnetic theory

Statics_A_1
ELECTROSTATICS


Basic Properties of Electric Charges

- Two kinds of charges : positive and negative.

- Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

- Positive and negative charges occur in exactly the same
amounts.

- In any isolated system, the algebraic sum of the charges is
constant (conservation of charge).

- Charge is quantized, i.e. charges come only in discrete
packets which are integer multiples of the basic unit of charge
: the charge on the electron is one unit of negative charge (-e)
(e = -1.602x10
-19
C).

- In the SI units (International System of Units) (French name
Systeme Internationale):
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Temperature Kelvin (
o
K)
Current ampere (A)

(Defined as the current that flows in opposite directions in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible
cross section, separated 1 meter in vacuum, and would
produce a repulsive force of 210
-7
newtons per meter length
between the two conductors).

As current = rate of charge flow, this in turn defines

Charge coulomb (C)
This is defined
Statics_A_2
Coulombs Law :

The force F on a point charge Q due to a single point charge q
which is at rest a distance r away is given by

2
o
r
qQ
4
1
tc
= F r (1)

where r is the unit vector along the corresponding direction and
o
c is permittivity of free space and is given by

2
2
12
o
m . N
coul
10 85 . 8

= c

If there are many point charges q
1
, q
2
, .., q
n
located at
distances r
1
, r
2
., r
n
from Q, then according to the principle
of superposition,
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
tc
= + + =
n
2
n
n
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
o
n 2 1
r
r
Q q
....... r
r
Q q
r
r
Q q
4
1
...F F F F (2)

or E F Q =

where
i
n
1 i
2
i
i
o
r
r
q

4
1
) P (

tc
= =
=
E E . (3)

The vector E is called the electric field of the source charges
and is a function of position P = (x,y,z). E(P) may be defined as
the force per unit charge that would be exerted on the test
charge Q placed at P.
A-Level Physics Electric
field due to a point charge
Vector it has direction and magnitude
Statics_A_3
Continuous charge distribution :

Very often, we have to consider charges that are distributed
continuously over some region.

(1) line charge (charge per unit length)
(2) surface charge o (charge per unit area)
(3) volume charge (charge per unit volume)

Thus, q
i
is replaced by v o = d or , da , dl dq respectively and
summation is replaced by integration:
}
v
}
o
}

=
volume surface line
n
1 i
i
d ~ da ~ dl ~ q (4)

The electric field of a line charge is

}

tc
=
line
2
o
dl
r
r
4
1
) P ( E where r is the appropriate vector (5)

For a surface charge,

da
r
r
4
1
) P (
surface
2
o
o
}
tc
= E (6)

For a volume charge,

d
r
r
4
1
) P (
volume
2
o
v
}
tc
= E (7)

Statics_A_4
Example 1 :

Find the electric field a distance a above the midpoint of two
equal positive charges q at distance d apart :



The horizontal components of the fields from the two charges
cancel, so the net field is vertical as shown.
z
2
o
cos
r 4
q
2 a u
tc
= E where a
z
is the unit vector along z
( )
r
a
cos and 2 / d a r
2 2
= u + = (Pythegoras Theorem)
( ) | |
z
2
3
2 2
o
2 / d a 4
aq 2
a
+ tc
= E (8)

Note that for a >> d ,

z
2
o
a 4
q 2
a
tc
E (9)

as the two charges look more and more like a single charge of
2q.

Statics_A_5
Example 2 :

Do the above example again, but with the charges of opposite
sign.


Now the vertical components cancel and the net electric field is
horizontal:
x
2
0
sin
r 4
q
2 a u
tc
= E

where: ( )
r
2 / d
sin and 2 / d a r
2 2
= u + =
( ) ( )
x
2
3
2 2
o
2 / d a 4
qd
a
+ tc
= E

Note that for a >> d ,

x
3
o
a 4
qd
a
tc
E (10)

which is the field of a dipole, and as 0 d the electric field
approaches 0, since the two charges cancel each other.

Electric dipole: a pair of electric charge of equal magnitude (q) but
opposite sign (+/-) separated by a distance (d)
Statics_A_6
Example 3 :
What is the electric field at a distance a above a line segment of
length 2L, carrying an electric charge of coulombs/m.



To solve this, divide the line up into 2 symmetrical lengths on
either side of the point P.
z
2
o
cos
r 4
dx
2 d a u
tc

= E [from (10)]
r
a
cos = u and
2 2
x a r + =
( )
(11)
E
z
o
z
L
o
z
L
L a a
L

x a a
x

a
dx
x a
a

a
a = a
2 2
0
2 2 2 0 2 2
0
2
4
1
4
2 2
4
1
2
3
+
=
(

+
+
=
}

Note : For
z
2
o
a 4
L 2
have we L a a
tc

= >> E which corresponds


to the field from a point charge of q = 2L at a distance a.
Also as
a 2 a 4
2
E , L
o o
tc

=
tc

, which is the field at a


distance a from a very long straight line.
Statics_A_7
Example 4 :
What is the electric field at a distance a above a circular loop of
radius b, carrying an electric charge of coulombs/m?



At P, the horizontal components of the field from an elemental
length dl cancel - so we only have to consider the vertical
components only :
z
2
o
z
cos
r
d
4
1
a u
}

tc
=
l
l
E
where:
r
a
cos and b a r
2 2 2
= u + =
z
2 2 2 2
o
z
2 2 2 2
o
z
b 2
b a ) b a (
a
4
1

d
b a ) b a (
a
4
1
a
a
t
+ +

tc
=
}
+ +

tc
=
l
l E

z
2 2
o
z
2 2
o
z
2
3
2
3
) b a (
ab
2
1
) b a (
ab 2
4
1
a a
+

c
=
+
t
tc
= E
(12)

Statics_A_8
Example 5 :
What is the electric field at a distance a above a flat circular disc
of radius b, carrying a surface electric charge of o coulombs/m
2
?
Consider a charged ring : r 2 . dr . r 2 . t = t o ,

( )
( )
z
2 2
o
z
2
3
r a
a r 2 dr
4
1
d a
+
t o
tc
= E

and for the whole disc :

( )
z
2 2
o
z
b
0
2 2
o
z
b a
1
a
1
a 2
4
1
dr
r a
r
a 2
4
1
2
3
a
a
(

+
to
tc
=
}
+
to
tc
= E


Note that for b >> a ,
z
o
z
o
z
b
E a a
c
o
=
tc
to
=
2 4
2
lim
which is the equation for the electric field from a charged plane.

What happens to E
z
for a >> b?
The disc should start to look like a point charge at a distance.

3
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
a 2
b
a
b
2
1
1
a
1
a
1
a
b
1
a
1
a
1
b a
1
a
1
2
1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+

z
2
o
z
2
2
o
z
3
2
o
z
a 4
Q
a 2
b 2
4
1
a 2
b
a 2
4
1
a a a
tc
=
o t
tc
= to
tc
= E (13)

i.e. it looks like the field at distance a from a point charge.




(1+x)
-n
~ (1-nx)
This result is derived from Taylor Series (Eng Math I); the higher order
terms of x are ignored.
Statics_A_9
Field lines (stream lines):

An attempt to give a visual indication of field intensity E.

Direction of field : tangential to the field lines, with an arrow
head indicating the direction.
Magnitude of field : longer line, thicker line, colour scheme etc.
No simple solution. However, if lines are
drawn uniformly taking into account
symmetry, then the magnitude of the
electric field is indicated by the density of
the field lines.



Electric Flux :

Experiments show that a charge +Q in an inner sphere will
always result in an equal and opposite charge Q (by induction)
on the outer sphere as though there are imaginary lines of flux
flowing from the inner sphere to the outer sphere.

Hence introduce concept of flux lines or electric flux +
associated with electric charges such that (1) the direction of
flux lines is the same as the direction of field intensity E at that
point and (2) the amount of flux is proportional to the charge. In
SI units, the proportional constant is 1, i.e.

+ = Q (flux = charge)

Statics_A_10
The flux + is measured in the same unit as Q, i.e. in coulombs.




The electric flux may be represented by flux lines with the
following properties:

- They are directional originating and diverging from positive
charges and converging towards and terminating at negative
charges.

- They are elastic and tend towards minimum length (imagine
that they are in tension along their lengths)

- The lines repel each other and they can never cross each
other.

- The density of the electric flux is proportional to the density
of lines.

From the definition of electric flux, it is obvious that over any
closed surface,

Corollary 1

Total flux coming out = Total (+ve) charge enclosed

Flux Density D

Corresponding to the electric flux, define electric flux density D
where the magnitude

D =
ds area
ds to lar perpendicu flow flux
as ds 0
And direction of D is the same as that of E at the same point.
(In simple terms, flux density D = amount of flux + / area A)
You must have studied magnetic flux in your A-Level Physics. Here, the
concept is the same.
Flux: amount that flows through a unit area
Statics_A_11
Since the flux flow perpendicular to the area ds may be
represented by
d+ = D.ds (flux flow + = flux density D x area A )
where ds = ds n, n being the unit outward normal vector, hence
flux over close surface

Corollary 2
+ =
}}
surface
ds . D = Charge Q enclosed. (14)
And this is Gausss Law.
(You have already learned Gausss Law in Eng Math I. Do you still remember?)
Consider a point source Q. By symmetry, the flux flow is
uniform and normal to a spherical surface. Hence to determine
the flux density D at a point distance r from the source,
construct a spherical surface of radius r. Then

Flux + = Q =
}}
sphere
ds D. = D 4tr
2

Or D
2
r 4
Q
t
= a
r

Compare with the electric field intensity at the same point
E
2
0
r 4
Q
tc
= a
r
Hence D = c
0
E (15)
Since for line, surface or volume charges, D and E can be
calculated by superposition in a similar way, the above
relationship always hold.
Gausss Law can therefore also be written as

Flux + =
}}
c
surface
ds E. = Q (16)
This is generally referred to as Gausss Law in integral form.
Corollary 3
Statics_A_12
Application of Gausss Law

The Gausss Law provides us an alternative way of finding the
electric field intensity E through the flux density D.

To determine D if charge distribution is known, choose a closed
surface S such that

1. D is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed
surface, so that D.ds becomes either Dds or zero respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which D.ds is not
zero, D = constant.
-
To achieve this, it is necessary to take advantage of the
symmetry that exists in the system.

Examples of situations where symmetry exists:

- A charged sphere or point charge
- An infinite line with uniform line charge density
(e.g. coaxial cable)
- An infinite plane with uniform surface charge density
(e.g. parallel plate capacitor)







Statics_A_13
Procedure in Finding Electric Field Intensity

Step 1: Set up Gaussian surface

Step 2: Use Gausss Law in integral form (Corollary 3, eq. 16)

Step 3: Work out the surface area A
s


Step 4: Work out charge enclosed Q
enclosed


Step 5: Put A
s
and Q
enclosed
into the equation to find electric field
intensity E

Here are some typical examples of finding electric field
intensity in various cases.














Statics_A_14
Example - Spherical Symmetry :
Find the field outside a uniformly charged sphere (with total
charge q) of radius a.

For r > a :
The Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r (r > a).

q
1
r 4 E ds E ds E d
0
2
S S S
c
= t =
}
=
}
=
}
s E (use eq. 15)

2 2
0
r
1
r
r 4
q

tc
= E (17)


Note that the result shows that the electric
field outside a charged sphere is the same as if the total charge q
had been concentrated at the centre.

For r < a :
3
3
0
3
3
4
3
3
4
0
2
S S S
a
r
q
1
a
r
q
1
r 4 E ds E ds E d
c
=
t
t
c
= t =
}
=
}
=
}
s E
r r r
3
r r
a 4
q
o
o
3
o

=
tc
= E (18)
where
o
is the volume charge density.
E
r
a
2
r
1

r
a
3
o
o
c




Use proportion of
volume
Surface area of a sphere = 4tr
2

Statics_A_15
Example - Cylindrical symmetry :

Find the field outside a long wire of uniform line charge density
and radius r
o
.
Gaussian
surface
l
r
x

First construct a Gaussian surface : a cylinder of radius r.
Gausss Law says :
enclosed
0
S
Q
1
d
c
=
}
s E where Q
enclosed
= l .

Because of the symmetry, it is clear that r ) r ( E = E only,
0 E
x
= . Also E and ds are pointing in the same direction, and it
is also clear that E is uniform over the Gaussian surface.
For r > r
o
:
0
enclosed
0
S S S
Q
1
r 2 E ds E ds E d
c

=
c
= t =
}
=
}
=
}

l
l s E

r
1
E i.e. , r
r 2
o

tc

= E (19)
For r < r
o
:
l l
o

c
=
c
= t =
}
=
}
=
}

2
o
2
enclosed
0
S S S
r
r 1
Q
1
r 2 E ds E ds E ds E
r E i.e. , r
r 2
r
2
o o

tc

= E

Use proportion of
area
Statics_A_16
Example - Planar symmetry :

Find the electric field of an infinite plane carrying a uniform
surface charge density o.



Draw a Gaussian surface, in this case a pillbox extending
equal distances above and below the surface of the plane.

( ) A
1
ds
1
Q
1
A 2 E ds E d
o
s
o
enclosed
o
S S
o
c
=
}
o
c
=
c
= =
}
=
}
s E
where A Q
enclosed
o = and A is the area of the top of the
pillbox.
Why the 2 in E(2A) ? Because the charge Q = oA produces an
electric field pointing up and an electric field pointing down. So
the effect is spread over 2A.

0
2c
o
= E n
where n is a unit vector normal to the plane.

Compare this with the example that deals with the field from a
charged disk (eq. (13)):
z
o
z
a
Q
a
2
4
= E

Statics_A_17
Example - Another planar symmetry :

Two infinite parallel planes carry equal but opposite uniform
surface charge densities, +o and o. What is the electric field
between the plates and outside the plates ?



On the right hand side of the negative charge plane,
0 ) (
2
) (
2
o o
=
c
o
+
c
o
= + =
+
i i E E E .

On the left hand side of the positive charge plane,
0 ) (
2
) (
2
o o
=
c
o
+
c
o
= + =
+
i i E E E .

Inside the plates :
i i i
o o o
) (
2
) (
2 c
o
=
c
o
+
c
o
= + =
+
E E E . (20)



















































Cylindrical
coordinates
Spherical
coordinates



































Cartesian
coordinates
Statics_B_1
Divergence of a vector quantity

Consider the flux + through a volume element Ax, Ay, Az about
a given point P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
).












(Use Corollary 2, eq. (14), Gausss Law)

Flux through top surface parallel to x-y plane
+
top
=
}
top
D
top
.a
z
ds = D
ztop
AxAy

Flux through bottom surface parallel to x-y plane
+
bottom
=
}
bottom
D
bottom
.(a
z
) ds = -D
zbottom
AxAy

Flux through front surface parallel to y-z plane
+
front
=
}
front
D
front
.a
x
ds = D
xfront
AyAz

Flux through back surface parallel to y-z plane
+
back
=
}
back
D
back
.(-a
x
) ds = D
xback
AyAz

Flux through right surface parallel to x-z plane
+
right
=
}
right
D
right
.a
y
ds = D
yright
AxAz

Flux through left surface parallel to x-z plane
+
left
=
}
left
D
left
.(-a
y
) ds = D
yleft
AxAz
Statics_B_2
Total flux through the surfaces of the volume element

+ = +
top
+ +
bottom
+ +
front
+ +
back
+ +
right
+ +
left

= [D
z
)
2
z
z (
0
A
+ D
z
)
2
z
z (
0
A
]AxAy
+[D
x
)
2
x
x (
0
A
+ D
x
)
2
x
x (
0
A
]AyAz
+[D
y
)
2
y
y (
0
A
+ D
y
)
2
y
y (
0
A
]AxAz
~ z y x )
z
D
y
D
x
D
(
z
y
x
A A A
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

~ v A
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
)
z
D
y
D
x
D
(
z
y
x


In the limit,
v A
}}
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
v A
s Dd .
it lim )
z
D
y
D
x
D
(
0
z
y
x

By definition,

v A
}}
v A
s Dd .
it lim
0
= Divergence of D = div D

Hence, in cartesian coordinates,

div D = )
z
D
y
D
x
D
(
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c


Similarly, in cylindrical coordinates
div D =
z
D
D
1
) D (
1
z
c
c
+
| c
c

+
c
c



In spherical coordinates
div D =
| c
c
u
+ u
u c
c
u
+
c
c
|
u
D
sin r
1
) D (sin
sin r
1
) D r (
r
r
1
r
2
2




1 2
1 2
y
z
D D( ) D( )
D ( ) D ( )
2 2
D
D
(similarly for and )
x
x o x o
x x
x x x
x x
x x
x
y z
c
=
c
A A
+
=
A
c
c
c c
Corollary 4
Statics_B_3

The divergence of a vector quantity at a point measures the
amount of substance coming out from that point. A positive
divergence indicates a source of that vector quantity while a
negative divergence indicates a sink.

Gausss Law in differential form

Applying Gausss Law,


}}
s Dd . = Q (From eq. (14))

For unit volume Av

v A
}}
s Dd .
=
v A
Q

As Av 0

v A
}}
v A
s Dd .
it lim
0
= div D =
v A
v A
Q
it lim
0
=
v

where
v
is the volume charge density

Hence

div D =
v
(21)

and this is known as the point form or differential form of
Gausss Law.

This is also the first of Maxwells four equations as they are
applied to electrostatics and steady magnetic field.
Corollary 6
Corollary 5
Statics_B_4
The vector operator V - Del

Since divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar
result, we would like to find a vector operator such that when
dotted formally with D would give its divergence.

In cartesian coordinates, consider the del operator V defined as

V =
z y x
z y x
a a a
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

Then
V.D = (
z y x
z y x
a a a
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
).(D
x
a
x
+ D
y
a
y
+ D
z
a
z
)
= ) D (
z
) D (
y
) D (
x
z y x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

=
z
D
y
D
x
D
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c


This is recognized as the divergence of D, so that

div D = V.D =
z
D
y
D
x
D
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(22)

The notation V.D has come to represent div D in cylindrical and
spherical coordinates as well even though it is impossible to find
a specific form of V that will give the expression of div D by the
dotting operation.

By Gausss Law
}}
Surface
d . s D = Q = dv
vol
v
}}}
= dv .
vol
}}}
VD


Hence
}}
Surface
d . s D = dv .
vol
}}}
VD This is called the Divergence
Theorem
Use eq. (14)
Statics_B_5
Example

The electric flux density around the origin is given by

D = e
-x
sin y a
x
e
-x
cos y a
y
+ 2z a
z
C/m
2

Find an approximate value for the total charge enclosed in an
incremental volume of 10
9
m
3
located at the origin.

Solution:
y sin e
x
D
x
x

=
c
c

y sin e
y
Dy
x
=
c
c

2
z
Dz
=
c
c


At the origin, x = y = z = 0;

v
= div D =
z
D
y
D
x
D
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= 2 C/m
3


Hence charge enclosed

~
v
dv = 2 10
-9
=2 nC

Electric scalar potential :
Consider moving an elemental test charge q
t
a distance dL in an
electric field represented by the field intensity E.

Force on q
t
F = q
t
E

The work done by the field is:
dW
Field
= F.dL = q
t
E.dL

Use Corollary 6,
differential form of
Gausss Law, eq. (21)

= V = D D div

Statics_B_6
Alternately external work done on q
t
is
dW
ext
= F.dL = q
t
E.dL

Total external work done to move q
t
from A to B is
W =
}

B
A
t
d . q L E (23)

Consider a point source Q
E =
2
0
r 4
Q
tc
a
r
In spherical coordinates
dL = dr a
r
+ rdu a
u
+ r sin u d| a
|











Hence
W =
}

B
A
t
d . q L E = dr
r 4
Q
q
B
A 2
0
t
}
tc

= ) (
B A 0
t
r
1
r
1
4
Q q

tc


and is independent of path chosen. Since E Q and the
principle of superposition applies, the same is true for any field.

Statics_B_7
Example
Given the non-uniform field
E = y a
x
+ x a
y

Determine the work done in carrying a charge of 2C from
B(1,0) to A(0.8, 0.6) along
1. the arc of circle x
2
+ y
2
= 1,
2. a straight line path from B to A,
3. from B(1,0) to C(1, 0.6) along x = 1 and then from
C(1, 0.6) to A(0.8, 0.6) along y = 0.6.

Solution : (make use of eq. (23))
In cartesian coordinates, dL = dx a
x
+ dy a
y


W = Q
}
=
}
A
B
A
B
2 d . L E (y a
x
+ x a
y
).(dx a
x
+ dy a
y
)
=
}

6 . 0
0
8 . 0
1
xdy 2 ydx 2

1. Along arc of circle x
2
+ y
2
= 1, x =
2
y 1 ; y =
2
x 1 ;

W =
}

}

6 . 0
0
2 8 . 0
1
2
dy y 1 2 dx x 1 2
= | | | |
6 . 0
0
1 2
8 . 0
1
1 2
y sin y 1 y x sin x 1 x

+ +
= 0.96 J
2. The line joining AB may be represented by

y = 3x + 3
Hence
W =
}

6 . 0
0
8 . 0
1
xdy 2 ydx 2
=
}

}

6 . 0
0
8 . 0
1
dy )
3
y
1 ( 2 dx ) 1 x ( 3 2 = 0.96 J
3. From B to C along x = 1, W
BC
=
}

6 . 0
0
dy 1 2 = 1.2
From C to A along y = 0.6, W
CA
=
}

8 . 0
1
dx 6 . 0 2 = 0.24
Hence from B to A, W
BA
= W
BC
+ W
CA
= 0.96J
Statics_B_8
Since the work done is independent on the path but only on the
end-points, we can therefore define uniquely a potential
difference between two points A and B as the work done in
moving a unit positive charge from point B to point A, i.e.

V
AB
=
}

A
B
dL E. joules/coulomb (24)

Note that since V
AB
= V
BA
, therefore


} } }
= + = 0 . . .
A
B
B
A
dL E dL E dL E

and E is described to be a conservative field.

If point B is an agreed reference point of zero potential, then
V
A
= V
AB
can be regarded as the (absolute) potential at point A.
If V
P
, V
Q
are the potentials at points P and Q with respect to the
same reference point, then
V
PQ
= V
P
V
Q


Commonly used reference point of zero potential:
- Ground plane
- Point at infinity
- Metal shielding
Potentials due to different charge sources can be added together
by superposition.
Thus if the reference point of zero potential is at infinity, then
For isolated point charges Q
i
, V =

tc
i
i
0
i
r 4
Q

For volume charge density , V =
}
tc
v
r 4
d
0

In general, V =
}

A
dL E.
(25)
Corollary 7
Statics_B_9
Example :

Find the potential (reference point at infinity) inside and outside
a spherical sphere of radius a carrying a uniform surface charge
o coulombs/m
2
.



From Gausss Law, the field outside the charged sphere is:


2
o
r 4
q
tc
= E a
r
where o t =
2
a 4 q (use eq. 17)

}
=

r
r
d . V r E where the path of integration is along r

r 4
q
r
1
4
q
dr
r
1

4
q
o
r
o
r
2
o
tc
=
tc
=
}
tc
=



In particular, the potential at the surface is given by:

a 4
q
V
o
a
tc
=

The field E inside the sphere is everywhere zero since there is
no charge inside the sphere. The potential inside the sphere is
therefore equal to the potential at the surface, i.e.

a 4
q
V
o
r
tc
= for r < a (26)


Use eq. 25
Statics_B_10
Example : Find the potential on the axis of a charged ring.
Take point at infinity as zero
potential.
For the charge element dL,
V =
r 4
dL
0
tc


Hence for the whole ring,
V =
R 4
a 2
dL
R 4 R 4
dL
0
ring ring
0 0
tc
t
=
} }
tc

=
tc


=
2 2
0
a z 4
Q
+ tc
since Q = 2ta
Example : Find the potential difference between the points
A(
A
, |
A
, z
A
) and B(
B
, |
B
, z
B
) due to an infinite line charge
with density .
In cylindrical coordinates,
E =
tc

0
2
a

(Use eq. 19)

dL = d a

+ d| a
|
+ dz a
z
V
AB
=
}

A
B
d . L E =
}
tc

d
2
A
B
0

=
A
B
0
ln
2

tc



Note that in this case it is not possible to set a point at infinity to
zero potential since as
B
, ln
B
.

Statics_B_11
Equipotential Surfaces
A surface in an electrostatic field having the same potential at
all points is called an equipotential surface.

Since all points of an equipotential surface are at the same
potential, for two close points on the surface,
dV = E.dL = 0, ie E dL,

i.e. the electric field intensity E at any equipotential surface is
normal to that surface.

Examples of equipotential surfaces :

For a point charge Q, V(r) =
r 4
Q
0
tc

Hence for V = V
0
, the equipotential surface is a sphere with
r =
0 0
V 4
Q
tc


In practice, equipotential surfaces are usually plotted with the
same potential difference AV from one surface to the next.


Statics_B_12
Potential Gradient
Consider the change in V by moving the short distance AL,
AV ~ E.AL = E cos u AL
In the limit as AL 0,
u = =
A
A
A
cos E
dL
dV
L
V
it lim
0 L


Thus E can be found by noting the maximum value of dV/dL
and this would occur when cos u = 1, i.e when AL is normal to
the equipotential surface and in the opposite direction of E.
Hence
E =
max
)
dL
dV
( a
N
=
dN
dV
a
N
Where a
N
is a unit vector normal to the equipotential surfaces
and pointing in the direction of increasing V.

The operation on V by which E is obtained is known as the
gradient, and by definition
Gradient of V = grad V =
dN
dV
a
N
Using this new term,
E = grad V (27)
In cartesian coordinates, we may write
dz
z
V
dy
y
V
dx
x
V
dV
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
But
dV = E.dL = E
x
dx E
y
dy E
z
dz
Therefore

x
V
E
x
c
c
= ;
y
V
E
y
c
c
= ;
z
V
E
z
c
c
=




Statics_B_13
These results may be combined vectorially to give
E = (
x
V
c
c
a
x
+
y
V
c
c
a
y
+
z
V
c
c
a
z
)
And
Grad V = (
x
V
c
c
a
x
+
y
V
c
c
a
y
+
z
V
c
c
a
z
)

The vector operator
V =
z y x
a
z
a
y
a
x c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c


may be used formally as an operator on a scalar V to produce

VV =
x
V
c
c
a
x
+
y
V
c
c
a
y
+
z
V
c
c
a
z

and hence we can write

E = VV (28)

As in the case of divergence, VV has been used to denote the
gradient of V in cylindrical and spherical coordinates as well,

VV =
c
cV
a

+
| c
c

V 1
a
|
+
z
V
c
c
a
z
(cylindrical)

VV =
r
V
c
c
a
r
+
u c
cV
r
1
a
u
+
| c
c
u
V
sin r
1
a
|
(spherical)

Example : Electric field on the axis of a charged ring

V =
2 2
0
b z 4
Q
+ tc
where Q = 2tb
E = VV =
c
cV
a


| c
c

V 1
a
|

z
V
c
c
a
z
=
( )
2
3
2 2
0
b z 4
Qz
+ tc
a
z


Corollary 8
Use corollary 8
Statics_B_14
Example :

Given the potential field :
V = 2x
2
y 5z
Determine at P (4, 3, 6) :

1. The potential

V
P
= 2(4)
2
(3) 5(6) = 66 V

2. The electric field intensity

E = VV = 4xya
x
2x
2
a
y
+ 5a
z
V/m

Hence at P
E
P
= 48a
x
32a
y
+ 5a
z
V/m
,E
P
, = 9 . 57 5 ) 32 ( 48
2 2 2
= + + V/m
a
P
=
9 . 57
1
(48a
x
32a
y
+ 5a
z
)
= 0.829a
x
0.553a
y
+ 0.086a
z


3. The flux density
D
P
= c
0
E
P
= 35.4xya
x
17.7x
2
a
y
+ 44.3a
z
pC/m
2

= 35.4(4)(3)a
x
17.7(4)
2
a
y
+ 44.3a
z
pC/m
2

= 424.8a
x
283.2a
y
+ 44.3a
z
pC/m
2

4. The volume charge density
= V.D = 35.4y =35.43 pC/m
3
(Use Corollary 6, eq. 21)
Hence at P,
P
=106.2 pC/m
3

Statics_C_1
Electric Fields in Materials

All matters comprise large quantities of positive and negative
charges in equal amount so that the material is electrically
neutral. The basic molecular structure is a positively charged
centre surrounded by a negatively charged electron cloud. How
closely the electrons are bounded to the molecule determines the
electrical characteristic of the material.

Conductors (HKCEE Chemistry)

Conductors are characterised by many free electrons, the
valency electrons, which move with the slightest electric field.
When an external electric field is applied, free electrons are
driven to the boundaries and set up an internal field, the
polarization field, in the opposite direction. The process
continues until the forces acting on electrons are at equilibrium,
i.e. when
E
external field
= E
polarization field
Or, in electrostatics, the net internal field
E = 0 inside conductors
If we apply Gausss law to an arbitrary closed surface S that is
completely inside a conductor,

}}
c
surface
0
d . s E = 0
since E is zero at every point on the surface. Hence charge
enclosed by surface is zero and
- A conductor has charges only on its surface.
Corollary 9
Statics_C_2







Consider the line integral of E over the closed path shown.
V =
}
L Ed . = E
ab
Aw + E
bc
Ah + E
cd
Aw + E
da
Ah = 0 (Use Eq. 24)
Now E
cd
inside a conductor is zero. Let Ah 0 and hence E
ab

becomes the tangential component of E at conductor surface.
Then E
tangential
Aw = 0
i.e. Tangential component of E = 0 on conductor surface.
Next consider a gaussian surface in the form of a cylindrical
pillbox of area As and height Ah 0. Applying Gausss Law,
}}
c
surface
0
d . s E =
}}
c
top
0
d . s E = c
0
E
n
As = Q
enclosed
= oAs (29)
i.e. Normal component of E =
0
c
o
on conductor surface.
Since the tangential component of E is zero on a conductor
surface, for any two points A and B on the conductor surface,
V
AB
=
}
dL E. = 0 , taking a path on the conductor surface.
i.e., the conductor surface must be an equipotential surface.
Also, since the field E is zero inside a conductor, every interior
point must have the same potential. Hence the whole conductor
body is equipotential.

Corollary 10
Statics_C_3
Electrostatic induction
When a conducting body is placed in an electric field, charges
are redistributed inside the conducting body to make the net
internal field zero, a phenomenon known as electrostatic
induction. Consequently the original field is affected or
distorted. In particular, the external field would be normal to the
conductor surface.

Faradays cage
Consider an inner area being enclosed by a conducting body. It
is an enclosure formed by conducting material. This enclosure
blocks out external electric fields. Externally applied electric
fields produce forces on the charge carriers within the
conductor, generating a current that rearranges the charges.
Once the charges have rearranged so as to cancel the applied
field inside, the current stops. An external electric field basically
causes the charges to rearrange which cancels the field inside.
Hence external field would not affect the inner area.

If a charge is placed inside an ungrounded Faraday cage the
internal face of the cage will be charged (in the same manner
described for an external charge) to prevent the existence of a
field inside the body of the cage. However, this charging of the
inner face would re-distribute the charges in the body of the
cage. This charges the outer face of the cage with a charge equal
in sign and magnitude to the one placed inside the cage. Since
Statics_C_4
the internal charge and the inner face cancel each other out, the
spread of charges on the outer face is not affected by the
position of the internal charge inside the cage. So for all intents
and purposes the cage will generate the same electric field it
would generate if it was simply charged by the charge placed
inside.
















This picture shows that no matter what position the charge is at
inside the conducting body, it cannot affect the distribution of
the electric field coming out from the cage. As such, it
illustrates that the internal area cannot affect the external field.



Statics_C_5
The whole process of how the Faradays Cage work can also be
illustrated by the following graphs:















The following picture shows the interesting phenomenon: with
the protection of the Faradays Cage, the man inside wont be
hurt by the outside field.











Examples of Faradays cage: elevators, cooking chamber of
microwave oven, cars, aircraft
With outside field With internal field

The initial state without any
internal or outside electrical
Statics_C_6
Equivalent sources
For the region of interest, there are many different possible
charge sources that would produce the same field. For example,
for r > a, the field produced by a spherical uniform volume
charge of radius a and total charge Q, a hollow sphere of radius
a and total charge Q, or a point charge Q, would all be
indistinguishable. Hence one technique in solving a given field
problem is to replace a given system of charges by a simpler
equivalent source that would produce the same external field.

Method of Images
Consider a system of charges above an infinite conducting
plane. Image theory states that any given charge configuration
above an infinite, perfectly conducting plane is electrically
equivalent to the combination of the given charge configuration
and its image configuration, with the conducting plane removed.


Statics_C_7







By image theory, a charge Q above a grounded perfectly
conducting plane is equivalent to Q and its image Q with the
ground plane removed







Charge distributions above a conducting plane and their image-
method equivalents.







Example :
Statics_C_8
A horizontal line charge of = 30 nC/m is located 3 m above
the earth plane. Find the electric field at a point on the earth
surface 2 m from the base of the line.

E
y
= 2 u
tc

cos
r 2
0
V/m (use eq. 18)
= 2
13
3
13 2
0
tc

V/m

o = c
0
E =
t

13
30 3
nC/m
2
= 2.20 nC/m
2

Dielectrics
In a dielectric there are no free electrons and charges are
bounded by atomic and molecular forces hence called bound
charges.
When an electric field is applied, charges are displaced, or
polarized, to form electric dipoles. For most materials, the
centre of gravity of the electron cloud coincides with the
Statics_C_9
positive charge centre when there is no external field applied,
i.e. no dipole effect under normal condition, and the material is
referred to as non-polar. For certain materials, e.g. water, a
permanent displacement exists between the charge centres and
each molecule will act as a dipole even if there is no external
field applied. These materials are referred to as polar. However,
for polar materials, normally the dipoles are oriented in a
random way throughout the interior of the material and the
dipole effect would not appear unless an external field is
applied. (Here is A-Level chemistry. You have already learned
it in high school.)
The dipole effect is described by the dipole moment
p = electric charge x distance between charges = Qd
where d is the vector from Q to +Q.

The electric dipole
2 1
1 2
0
2 1 0
4
)
1 1
(
4
R R
R R

Q
R R
Q
V

=
=


For r >> d,
R
1
R
2
~ r
2
; R
2
R
1
~d cos u

Hence
2
0
r 4
cos Qd
V
tc
u
=
In spherical coordinates,

E = VV = (
r
V
c
c
a
r
+
u c
cV
r
1
a
u
+
| c
c
u
V
sin r
1
a
|
)
Statics_C_10
=
3
0
r 4
cos Qd
(
tc
u
a
r

3
0
r 4
sin Qd
tc
u
a
u
)
=
3
0
r 4
Qd
tc
(2cos u a
r
+ sin u a
u
)
In terms of the dipole moment p = Qd, the potential can also be
written as

2
0
r 4
1
V
tc
= p.a
r

Equivalent charge distribution of polarized dielectrics
Consider an elemental area As of a closed surface inside the
dielectric. Assume the externally applied field E establishes the
dipole moment p = qd along E, and that there is an angle u
between As and E.








Any molecule originally within d cos u below surface will
result in charge +q coming out from the surface, and any
molecule originally within d cos u above surface will result in
charge q getting inside the surface, or an equivalent amount of
charge +q coming out from the surface. Hence all molecules
within the volume ( d cos u As) will contribute a charge +q
coming out from As. If there are n molecules per unit volume,
total polarization charge coming out from As
AQ
p
= nq d cos u As = nq d. As = n p.As
Statics_C_11

For the volume enclosed by S, total polarization charge
Q
p
=
}}
np.ds

Hence the effect of electric dipoles may be replaced by
equivalent polarization charges, which are bound charges rather
than free charges.
Polarization
Macroscopically define dipole moment per unit volume as
Polarization P =
v A

v A
= v A
p
it lim
0

If n is the number of molecules per unit volume, then
P = np and Q
p
=
}}
np.ds =
}}
s P d .
For most molecules, p and hence P is in the direction of the
resultant field E and may be written
P = _
e
c
0
E
Where _
e
is referred to as the electric susceptibility of the
dielectric. If it is the same at all points, the dielectric is said to
be homogeneous (or isotropic), otherwise inhomogeneous (or
anisotropic). For all dielectrics, _
e
> 0; only for vacuum _
e
= 0.
Consider an elemental volume Av bounded by the surface S.
Q
p
=
}}
s P d . =
p
Av
where
p
can be considered as the volume charge density of
bounded or polarization charges. Thus

p
=
v A v A
p
0
Q
lim
= P div
ds P
=
v A
}}

v A
.
lim
0
(use Corollary 4)
Hence the volume polarization charge density

p
= div P
Note that for homogeneous dielectric, _
e
is constant
Statics_C_12
P = _
e
c
0
E; div P = _
e
c
0
div

E = _
e

free
= 0
since it is assumed there is no free charge inside the dielectric.
Hence for a homogeneous dielectric there will be no
polarization charge inside the dielectric. The polarization charge
will only reside on the surface of the dielectric.
Generalised Gausss Law
With polarization dipoles represented by equivalent polarization
charges Q
p
, the Generalised Gausss Law can then be written as

}}
c
S
0
E.ds = Q
total
= Q
free
+ Q
p
= Q
free

}}
S
ds P.
or
}}
c
S
0
( E + P).ds = Q
free

Assume the definition of D remains unchanged,
i.e.
}}
S
ds D. = Q
free


Hence D = c
0
E + P

But P = _
e
c
0
E
D = c
0
(1 + _
e
) E = c
0
c
r
E = cE (30)
where c
r
= 1 + _
e
= relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
c = c
0
c
r
= permittivity
The use of relative permittivity makes things easier in that we
do not have to consider the polarization, dipole moments and
bound charges unnecessarily.
Statics_C_13
The Generalised Gausss Law in differential form may be
written as
div D = c div E =
free
(use eq. 21)
Boundary condition between two dielectric surfaces

Consider the line integral of E over the closed path shown.
V =
}
dL E. = E
t1
Aw E
t2
Aw = 0 for Ah 0
Hence E
t1
= E
t2
and D
t1
=
2
1
c
c
D
t2

Next consider a gaussian surface in the form of a cylindrical
pillbox of area As and height Ah 0. Applying Gausss Law,

}}
surface
d . s D = (D
n1
- D
n2
)As = AQ = oAs
D
n1
D
n2
= o (31)
Notice that o here refers to the surface free charge density
since the bounded surface charge is taken care of by the relative
permittivity. Since normally there will not be any free charge if
it is a surface between two
dielectrics,
Hence D
n1
D
n2
= 0

and c
1
E
n1
= c
2
E
n2

There is a change in the
Statics_C_14
direction of D.
With
2
2
1
1
tan tan u
c
c
= u (proof omitted)
Notice that if c
1
> c
2
, then
2 1 2 1
, E E D D < > .

Dielectric Strength
An electric field causes a displacement of the bound charges in
a dielectric material, i.e. polarization. If the field is strong
enough, electrons can pull away from the atoms/molecules and
become relatively free charges. These free electrons will
accelerate rapidly and collide with other atoms - releasing even
more electrons - leading eventually to an avalanche where large
currents through the material will result. This process is called
dielectric breakdown and the material becomes permanently
conducting. The electric field at which this process begins is
called the breakdown strength or dielectric strength of the
material.

Air has a breakdown strength of 3 kV/mm at standard
temperature and pressure. Above this level massive ionization
takes place and the resulting discharges - sparks, or arcs -
become visible. This is called corona which looks like a blue
glow close the conductor. The sharper the object, the more
readily it will go into corona, since the electric field is larger
around sharper objects.

Polarisation Loss

When a dielectric material is subject to an alternating electric
field, its dipole polarisation also alternates in polarity, resulting
in vigorous vibration of the molecules. This vibration is heat,
i.e. it represents losses to the field polarising the dielectric. This
loss is known as the polarisation loss and is much larger than
the Joules losses due to the very small number of free charges
present in the dielectric.
Statics_C_15
Capacitance

A conductor is an equipotential under
static field conditions, and the potential
difference between two charged
conductors is determined by the electric
field:

}
=
b
a
ab
d V l E (from eq. 24)
If the two conductors formed an isolated
system, (i) the charges on the
conductors will be equal and opposite
and (ii) the electric field E is proportional to the charges Q on
the conductors. Thus if Q is doubled, E and hence V will also
be doubled. So V is proportional to charge Q, and the constant
of proportionality is called the capacitance C and the unit is
Farad. The system of the conductors and dielectrics forms a
capacitor.
Thus, by definition,
= =
V
Q
C
}

}}
c
+

dl E
ds E
.
.
Farads

Consider a charge q on a capacitor with capacitance C,
establishing a potential difference V
(q)
. On further moving a
charge dq from the negatively charged conductor to the
positively charged conductor, the work done is
dW = V
(q)
dq = dq
C
q

Hence the total work done to establish the charge Q on the
capacitor
W =
2
2
Q
0
CV
2
1
QV
2
1
C
Q
2
1
dq
C
q
= = =
}
(32)
and this is the energy stored in the electric field of C.
(In high school, you learn about capacitors but they did not tell you how capacitors
store energy. Here gives you the explanation.)
From eq. 16 and
eq. 24
Statics_C_16
Example - Parallel plate capacitor :

Suppose that the plates are separated by the distance d and each
has a surface area A and the charge on the plates is +Q and Q.
If d is small compared with the linear dimension of A, then
neglecting edge effects, surface charge density is uniform and
A / Q = o .

The field between the plates is given by:

c
=
c
o
=
c
=
A
Q D
E (make use of the result of eq. 20)
and the voltage is:
d
A
Q
Ed V
c
= =
and:
d
A
V
Q
C
c
= = (33)
For example, if the plates are 1 cm square with 1 mm separation
distance with air dielectric, the capacitance is

pF 885 . 0 F 10 885 . 0 F
10 1
10 854 . 8 ) 10 1 (
C
12
3
12 2 2
= =



Since breakdown strength of air

E
max
= 30 kV/cm
Statics_C_17
Maximum voltage that the capacitor can withstand

V
max
= 30 x 0.1 kV = 3 kV

Energy stored in C corresponding to this voltage of 3 kV is

6 2 3 12
10 4 J ) 10 3 ( 10 885 . 0
2
1
W

= = J
Example :
Find the capacitance of two concentric spherical conducting
shells, of radii a and b and filled with a dielectric with dielectric
constant c.
Let there be a charge +Q on the inner shell and Q on the outer
shell. The field between the two shells is:
2
r 4
Q
tc
= E a
r
(from eq. 17)


and the potential difference between the shells is :
|
.
|

\
|

tc
=
}
tc
=
}
=
b
1
a
1
4
Q
dr
r
1
4
Q
d V
b
a 2
b
a
l E

and the capacitance is:
a b
ab
4
V
Q
C

tc = =

Example :

A parallel plate capacitor
of area S and spacing d
which is small compared
with the linear dimensions
of the plates.

Statics_C_18
There are two dielectric layers with different permittivities c
1

and c
2
, with the boundary between the dielectrics parallel to the
plates.

At the dielectric interface, E is normal and

D
N1
= D
N2
, or c
1
E
1
= c
2
E
2


Hence
V = E
1
d
1
+ E
2
d
2
= E
1
(
2
2
1
1
d d
c
c
+ )
E
1
=
2 2 1 1
d ) / ( d
V
c c +


The charge density on both plates is therefore

o = D
1
= c
1
E
1
=
2 2 1 1
/ d / d
V
c + c


The capacitance is then

C
2 1 2
2
1
1
C
1
C
1
1
A
d
A
d
1
V
S
V
Q
+
=
c
+
c
=
o
= =

And this is same (as it should be) as the formula for capacitance
in series.

Example :

Statics_C_19
In a parallel plate capacitor with dimensions shown there are
two dielectric layers with relative permittivities c
R1
and c
R2
. The
boundary between the dielectrics is perpendicular to the plates
and the width of the region containing c
R1
is 1.2 m. Find c
R2
if
c
R1
= 2.5 and the total capacitance is 60 nF.

At each dielectric E is normal and

E
1
= E
2
= V/d

Hence
o
1
= D
1
= c
1
E
1
=
d
V
1
c
; Q
1
= o
1
A
1
= V
d
A
1 1
c

o
2
= D
2
= c
2
E
2
=
d
V
2
c
; Q
2
= o
2
A
2
= V
d
A
2 2
c


Total charge on plate
Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
= (
d
A
1 1
c
+
d
A
2 2
c
)V

Therefore capacitance


2 1
2 2 1 1
C C
d
A
d
A
V
Q
C + =
c
+
c
= =

and this is same as the formula for capacitance in parallel.
Now
nF 56 . 26
10 2
2 . 1 2 10 854 . 8 5 . 2
d
A
C
3
12
1 0 1 R
1
=


=
c c
=



C
2
= (60 26.56) nF = 33.44 nF
But

2 2 R
1 1 R
2
1
A
A
C
C
c
c
=
72 . 4
56 . 26
44 . 33
8
12
5 . 2
C A
C A
1 2
2 1 1 R
2 R
= =
c
= c

Statics_D_1
Poissons and Laplaces equations :

E = grad V = VV (from eq. 27 and eq. 28)
D = cE = cVV (from eq. 15)
From Gausss Law :
div D = V.D = V.( cVV) = (from eq. 22 and eq. 21)

For homogeneous dielectric, c is same at every point,
div D = cV.(VV) =
or div(grad V) =
c

= V V V . Poissons equation (34)


If there are no volume charges,
div(grad V) =V.(VV) = 0 Laplaces equation (35)


In cartesian coordinates,

V.(VV) = (
x c
c
a
x
+
y c
c
a
y
+
z c
c
a
z
).(
x
V
c
c
a
x
+
y
V
c
c
a
y
+
z
V
c
c
a
z
)

= )
z
V
(
z
)
y
V
(
y
)
x
V
(
x c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c


=
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
V
y
V
x
V
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= (
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
)V

Hence we may write V.(VV) = V
2
V where

V
2
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c


and is known as the Laplacian operator or Laplacian.
Statics_D_2
Hence the Poissons Equation may be written as :

c

= V V
2
(36)

and the Laplaces Equation may be written as :

V
2
V = 0 (37)

In cylindrical coordinates, it may be shown that

V
2
V =
2
2
2
2
2
z
V V 1
)
V
(
1
c
c
+
| c
c

+
c
c

c
c




In spherical coordinates, it may be shown that

V
2
V =
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
V
sin r
1
)
V
(sin
sin r
1
)
r
V
r (
r r
1
| c
c
u
+
u c
c
u
u c
c
u
+
c
c
c
c


In practice, the charge distribution is often unknown and the
boundary conditions are specified in the form of voltages on
certain conductor surfaces. Thus for a given field problem, V
may be found by solving the Laplaces or Poissons equation
with specific boundary conditions. Then, if V is known,

Field Intensity E = grad V

Flux density D = cE

Surface charge density o = D
N

Statics_D_3
Example - A parallel plate capacitor :



The space between the plates is charge-free, so Laplaces
equation applies :
0
z
V
y
V
x
V
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(from eq. 37)
From symmetry, there is no variation in V in the x and y
directions, hence V is a function of z only. The Laplaces
equation simplifies to:
0
dz
V d
z
V
2
2
2
2
= =
c
c

The general solution to this equation is :

2 1
k z k V + =

d
V
k d k V V , d z At
0 k k 0 V , 0 z At
o
1 1 o
2 2
= = = =
= = = =


From which we obtain :

z
d
V
) z ( V
o
=
Statics_D_4
The electric field as a function of z :
z
V
V ) z (
c
c
= V = E a
z
d
V
o
= a
z
The flux density as a function of z :
D(z) = cE =
d
V
0
c
a
z

The surface charge densities o = D
N
= D.a
N


For the lower plate z = 0, a
N
= a
z
(charges on the upper side of
the lower plate) and:

o
l
=
d
V
0
c
a
z
.a
z
=
d
V
0
c


For the upper plate z = d, a
N
= a
z
(charges on the bottom side
of the upper plate) and :

o
u
=
d
V
0
c
a
z
.(a
z
) =
d
V
0
c

Example :

Consider a large set of parallel plates, where the space between
the plates contains continuous distribution of electrons
e
(the
electron charge density increases linearly from the plate at
z = 0, reaching a maximum
o
at z = d).


Statics_D_5
The space between the plates is not charge-free, so Poissons
equation applies :
c

=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
e
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
V
y
V
x
V
where
d
z

o e
=

Again, by symmetry, V is a function of z only, and Poissons
equation simplifies to :
z
d dz
V d
z
V
0
2
2
2
2
c

= =
c
c

) k z k
6
z
(
d
dz ) k
2
z
(
d
dz zdz
d
V
2 1
3
o
1
2
o
o
+ +
c

=
}
+
c

=
} }
c

=

Now the boundary conditions are :

6
d V
k ) d k
6
d
(
d
V V , d z At
0 k k 0 V , 0 z At
2
o
o
1 1
3
o
o
2 2

c
= +
c

= = =
= = = =


From which we obtain :

] z )
6
d V
(
6
z
[
d
) z ( V
2
o
o
3
o

c
+
c

=
z
6
d
d
V
z
d 6
o o
3
o
|
.
|

\
|
c

+
c

=
The electric field as a function of z :
(

|
.
|

\
|
c

+
c

= V =
6
d
d
V
z
d 2
V ) z (
o o
2
o
E a
z

Summary of solving problems:
1. Choose Laplace/Poissons
equation
2. Solve for V
3. Make use of boundary
condition
Statics_D_6
For the lower plate
z = 0, a
N
= a
z
and )
6
d
d
V
( ) 0 (
o o
c

= E a
z

o
l
= cE.a
N
= )
6
d
d
V
(
o o

c

For the upper plate
z = d, a
N
= a
z
and )
3
d
d
V
( ) d (
o o
c

+ = E a
z

o
u
= cE.a
N
= )
3
d
d
V
(
o o

+
c


Work and Electrostatic Energy :

Consider an electric field set up by a collection of charges Q
1
,
Q
2
.. Q
n
, resulting in potentials V
1
, V
2
.. V
n
at the positions
occupied by Q
1
, Q
2
.. Q
n
respectively. Work must be done to
bring in the charges and this work is stored as potential energy
of the electric field.
Consider the field being established by bring the charges in
small quantities Aq
i
= AhQ
i
and in equal proportions for all i.
Corresponding to charges q
i
= hQ
i
the potentials will be
Vi(q
i
=hQ
i
) = hVi(q
i
=Q
i
) = hVi
since V q.

Thus to bring in further charges Aq
i
= AhQ
i
, the work done is

AW =
i i i i
hV q VQh h A = A


Hence total work done
W =

}
=
}

i
i i
i
1
0
i i
1
0
i
i i
Q V
2
1
dh h Q V dh h Q V

For continuous charge distribution, the corresponding equations
become :

Corollary 11
Energy stored
in electric field
Remember that potential difference between two
points is the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from one to another. Therefore, the work
done of moving a charge Q in a field with potential
difference V is W=VQ.
Statics_D_7
For a volume charge density :
}
v = d V
2
1
W (38)
For a line charge density :
}
= l d V
2
1
W (39)
For a surface charge density o :
}
o = ds V
2
1
W (40)
Consider the more general case of volume distribution of
charges
}
v = d V
2
1
W
Since = div D = V.D (from eq. 21)
( )
}
v V =
}
v = d V
2
1
d V
2
1
W .D

Applying the vector identity :
) V ( ) ( V ) V ( V + V V D. .D D .

| |
}
v V
}
v V = d ) V ( d ) V (
2
1
W D. D .
Applying the divergence theorem to the first term,
}
=
}
v V
surface vol
d V ( d V ( s D). D) .
Here the closed surface is a surface that encloses the entire
region of interest and may be taken as a sphere of very large
radius r. Since for a point charge
V 1/r,
2
r / 1 D and
2
r d s ,
Statics_D_8
Thus
}
surface
d V ( s D). 0 as r

Hence
(

}
v V
}
=
vol surface
d ) V ( d ) V (
2
1
W D. s . D
}
v V =
vol
d ) V (
2
1
D.

}
v
c
=
}
v c =
}
v =
vol
2
vol
2
vol
d
D
2
1
d E
2
1
d
2
1
D.E (41)

The work done may be considered to be stored in the charges
or in the field itself.

Example :

How much energy is stored in a uniformly charged spherical
shell of radius a and total charge q?

We can calculate the energy associated with the charge from :

}
o =
s
ds V
2
1
W (use eq. 40)

From a previous example, the potential of a charged hollow
sphere of radius a is :
a 4
q
V
0
a
tc
= (use eq. 26)
so :
a 8
q
ds
a 8
q
W
o
2
s
o
tc
=
}
o
tc
=

Alternatively, we can determine the energy stored in the electric
field. The field inside the shell E
in
is zero since there is no
charge inside and the field outside the shell is:
E
out

2
o
r 4
q
tc
= a
r
(use eq. 17)
and the energy is:

Statics_D_9
}
v
|
.
|

\
|
tc
c =
v
}
c + v
}
c =
outside
2
2
outside
2
inside
2
d
r 4
q

2
1
d E
2
1
d E
2
1
W
(use eq. 41)

In spherical coordinates

dv = r
2
sinu dr du d|

( )
a 8
q
dr
r
1
4
32
q
d d dr sin r
r
1
4 2
q
W
2
a 2 2
2
2
0 0 a r
2
4 2
2
tc
=
}
t
c t
=
} } }
| u u
tc
c
=

t
= |
t
= u

=


Forces in electrostatics :
Principles of virtual displacement or virtual work

Consider a system of conductors with charges Q
i
& potential V
i
.
To find the force acting on any conductor, assume it to move an
infinitesimal displacement dx. Then, by conservation of energy,

Energy supplied to system by source (dW
S
)
= workdone by system (dW
F
)
+ increase in energy stored in system (dW
E
)
dW
S
= dW
F
+dW
E


If f
x
is the force acting on the conductor in the direction of dx,

then dW
F
= f
x
dx and dW
S
= f
x
dx + dW
E

or
dx
dW
dx
dW
f
E S
x
=
Statics_D_10
(i) Displacement with charge remain unchanged
This implies the system is isolated from all sources, i.e. dW
S
=
0, and work done dW
F
comes from reduction in energy stored in
electric field. Hence

dx
dW
f
E
x
= (42)

(ii) Displacement with potential remain unchanged
Charge movement dQ
i
will result from the displacement dx.
Increase in energy stored in electric field
i
i
i E
dQ V
2
1
dW

= (use Corollary 11)
Energy supplied by source

i
i
i S
dQ V dW

= = 2 dW
E
Hence work done
dW
F
= dW
S
- dW
E
= dW
E
and
dx
dW
f
E
x
= (43)
Example : Force on conductors of a parallel plate capacitor


Energy stored in capacitor


Ad E Ed
d
A
CV
C
Q
W
E
2 2
2
2
2
1
) (
2
1
2
1
2
1
= =
= =
(44)
) (
d
A
C = (use eq. 32)
Statics_D_11
Force on upper positive plate


A 2
Q
)
A
z
2
Q
(
dz
d
dz
dW
f
2 2
const Q
E
z
c
=
c
= =
=
(use eq. 42)
or

2
2 2
const V
E
z
d 2
AV
)
z
A
2
V
(
dz
d
dz
dW
f
c
=
c
= =
=
(use eq. 43)
The two expressions are equivalent and the minus sign indicates
a downward force on upper positive plate.

The principle of virtual displacement can also be used to find
the electrostatic pressure on boundary surfaces.

(A) E field tangential to boundary surface

Since E field is tangential to boundary surface, E
t1
=E
t2
and
boundary condition on E is not affected by displacement of
boundary surface. Hence E and therefore V is unchanged.

dW
F
= dW
E
(see eq. 43) and
dx
dW
f
E
x
=

Now Adz E
2
1
W
2
1 1 1
c = A ; Adz E
2
1
W
2
2 2 2
c = A (use eq. 44)
Adz ) ( E
2
1
W W W
1 2
2
t 2 1 E
c c = A + A = A
Statics_D_12
With E
1
= E
2
= E
t
,

hence force on boundary

A ) ( E
2
1
dx
dW
f
1 2
2
t
E
x
c c = =

Pressure on boundary

) ( E
2
1
A
f
p
1 2
2
t
x
x
c c = =

and is directed from higher permittivity to lower permittivity.

(B) E field normal to boundary surface


Since E field is normal to boundary surface, D
n1
=D
n2
and
boundary condition on D is not affected by displacement of
boundary surface. Hence D and therefore Q is unchanged.

dW
F
= dW
E
and
dx
dW
f
E
x
= (use eq. 42)

Now Adz D
2
1
W
2
1
1
1
c
= A ; Adz D
2
1
W
2
2
2
2
c
= A
n 2 1 2 1
2 1
2
n
1 2
2
n 2 1 E
D D D with Adz ) (
D
2
1
Adz )
1 1
( D
2
1
W W W
= = c c
c c
=
c

c
= A + A = A


Statics_D_13
Hence force on boundary

A ) (
D
2
1
dx
dW
f
1 2
2 1
2
n E
x
c c
c c
= =
Pressure on boundary

) (
D
2
1
A
f
p
1 2
2 1
2
n x
x
c c
c c
= =

In general, when E is neither parallel nor normal to the
dielectric boundary,
) )(
D
E (
2
1
p
1 2
2 1
2
n
2
t x
c c
c c
+ =

Example : Force acting on a dielectric partly inserted into a
parallel-plate capacitor


Capacitance of arrangement

d
) x a ( b
d
bx
C C C
0 2 1

c + c = + =

Energy stored in capacitor
)] x a ( x [ b 2
d Q
C 2
Q
W
0
2 2
E
c + c
= =

Statics_D_14
) (
d
b
2
V
)] x a ( x [
b 2
d Q

dx
dW
f
0
2
2
0
0
2
const Q
E
x
c c =
c + c
c c
= =
=


Alternately, since E is tangential to boundary surface,

) (
d
b
2
V
) bd )( ( )
d
V
(
2
1
A ) ( E
2
1
f
0
2
0
2
0
2
t x
c c =
c c = c c =

Magnetics_A_1
Electric Current

Electric charges in motion constitutes a current, and
current through any surface S

t
t in S surface through dQ
lim I
0 t
A
A
=
A


Current density J is a vector defined as current per unit
area such that
AI = J.AS
or

}
=
S
I J.dS (45)

Current density may be related to the velocity of volume
charge density at a point.

Consider an incremental area AS perpendicular to charge
flow with velocity v. In time At, charge within the
volume (vAt)AS passes through area, i.e.

AQ = (vAt)AS

or S v
t
Q
I A =
A
A
= A

v
S
I
J =
A
A
=

i.e. J = v in vector form

Magnetics_A_2
Consider any region bounded by a closed surface.

}}
=
S
I J.dS
But
dt
dQ
I
i
=
where
}
v =
vol
i
d Q is the charge enclosed by S and
the minus sign indicates an outward-flowing current.


}}
S
J.dS
}
v = =
vol
i
d
dt
d

dt
dQ

This is known as the integral form of continuity equation.

By divergence theorem,

}}
S
J.dS =
}
vol
V.J dv (use eq. 14)

}
vol
V.J dv =
}
v
vol
d
dt
d
=
}
v
c
c

vol
d
t

if surface S remain time invariant.

Hence V.J =
t c
c

Note that for constant current, = constant and

}}
S
J.dS = 0 (46)

and this is the generalised Kirchhoffs law for current.

In a conductor, the free electrons attained an average
velocity, the drift velocity, in proportion to the applied
field
v
e
=
e
E m
2
/volt-sec (47)

where
e
is known as the mobility of electrons.

Hence electron current density
J
e
= v
e
=
e
E = oE (48)
where o =
e
is the conductivity (siemens per meter).
Magnetics_A_3
Steady Magnetic Field

Magnetic field effect is due to moving charges. For time
invariant or direct current, E remains constant and hence
the charge distribution remains constant and the results
obtained for electrostatic fields can be applied.

Biot-Savart Law

At any point P the magnetic field intensity H produced
by the differential current element IdL is

dH =
2
R 4
1
t
(IdL a
R
)
=
3
R 4
1
t
(IdL R) A/m dL u a
R
R P

or
2
R 4
sin IdL
dH
t
u
= I

Since current must flow around a closed path, the Biot-
Savart law in integral form is
H =
}
t
L 2
R 4
1
( IdL a
R
)

In terms of current density J,
H =
}
t
v
vol 2
R 4
d
( J a
R
)

In terms of sheet current density K,
H =
}
t
S 2
R 4
dS
( K a
R
)
L vol
I J
dL dv
L S
I K
dL dS
Magnetics_A_4
Example : Find the magnetic field at point 2 due to
current in a straight conductor

R = r - r' = a

- z'a
z

a
R
=
2 2
z
1
'
+
(a

- z'a
z
)

dL = dz' a
z

dH =
2
R 4
1
t
(IdL a
R
)

=
3
R 4
z Id
t
'
( a
z
(a

- z'a
z
))
=
3
R 4
z Id
t
'
(a
|
)

H = z d
) z (
4
I
2 z
1 z
2 3 2 2
'
}
'
+

t
a
|
= a
|
z d
) z (
1
4
I
2 z
1 z
2 3 2 2
'
}
'
+
t



From integration table,

H =
2 z
1 z
2 2 2
z
z
4
I
'
+
'
t

a
|
=
t 4
I
[sin o
2
sin o
1
] a
|
For infinite line, o
2
= t/2, o
1
= t/2, hence

H =
t 2
I
a
|
(49)

Magnetics_A_5
Example: Find H along the z axis due to a current loop.

R = r - r' = za
z
- a



a
R
=
2 2
1
z +
(za
z
- a

)

dL' = d|' a
|

dH =
2
R 4
1
t
(IdL' a
R
)

= 3
4
Id
R
|
t
'
( a
|
(za
z
- a

))

= 3
4
Id
R
|
t
'
(za

+ a
z
)

H =
2
2 2 3 2
0
4 ( )
I z
d
z
t

|
t
'
+
} a

+
2
2
2 2 3 2
0
4 ( )
I
d
z
t

|
t
'
+
} a
z

=
2 2 3 2
4 ( )
I
z

t +
[
2
0
zd
t
|'
} a

+
2
0
d
t
|
'
} a
z
]

=
2
2 2 3 2
2 ( )
I
z

+
a
z

In particular, for a point at centre of loop, z = 0,

H =
2
I
a
z



A-Level Mathematics - Radians
S = ru
a b = -b a
a
|
a
z
= a


a
|
a

= -a
z

Magnetics_A_6
Amperes Circuital Law (proof omitted)

}
=
L
I dL H. ( =
}
S
.dS J
from eq. 45) (50)
where I is the current through any surface bounded by
the closed contour L and the positive direction of I is
determined by R.H. rule in going through the direction of
the closed contour.

Amperes circuital law states that the line integral of H
around a closed path is equal to the current traversing the
surface bounded by that path.

For a given problem, take advantage of symmetry and
choose integration path such that H is either
(a) tangential and constant along dL (H.dL=HdL), or
(b) perpendicular to dL (H.dL=0).

1. Infinite line

By symmetry, there will be no H
z
or H

component.

Take a circle of radius in a plane perpendicular to
the line. Then


}
= t =
}
=
| |
I H 2 dL H dL H.

t
=
|
2
I
H

Magnetics_A_7
2. Co-axial cable

Inner conductor, radius a, carries current I.
Outside cable sheath, inner radius b and outside radius c,
carries current I.

For a < < b, I H 2 d = t
}
=
|
L H. ,
t
=
|
2
I
H

For c < , 0 H 2 d = t
}
=
|
L H. , 0 H =
|


For a > , I
a
H 2 d
2
2
t
t
= t
}
=
|
L H. , I
a 2
H
2
t

=
|


For b < < c, I
) b c (
) b (
1 H 2 d
2 2
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
t
t
= t
}
=
|
L H.
, I
) b c ( 2
) c (
H
2 2
2 2
t

=
|

Magnetics_A_8
2. Ideal Toroid

Toroid with a coil of N turns
carrying current I.

By symmetry, H is in
direction of a
|
, i.e. H = H
|
a
|


Choose close contour in
form of circular path centred on the z-axis
dL = d| a
|


Inside toroid window,

0 H 2 d = t
}
=
|
L H. , 0 H =
|

Outside toroid,
0 H 2 d = t
}
=
|
L H. , 0 H =
|

Within toroid,
NI H 2 d = t
}
=
|
L H. ,
t
=
|
2
NI
H (51)

3. Ideal Solenoid

Solenoid with coil of N' turns per
unit length carrying current I.

Consider a toroid of N
R
turns and
infinite radius R. Then any part of
toroid approximates a linear
solennoid.

Outside solenoid, H = 0.

Away from the ends and well within solenoid,
I N
R 2
I N
H
R
'
=
t
= along direction of axis. (52)
Magnetics_A_9
Curl

Consider a point P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) with magnetic field H

H(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) = H
0
= H
x0
a
x
+ H
y0
a
y
+ H
z0
a
z


Consider a contour in the form of a rectangle parallel to
the x-y plane centred at P.

x H y H x H y H d
41 34 23 12
A + A + A + A
}
~ L H.

y x
x
H
y )
2
x
x
H
H ( y )
2
x
x
H
H (
] y H y H [ ] y H y H [
y y
0 y
y
0 y
y y 34 12
)
2
x
0
x x ( )
2
x
0
x x (
A A
c
c
= A
A
c
c
A
A
c
c
+ ~
A A ~ A + A
A
=
A
+ =


y x
y
H
x )
2
y
y
H
H ( x )
2
y
y
H
H (
] x H x H [ ] x H x H [
x x
0 x
x
0 x
x x 41 23
)
2
y
0
y y ( )
2
y
0
y y (
A A
c
c
= A
A
c
c
+ A
A
c
c
~
A + A ~ A + A
A
=
A
+ =


y x )
x
H
y
H
( d
y
x
A A
c
c
+
}
c
c
~ L H.

But by Amperes circuital law,

y x J d
z
A A
}
~ L H. (53)

Magnetics_A_10
)
y
H
x
H
(
y x
d
lim J
x
y
0 y , x
z
c
c

c
c
=
A A
}
=
A A
L H.

Similarly
)
z
H
y
H
(
z y
d
lim J
y
z
0 z , y
x
c
c

c
c
=
A A
}
=
A A
L H.


)
x
H
z
H
(
z x
d
lim J
z x
0 z , x
y
c
c

c
c
=
A A
}
=
A A
L H.


These equations define the components of a vector, curl
H, in cartesian coordinates.
In general curl H may be defined by

N
S
N
S
dL H
H curl
N
A
}
=
A
.
lim ) (
0
= JN (54)

where AS
N
is the planar area enclosed by S and N
denotes normal to AS
N
.

Thus in cartesian coordinates

curl H = )
z
H
y
H
(
y
z
c
c

c
c
a
x
+ )
x
H
z
H
(
z x
c
c

c
c
a
y
+ )
y
H
x
H
(
x
y
c
c

c
c
a
z
= J
x
a
x
+J
y
a
y
+J
z
a
z
or curl H =
z y x
z y x
H H H
z y x
a a a
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V H

Expressions for curl H in cylindrical and spherical
coordinates can also be derived.

}
L H.d is known as the circulation of H and curl H is
then the circulation of H per unit area.
Magnetics_A_11
Hence the equations may be written

curl H = V H = J (55)

and this is Amperes circuital law in point form.

Since
}
=
} }
=
S L S
dS H curl dS J dL H . . . (refer to eq. 50 & 55)
we may write
} }
=
S L
dS E curl dL E . .

Therefore

0 .
}
=
L
dL E curl E = V E = 0 (55a)


Stokes Theorem

From definition of curl:

~
A
}
A
S
dL H
S
.
(VH)
N
= (VH).a
N


}
AS
dL H. = (VH).AS a
N
= (VH).AS

Summing over all AS making up the surface,

} }}
V =
L S
dS H dL H ). ( . (56)

This is known as the Stokes Theorem.

Thus if we know Amperes circuital law in point form
V H = J

By Stokes Theorem

=
}}
=
} }}
V =
S L S
dS J dS H dL H . ). ( . I

and this is Amperes circuital law in normal form.
Magnetics_A_12
Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density

Drawing analogue between magnetic field intensity H
and electric field intensity E, we introduce the concept of
magnetic flux | (a scalar) and magnetic flux density B (a
vector) in a way similar to the electric flux + and electric
flux density D.

Define magnetic flux density B in free space as

B =
0
H Tesla or Wb/m
2
(57)

where
0
= 4t10
-7
H/m is the permeability of free space
and magnetic flux


}
= |
S
dS B. Webers (58)

The flux lines will be everywhere tangential to the
magnetic field intensity H and hence are closed.

Thus over a closed surface,


}
=
S
dS B 0 .

and this is Gauss law applied to magnetic field.

Applying divergence theorem

} }
= v V =
S vol
d B dS B 0 ) . ( .

V.B = 0 (59)

Magnetics_A_13
Example

Consider a toroid with rectangular cross-section of width
2 cm, height 3 cm and mean radius 15 cm.

Let there be 500 turns carrying 4 amps.

Then H(r) =
r 2
NI
t
(from eq. 51); B =
0
H (from eq. 52)

d| = B (h dr) (from eq. 58)






|
.
|

\
|
t

=
} }
t

= | = |
a
b
ln h
2
NI
dr h
r 2
NI
d
0
b
a
0


Weber 10 6 . 1 10 )
7
8
ln( 12
)
14
16
ln( 10 3
2
4 500 10 4
6 6
2
7

= =

t
t
=




area the is hdr ) (
.
.
hdr B
dS B d
dS B
S
=
=
=
}
Magnetics_A_14
Force due to magnetic fields

Experiments showed that a moving charge Q with
velocity v in a magnetic field B will experience a force

F = Qv B

Note: Since Fv, velocity remain unchanged, kinetic
energy of moving particles remain unchanged, hence
steady magnetic field is incapable of transferring energy
to moving charges.


For a differential volume element of charge

dF = dQ(v B)

But dQ = dv

dF = dv(v B) = (J B)dv where J=v

Similarly for a surface current density K,
dF = (K B)dS (JK, dvdS)

Similarly for a differential current filament,
dF = IdL B (KI, dSdL) (60)

Integrating over the appropriate limit for total force

}
=
vol
B J F dv


}
=
S
B K F dS

and
}
=
}
= dL B I B IdL F (61)

Note that for a straight conductor in a uniform B field,

F = I LB = BIL sin u a
F
(62)
Magnetics_A_15
Force between differential current elements

Field at point 2 due to current element I
1
dL
1
at point 1 (use Biot-Savart Law):
2
dH
12
=
2
12
R 4
1
t
I
1
dL
1
a
R12

1
R
12
I
2
dL
2
I
1
dL
1

Differential force on differential current
element I
2
dL
2
at point 2 due to I
1
dL
1


d(dF
12
) = I
2
dL
2
dB
2
(from eq. 60)
=
2
12
2 1
0
R 4
I I
t
dL
2
(dL
1
a
R12
) (use eq. 57)
F
12
=
t

4
I I
2 1
0 2
2
12
1 12
2 1
dL
R
dL a
L L
R

}
(

}



Note that in general F
12
=F
21
.

Example: Force between two long conductors

Magnetic field on line 2 due to current I
1
in line 1
H
12
=
d 2
I
1
t
a
|
(from eq. 49)


Force on line 2 per unit length

F
12
= -I
2
a
z
B
12
I
1
I
2


= -
0
d 2
I I
2 1
t
a
z
a
|
=
0
d 2
I I
2 1
t
a
d


Thus conductors carrying currents in opposite directions
will experience a repulsive force, while carrying currents
in the same direction will experience an attractive force.
Magnetics_A_16
Example:

Find the force between the two differential elements.

I
1
AL
1
= 310
-6
a
y
A-m at P
1
(1,0,0)
I
2
AL
2
= 310
-6
(0.5a
x
+0.4a
y
+0.3a
z
) A-m at P
2
(2,2,2)


R
12
= 1a
x
+2a
y
+2a
z
;

R
12
= 3;
a
R12
=
3
1
(1a
x
+2a
y
+2a
z
); a
R21
=
3
1
(1a
x
2a
y
2a
z
)
On I
2
AL
2
by I
1
AL
1
:
d(dF
12
) =
2
12
0
R 4t

[I
2
AL
2
(310
-6
a
y
)
3
1
(1a
x
+2a
y
+2a
z
)]
=
2
12
0
R 4t

[310
-6
(0.5a
x
+0.4a
y
+0.3a
z
)10
-6
(1a
z
+2a
x
)]
=
t

12
0
10
-12
(0.5a
y
0.4a
x
0.8a
z
+0.6a
y
)
=
3
1
10
-19
(0.4a
x
+0.1a
y
0.8a
z
) N
On I
1
AL
1
by I
2
AL
2
:
d(dF
21
) =
2
21
0
R 4t

I
1
AL
1
[3 10
-6
(0.5a
x
+0.4a
y
+0.3a
z
)]

3
1
(1a
x
2a
y
2a
z
)
=
2
21
0
R 4t

[310
-6
a
y
10
-6
(0.2a
x
1.3a
y
+1.4a
z
)]
=
t

12
0
10
-12
(0.2a
z
1.4a
x
)
=
3
1
10
-19
(0.2a
z
1.4a
x
) N
Magnetics_A_17
Force and torque on closed circuits

F =
} }
= L B B L d I Id (from eq. 61)

For uniform field,

F = I
}
L B d = 0

To determine the torque of a force, it is necessary to
specify the point of application of force as well as an
origin at or about which the torque is to be calculated.

If F
i
is the force acting on point i at distance R
i
from
origin, then net torque

T =
i
(R
i
F
i
)

In particular for two equal and opposite forces F
2
= F
1,


T = (R
1
R
2
) F
1
= R
21
F
1

and this is independent on the choice of origin. This may
be extended to any number of forces provided the total
force is zero.

z


F
1

R
1

y
R
2


x F
2




R
21

Magnetics_A_18
For a closed circuit, consider the differential current loop
in a magnetic field B as shown, with centre of loop taken
as origin.

For side 1,
dF
1
= Idx a
x
B
= Idx (B
y
a
z
B
z
a
y
)

dT
1
= R
1
dF
1

=
2
dy
a
y
dF
1

=
2
I
B
y
dxdy a
x
For side 3,
dF
3
= Idx a
x
B = Idx (B
y
a
z
B
z
a
y
)

dT
3
=
2
dy
a
y
dF
3
=
2
I
B
y
dxdy a
x
= dT
1

dT
1
+ dT
3
= IB
y
dxdy a
x


Similarly,

dT
2
+ dT
4
= IB
x
dxdy a
y

Total Torque

dT = I dxdy (B
y
a
x
+ B
x
a
y
) = I dxdy(a
z
B)

= I dS B where dS = (dxdy) a
z

Defining magnetic dipole moment

dm = I dS A-m
2

Then
dT = dm B
For a planar loop,

T = m B = IS B
B=B
x
a
x
+B
y
a
y
+B
z
a
z

a
z
B=a
z
(B
x
a
x
+B
y
a
y
+B
z
a
z
)
=B
x
a
y
-B
y
a
x

Magnetics_A_19
Example :

z


y
x

Consider a rectangular coil in a uniform field as shown.
Assume B = 0.8 T; I = 100 A

Force on each side of coil
F =
}
L
I dL B =
}
L
I dL(a
x
) Ba
y

= ILBa
z
= 100 0.5 0.8 a
z
= 40a
z
N
Magnetic moment
m = IA = 100 0.2 0.5 a
A
= 10a
A
Nm/Tesla
Torque
T = m B = 10a
A
0.8a
y
= -8sinu a
x
Notice that T = 0 if u = 0, ie magnetic moment tends to
align with the field.
1
Chapter Zero

Conservative field (irrotational field)

Electric field is conservative field (irrotational field), that
means the scalar line integral of E field is path-
independent. Otherwise, it would be contrary to the
principle of conservation of energy.

The concept of conservative field

First of all, you have learned that the integral
2
1
P
P
d
}
E l
is
the same no matter it takes the path (1) or (2). This
integral is the work done in moving a unit charge from
point P
1
to point P
2
in an electric field. Why is this path-
independent property so important? A little thought will
lead us to conclude that the integral should not depend on
the path; if it did, one would be able to go from P
1
to P
2

along a path for which W is smaller and then to come
back to P
1
along another path, achieving a net gain in
work or energy. Maybe the example of electric field is a
little bit abstract. Lets use gravitational field, which is
also conservative field, as an example.

There are two sets of staircases in CYC building.

If I walk down from my office via staircase A to CYC
C to give a lecture and then walk back up to my office
via staircase B, the net potential energy I gained should
be zero. It is because gravitational potential energy
2
1
2
P
P
GMm
dr
r
=
}
is conservative and path-independent, the
potential energy that I lose by walking down staircase A
or B should be the same. Lets imagine that the potential
2
energy loss by walking down staircase B is smaller than
A. Then I will walk down by staircase B to give my
lecture in CYC-C on LG 1 and go back to my office by
staircase A. Since the potential energy loss by walking
down staircase B is smaller than the potential energy gain
by walking up staircase A, I would obtain net increase in
potential energy. Apparently it is too good to be true
because otherwise we would have a source of unlimited
energy.























Conservative field and irrotational field?

A curl-free (curl of a vector field equals to zero) vector
field is called an irrotational or a conservative field.

Lets talk about divergence and curl.

In Statics_B, you have learned that a net outward flux of
a vector A through a surface enclosing a volume
Dr. Pong office R607
Staircase A Staircase B
6
th
floor
LG 1 floor CYC C
3
indicates the presence of a source. This source may be
called a flow source, and div A is a measure of the
strength of the flow source. The flux of a vector field is
analogous to the flow of an incompressible fluid such as
water. For a volume with an enclosed surface there will
be an excess of outward or inward flow through the
surface only when the volume contains a source or a sink,
respectively. Therefore a net positive divergence
indicates the presence of a source of fluid inside the
volume, and a net negative divergence indicates the
presence of a sink. In the uniform field shown in (a),
there is an equal amount of inward and outward flux
going through any closed volume containing no sources
or sinks, resulting in zero-divergence. On the opposite,
there is a charge q as a source of flux in (b).













0
max
1
Curl lim n
s
C
a d
s
A
(
= V =
(
A

}
A A A l



Definition: The curl of a vector field A, denoted by curl
A or VA, is a vector whose magnitude is the maximum
net circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero
and whose direction is the normal direction of the area
when the area is oriented to make the net circulation
maximum.
(a)
(b)
4

Familiar phenomenon: water whirling around (circulation
of fluid velocity)

The component of VA in any other direction

u a
is

( )
u
a VA
.

Basically, the magnitude of a curl vector tells you how
curly the vector is.






















Taking the curl of a vector field consists of adding up its
contributions keeping track of the way they point along a
closed path in space. If the field has no circulation, the
non-zero contributions from one part of the path will be
canceled by contributions from some other part of the
path.

Type curl operator in google to search for images.
Source: http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/general/inertia/curl.gif
5
Remember, the contour does not need to be a square as
shown in many textbooks. The contour can take any
shape as long as it is a closed contour.


Stokess Theorem

For a very small differential area
j
s A bounded by a
contour C
j
, from the definition of A V above:

0
1
( ) lim
( ) (1)
j
j
j
j
s
j C
j
C
d
s
d
A
(
( V =
A
(

V A =
}
}
j
A A l
A s A l



For an arbitrary surface S, we can subdivide it into many,
say N, small differential areas. The following figure
shows such a scheme with
j
s A as a typical differential
element.















The left side of (1) is the flux of the vector A V through
the area
j
s A . Adding the contributions of all the
differential areas to the flux (summation over the whole
surface S), we have:
6
LHS of (1)
0
1
lim ( ) ( ) ( ) (2)
j
N
j
S s
j
d
A
=
V A = V

}
j
A s A s


Now we sum up the line integrals around the contours of
all the differential elements represented by the right side
of (1). Since the common part of the contours of two
adjacent elements is traversed in opposite directions by
two contours, the net contribution of all the common
parts in the interior to the total line integral is zero, and
only the contribution from the external contour bounding
the entire area S remains after the summation:

RHS of (1)
0
1
lim ( ) (3)
j
j
N
s
j
C C
d d
A
=
=

} }
A l A l




















Combining (2) and (3), we obtain stokess Theorem:

( )
S
C
d d V =
} }
A s A l

7
The theorem states that the surface integral of the curl of
a vector field over an open surface is equal to the closed
line integral of the vector along the contour bounding the
surface.

Go back to the point about conservative field (irrotational
field). From above, we know that a conservative field has
the property that 0
C
d =
}
A l

. And by Stokess Theorem,


( ) 0
Thus 0
S
C
d d = V =
V =
} }
A l A s
A



Therefore we can see that a conservative field has its curl
zero and hence its name as irrotational field.




2 2
f F f F V V V V V


f is a scalar function, f=xyz+x
2
+y
2
+z
2


F is a vector function,

x y z
x y z
F F a F a F a = + +


is an operator,
=
x y z
a a a
x y z
V
c c c
V + +
c c c


If we do V (del) f,


( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 )
x y z
x y z
f f f
f a a a
x y z
yz x a xz y a xy z a
c c c
V = + +
c c c
= + + + + +



8
This is the gradient of f: the vector that represents both
the magnitude and the direction of the maximum space
rate of increase of a scalar.

What about del dot F?


( )
x y z x y z
x y z
y
x z
F a a a F a F a F a
x y z
F
F F
x y z
| | c c c
V = + + + +
|
c c c
\ .
c
c c
= + +
c c c


Remember, we cannot do F V :

( )
x y z x y z
x y z
F a a a F a F a F a
x y z
| | c c c
V = + + + +
|
c c c
\ .

This will lead to the multiplication of two vectors, e.g.

x y
a a
. Such multiplication does not exist in mathematics.
Therefore there is always either dot or cross between
two vectors. If there is not, you have probably done
something wrong. You can have

or x y x y a a a a
, but you
cannot have

x y a a
.


2
2 2 2
2 2 2
= ( ) ( ) x y z x y z a a a a a a
x y z x y z
x y z
c c c c c c
V V V = + + + +
c c c c c c
c c c
= + +
c c c


2 2 2
2
2 2 2
f f f
f
x y z
c c c
V = + +
c c c


9


2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x y z
x y z
y y y
x x x z z z
x y z
F F a F a F a
F F F
F F F F F F
a a a
x y z x y z x y z
V = V + V + V
| | c c c | | | | c c c c c c
= + + + + + + + +
|
| |
|
c c c c c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .


Therefore even if 0 F V = ,
2
F V does not necessarily equal
to zero.





2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) (
x y z
y y y
x x x z z z
x y z
y y y
x x x z z z
x y
F F F
F a a a
x y z
F F F
F F F F F F
a a a
x x y z y x y z z x y z
F F F
F F F F F F
a a
x x x y x z y x y y y z z x z y
c V c V c V
V V = + +
c c c
c c c
c c c c c c c c c
= + + + + + + + +
c c c c c c c c c c c c
c c c
c c c c c c
= + + + + + + + +
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c


2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
) z
y y y
x x x z z z
x y z
a
z z
F F F
F F F F F F
F a a a
x y z x y z x y z
c c
| | c c c | | | | c c c c c c
= V = + + + + + + + +
|
| |
|
c c c c c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .

Magnetics_B _1
Magnetic Materials

There are two main sources of magnetic moments within
a material:








Moment of orbiting electrons (m
orb
)
Moment of electron spins (m
spin
)

Their combination determines the magnetic
characteristics of the material and provides its general
magnetic classifications.

Diamagnetic Material

m
orb
+m
spin
= 0 B
int
< B
appl
eg Bismuth, hydrogen

When there is no applied magnetic field, moments of
orbiting electrons and electron spin balance each other,
or permanent magnetic moment m
0
=0 for each molecule.
When an external magnetic field is applied, there will be
no realignment of magnetic dipole fields. However, an
adjustment in the electron orbits and spins will result
with the net effect of a slight weakening of the applied
field diamagnetic effect. This diamagnetic effect is
present in all materials.

Magnetics_B _2
Paramagnetic material

m
orb
+m
spin
~ 0
B
int
> B
appl
eg Oxygen, Potassium

Here the molecule as a whole has a small net magnetic
moment, but the random orientation of the molecules in a
large sample produces an average magnetic moment of
zero. Therefore there is no magnetic effect in the absence
of external field. When an external magnetic field is
applied, however, the dipole moments tend to be aligned,
thus adding to the applied field. If this effect is greater
than the diamagnetic effect which is always present, the
material is paramagnetic, otherwise it is still regarded as
diamagnetic.

Ferromagnetic Material

m
spin
>> m
orb
B
int
>>B
appl
eg Iron, Nickel, cobalt

Each molecule has a relatively large dipole moment,
caused primarily by uncompensated electron spin
moments. Interatomic forces cause these moments to line
up in a parallel fashion over regions known as Weiss
domains. Ferromagnetic materials are crystalline in
Magnetics_B _3
structure and there are preferred directions of
magnetisation so each domain has a strong domain
magnetic moment in one of the preferred directions.
However, the domain moments in general will vary in
direction from domain to domain and the overall effect is
therefore one of cancellation and the material as a whole
has no magnetic moment.

Upon application of an external magnetic field, those
domains with moments having a component in the same
direction as the applied field will increase their size at the
expense of its neighbours with the movement of the
domain boundary. The internal field thus increases
greatly over that of the external field alone. At this stage
the process is reversible.

B
appl

When the field is further increased, it will cause the
domain magnetisation to rotate to be more in-line with
the applied field. As friction has to be overcome, the
process becomes irreversible. When all domains are
Magnetics_B _4
totally aligned with the applied field, saturation occurs.
When the external field is removed, the domains cannot
return completely to their original position and a net
magnetic moment remains residual magnetism.

Above a certain temperature, called the Curie
temperature, the thermal vibrations completely prevent
the parallel alignment of the molecule magnetic
moments, and ferromagnetic materials become
paramagnetic.

Anti-Ferromagnetic Material

m
spin
>> m
orb

B
int
~ B
appl

eg Nickle oxide

Like the ferromagnetic materials each atom has a
relatively large dipole moment. However, the forces
between adjacent atoms cause the atomic moments to
line up in an anti-parallel fashion and the net magnetic
moment is zero. It is only slightly affected by external
magnetic field.

Ferrimagnetic Material

m
spin
> m
orb
B
int
> B
appl
eg nickel ferrite (NiFe
2
O
4
)

These materials also showed an anti-parallel alignment of
adjacent atomic moments but the moments are not equal
so that there is a net magnetic moment and Weiss
domains exist. A large response to an external magnetic
field therefore occurs, though it is not as large as the
ferromagnetic materials. Ferrites are weaker magnets
than ferromagnetics but have high electrical resistivities.

Magnetics_B _5
Magnetization and permeability

Consider each atom/molecule being represented by a
bound current, or Ampere current, I
b
circulating about a
path enclosing a differential area dS and with a dipole
moment
m = I
b
dS A-m
2
(63)

If there are n magnetic dipoles per unit volume, then the
magnetic dipole moment per unit volume is known as the
magnetization M defined as

M =
v
m
v
i
A

A
v A 0
lim = n m A/m (64)

If we assume each m
i
to be the same.
Consider a surface S inside some magnetized material
bounded by the contour C. Three classes of Amperes
currents can be recognized but only those that encircles C
will contribute to the total current through S.






1
2
2
3
3
Magnetics_B _6

Consider a differential element dL of the closed path and
assume that along this element the aligned magnetic
dipole moment m is at an angle u with dL. Then for all
molecules within a tubular element dS cosu dL about dL,
there is a bound current I
b
coming out from the bounded
surface, i.e.

dI
tb
= n dS cosu dL I
b
= n I
b
dS.dL = M.dL

Thus for the entire closed contour

I
tb
=
tb
dI =
} }
dL M.

This is similar to Amperes circuital law where M is
some sort of magnetic field intensity.

Thus writing

total current I
T
= free current I + bound current I
tb


Amperes circuital law may be written


}

dL
B
.
0
= I
T
= I + I
tb
= I +
}
L M.d (from eq. 50 & 57)
or
}

L . M
B
d ) (
0
= I

Writing M
B
H

=
0
or B =
0
(H + M) (65)

Then
}
= L H.d I (same as for free space)
Magnetics_B _7
For diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials, M is a
linear function of the local field and we may write

M = _
m
H (66)

where _
m
= magnetic susceptibility and is dimensionless.

Then
B =
0
(H + M) =
0
(H + _
m
H) (from eq. 65 & 66)
=
0
(1 + _
m
)H
=
0

r
H = H

where
r =
(1 + _
m
) is the relative permeability
and =
0

r
is the permeability (H/m)

For diamagnetic materials, _
m
< 0 and
r
is slightly less
than one. For paramagnetic materials _
m
> 0 and
r
is
slightly greater than 1. However, as _
m
is very small (less
than 0.001), can be taken as
0
for diamagnetic and
paramagnetic materials in almost all applications.

For ferromagnetic materials, M is not necessarily in line
with H and hence in general we cannot write B = H.
If each component is expressed explicitly, we may write

(
(
(

(
(
(




=
(
(
(

z
y
x
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
z
y
x
H
H
H
B
B
B

i.e. may be represented by a 3 3 matrix.

However, in practical applications, the ferromagnetic
material is often treated to give it a preferred direction of
magnetization in line of the intended flux flow so that
B = H (67)
would still apply, except that is not a constant for
ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetics_B _8
Ferromagnetics

The magnetization characteristic
of ferromagnetic materials are
represented by the B-H curves and
may be measured by having the
material in the form of a toroid.



If the material is completely demagnetized, then on
applying H the flux density B will increase with H but
not linearly. Initially the increase in B is quite rapid
corresponding to the widening of the domains with
preferred direction of magnetization. Then the increase is
notably slowed, corresponding to the rotation of the
orientation of the domain magnetization, and this is
generally referred to as the knee point. Beyond that
saturation occurs and the increase in B is much slowed,
basically governed by the permeability of free space
0
.
This is represented by the dotted curve o-b.

Magnetics_B _9
However, if H is reduced after reaching certain maximum
value H
m
, B will not retrace the original curve but follow
the curve b-d. As H is reduced to zero, B will still retain a
certain value, the remanence B
r
. If H is now applied in
reversed direction, B will continue to decrease along
curve d-c and reached zero at H=H
c
, the coercivity. If H
is increased further, B will be established in the reversed
direction along curve c-b'. If H is now reversed again, B
will follow the curve b'- d'- c'-b. Hence as H goes
through a complete cycle, B will trace a hysteresis loop.
Note that for smaller maximum values of H applied, the
size of the hysteresis loops will be smaller.

As the relation between B and H is nonlinear and multi-
valued, permeability is not well defined. In general, the
normal curve, i.e. the curve joining the tips of the
hysteresis loops, will be about the same as the virgin
magnetzation curve and used to determine the various
permeabilities.

Thus the average permeability is given by
H
B
av
=
and the incremental permeability by

dH
dB
incre
=

For ferromagnetic materials
r
is very large and can vary
from about 500 for irons to hundreds of thousands for
some alloys.
Magnetics_B _10
Magnetic Boundary conditions


Consider a gaussian surface in the form of a cylindrical
pillbox of area AS and height Ah0. Applying Gausss
Law for magnetic field,


}
S
dS B. ~ (B
n1
B
n2
)AS = 0

B
n1
= B
n2
and
1
H
n1
=
2
H
n2
(68)

Next consider the line integral of H over the closed path
shown.
}
L H.d ~ H
t1
AL H
t2
AL
and I ~ KAL
where K = surface current density.
By Amperes circuital law
}
L H.d = I,
Hence H
t1
- H
t2
= K and K
B B
2
2 t
1
1 t
=


Magnetics_B _11
Scalar Magnetic Potential

In view of the usefulness of scalar electric potential in
the study of electric field, we try to find corresponding
potential functions for magnetic field.

Assume there exists a scalar magnetic potential V
m
such
that
H = VV
m
(c.f. 28) or V
m
= -
}
dL H. (c.f. 24)

Then VH = V(VV
m
) = 0 for any scalar field V
m

But VH = J (from eq. 55)

scalar magnetic potential can only be found for J = 0.

Since V.B =
0
V.H = 0

Hence
0
V.(VV
m
) = 0

or V
2
V
m
= 0 (when J = 0) Laplaces equation (from eq. 35)

Note, however, while the scalar electric potential is path
independent, the scalar magnetic potential is path
dependent since


}
= L H.d I (while
}
= 0 dL E. )

Magnetics_B _12
Magnetomotive Force (mmf) and magnetic circuits

Comparing the two sets of equations for steady state
electric field and magnetic field

E = VV H = VV
m
(69)

V
AB
=
}
B
A
dL E. (V
m
)
AB
=
}
B
A
dL H. (70)

D = E B = H

I =
}
S
dS J. | =
}
S
dS B.

The analysis of a magnetic circuit can be carried out in
exactly the same way as a DC electric circuit and
Amperes circuital law

}
= dL H. I interpreted as
Magnetomotive sum of magnetic potential drop
Force (mmf) = around a closed magnetic circuit
= no. of turns x electric current (71)

where the mmf is equal to the current enclosed by the
closed circuit and measured in ampere-turns (AT).

Noted that the mmf source, the current carrying coil, will
surround or link the magnetic circuit rather than forming
part of the circuit as the emf in a electric circuit.

For a magnetic circuit with uniform cross-section A and
length L,
V
m
= HL, |=BA

9 =

= =
| A
L
BA
HL V
m
(72)

where 9=L/A is the reluctance (AT/Wb)
Magnetics_B _13
Example:

Given a toroid with air core of
rectangular cross-section of
width 2 cm, height 3 cm and
mean radius 15 cm. The coil is
of 500 turns carrying 4 amps.

Then
mmf = 500 4 = 2000 AT (from eq. 71)

Reluctance (use eq. 72)

9 =
9
4 7
0
10 25 . 1
10 6 10 4
15 . 0 2
A
r 2
=
t
t
=

t

AT/Wb

Hence flux


6
9
10 6 . 1
10 25 . 1
2000 mmf

=

=
9
= | Wb

Flux density


3
4
6
10 67 . 2
10 6
10 6 . 1
A
B

=
|
= T (Wb/m
2
)

Field intensity

2120
10 4
10 67 . 2 B
H
7
3
0
=
t

=

AT/m

(Check: mmf = 2trH = 2t0.152120 = 1998 AT)




Problem solving procedure:
1. Find mmf, and reluctance9 by eq. 71 and eq. 72.
2. Use eq. 50 to find flux |
Magnetics_B _14
Example

Consider an iron core with an air gap and dimensions as
shown. The winding comprises 100 turns and the current
is 1A. Calculate the flux and flux density through the air-
gap. Assume relative permeability of the core is 2000
and neglect fringing effect.

Mean length of core L
c
= 4 8 0.1 = 31.9 cm

Length of air gap L
a
= 0.1 cm

Cross-sectional area A = 4 2 cm
2


Reluctance of core
6
4 7
c
c
10 159 . 0
10 8 10 4 2000
319 . 0
A
L
=
t
=

= 9

AT/Wb

Reluctance of air-gap

6
4 7
0
a
a
10 995 . 0
10 8 10 4
001 . 0
A
L
=
t
=

= 9

AT/Wb

Hence flux
6
6
a c
10 3 . 87
10 ) 995 . 0 159 . 0 (
1 100 mmf

=
+

=
9 + 9
= | Wb
Flux density T 109 . 0
10 8
10 3 . 87
A
B
4
6
=

=
|
=


Magnetics_B _15
Example:
Consider a toroid of steel core with a B-H curve as
shown. The cross-sectional area is 6 cm
2
, the mean radius
is 15 cm and there is an air-gap of 2 mm. It is wound
with a coil of 500 turns.

1. Find I required to establish a flux density of 1 Tesla.

Flux | = BA = 1 (6 10
-4
) = 6 10
-4
Wb.

Reluctance of air-gap
6
4 7
3
air
10 65 . 2
10 6 10 4
10 2
A
d
=
t

=

= 9

AT/Wb

V
air
= 2.6510
6
(6 10
-4
) = 1590 AT.

For steel core, from B-H characteristic, H = 200 AT/m
for B = 1 Tesla.

V
steel
= 200 (2t 0.15 - 2 10
-3
) = 188 AT.
(from eq. 70, V
m
=HL)

Total mmf required = V
air
+ V
steel
= NI = 1778 AT

Current required = mmf/no. of turns = 1778/500 =
3.56 A. (use eq. 71)
Magnetics_B _16
2. Find the core flux for a current of 4 A.

Total mmf = 500 x 4 = 2000 AT. (use eq. 71)

Reluctance of air gap
6
air
10 65 . 2 = 9 AT/Wb

If | is the core flux and B the flux density, then
Magnetic potential drop across air gap

V
air
= |9
air
= BA9
air


Magnetic potential drop across steel core

V
steel
= mmf V
air
= 2000 BA9
air

H
steel
= B
15 . 0 2
10 65 . 2 10 6
15 . 0 2
2000
L
V
6 4
steel
steel
t

t
=



= 2122-1687B AT.

The intersection of this load line with the core B-H
characteristic would give the answer B=1.1 Tesla.

Hence core flux
| = BA = 1.1 x 6 x 10
-4
= 0.66 x 10
-3
Wb.

Alternatively, linearising the B-H curve near origin,
permeability of steel core = 0.006 Wb/AT-m,

106 26 . 0
10 6 006 . 0
15 . 0 2
A
L
4
steel
=

t
=

= 9

AT/Wb

Hence | and B can be calculated as in previous
example. A better value of may be chosen
corresponding to the value of B obtained and accuracy
of solution improved by an iterative process.

Magnetics_C _1
Maxwells equations for
static electric fields and steady magnetic fields


Differential Form Integral Form

V . D = (see eq. 21) } = S D. d Q =
}
v
vol
d

V E = 0 (see eq. 55a) } = 0 dL E.

V H = J (see eq. 55) } = L H.d I = }
S
dS J.

V . B = 0 (see eq. 59) } = 0 dS B.

Together with

D = cE (see eq. 15) c = permittivity of material

B = H (see eq. 67) = permeability of material

J = o E (see eq. 15) o = conductivity of material

And

E = VV (see eq. 28) V = scalar electric potential

H = VV
m
(see eq. 15) V
m
= scalar magnetic potential


Magnetics_C _2
Time Varying Fields - Electromagnetic Induction

For time invariant electric field and magnetic field,

F = QE + Qv B = Q(E + v B)
(Lorentzs force equation)

Normally the first term is referred to as the electric force
while the second term the magnetic force on the charge.

Consider a charge Q moving with velocity v in a time-
invariant magnetic field B (no electric field). To a
stationary observer, there is a magnetic force F = Qv B
on the charge. However, to an observer riding on Q, Q
would be stationary and the force therefore represents an
electric force due to an induced field E
ind
= v B. A
variable force due to a varying magnetic field B (in
space) would appear as a variable electric force due to a
variable electric field E
ind
. Thus a variable magnetic field
is always associated with a variable electric field and
vice versa.

The charges within a conductor will therefore experience
a driving force, the induced electromotive force (emf),
when the conductor moves in a magnetic field. If there is
a closed path, then this emf would tend to establish a
current through the path.

emf induced in a closed path = }
L
ind
dL . E
= }
L
d ) ( L . B v (73)
Magnetics_C _3
Faradays Law
Consider the closed path shown.

emf = L . B r L . B
r
d ) (
t
1
d )
t
(
L
0 t
L
0 t
lim lim A
A
=
A
A
} }
A A

But
(Ar B).dL = dL.(Ar B) = (dL Ar).B = AS.B

where AS = (dL Ar) is the area swept by the path
element dL over the time At.

emf = ) (
t
1
L
0 t
lim .B S } A
A
A

= ) d element by swept area through
t
1
L
0 t
lim } |
A
A
L
=
) (
1
lim
0
t in L by swept area through
t t
A
A A

= ) t in L through (
t
1
lim
0 t
A | A
A A

= ) L through (
dt
d
|

This can also be expressed as
emf =
dt
d
}
S
dS B.

A(BC) = (AB)C
Magnetics_C _4
If we extend our consideration to time varying fields, a
non-zero value of d|/dt may result from

1. Time-changing flux linking a stationary closed path.
2. Relative motion between a steady flux and a closed
path.
3. Combination of the two.

The emf can therefore be written

emf = =
|

dt
d
dt
d
}
S
dS B. (74)
= } } +
c
c

L S
d ) ( d
t
L . B v S .
B

The minus sign is an indication that the emf is in such a
direction so as to produce a current whose effect on flux
would reduce the magnitude of the emf - Lenzs law.

If the closed path is that taken by an N-turn conductor,
then it is necessary to consider the flux linking each turn
and write

dt
d
) ... .... (
dt
d
emf
N i 2 1
u
= | + + | + + | + | =
where

| = u
i
i
(75)
is referred to as the flux-linkage of the circuit.

If all the flux links with all turns, then
emf =
dt
d
N
|

where | is the flux passing through any one of the N
coincident paths.

Magnetics_C _5
Emf due to time varying field with a stationary path:-
(Transformer emf)

emf = S .
B
d
t
S
}
c
c
since S is stationary. (76)


Example : Eddy currents


B due to eddy current

When a conductor is subject to a time-varying magnetic
field, current is induced in it due to the emf produced by
the time varying induced field. In a solid conductor we
can imagine there exists many conductive loops and the
induced currents circulating in these loops are called
eddy currents. As the consequence of eddy current flow :

1. Power is lost as Joules heat
2. There is a demagnetizing effect according to
Lenzs law

To reduce these effects, ferromagnetic cores are made of
mutually insulated thin sheets. Now the area enclosed by
the resultant current loops are much smaller and hence
the induced emf is also much smaller. As a consequence,
the eddy current flow will also be reduced significantly.
Magnetics_C _6
Emf due to time constant flux and a moving closed
path:- ( motional or generator emf )
emf = }
L
d ) ( L . B v since B is constant. (77)

Example : Linear motion
A straight piece of wire which can slide along two
parallel wires 1 and 2 that are at a distance L apart. There
is a uniform magnetic flux density B perpendicular to the
set-up and a mechanical force is tagging the piece of wire
with a constant velocity v.

Induced emf in the loop:
Note B is into page and dS is out of page.

e = =
|

dt
d
dt
) t ( d . S B

dt
) t ( BdS
=
vBL
dt
vdt L B
= =

Note that this can also be obtained by
e = }
L
d . ) ( L B v = (v B).L = vBL (from above eq. 77)

If R is the total resistance of the loop, then
I =
R
vBL
R
e
= giving a loss P
elec
= I
2
R =
R
) vBL (
2

Magnetics_C _7
The magnetic force acting on the moving wire

F
mag
=
}
L
I dL B = ILB (from eq. 61)

and this force is opposite to the mechanical force that is
moving the wire. Since the velocity v is constant, the
mechanical and magnetic forces have to be equal, i.e.

F
mech
= F
mag
=ILB

Also the mechanical power input P
mech
= F
mech
v must be
equal to the power dissipated in the resistor. Hence
ILBv =
R
) vBL (
2
giving v =
BL
IR

Example : AC generator
A rectangular wire loop is rotating in a uniform magnetic
field with an angular velocity e and with the axis of
rotation perpendicular to the field B. Assume at time
t = 0, B is parallel to the normal a
n
to the surface of the
loop. Then at time t = t,
e = =
|

dt
d
= e ) t cos BA (
dt
d
eBA sin et
or e =
}

L
dL B v ). ( = 2a
2
be
B sin et = eBA sin et
( tangential velocity v = radius x angular velocity = e(b/2) )
Thus induced emf is an alternating voltage (ac voltage).
B
y
z
x
b
a
dl
o
1
2
3
4
e
a
n

z
a
n

u
u
e
B
(a) Perspective view (b) View from + x direction
Power = velocity x force
Magnetics_C _8
Energy in Magnetic Fields

Consider a closed contour that has a resistance R is
energised by a voltage source v(t). Then corresponding to
contour current i(t), a flux linkage u(t) will be set up and
an emf is induced in the contour

e(t) =
dt
du
(from eq. 75)
and
v(t) = Ri(t) + e(t)

The electrical energy dW
E
supplied by the source during
a short time dt is partly converted into (i) Joules losses
dW
J
and partly supplied to (ii) the magnetic field dW
S
,
i.e.

dW
E
= dW
J
+ dW
S
(78)

and dW
E
= vi dt = Ri
2
dt + idu

The first term is the Joules losses and the energy
supplied to the magnetic field is therefore

dW
S
= idu

If the system is stationary, i.e. no moving parts, then the
energy supplied to the magnetic field dW
S
would be the
increase in energy stored in the field dW
F
,

dW
F
= dW
S
= idu

The energy stored in the magnetic field corresponding to
a certain flux linkage u is then

W
F
=
}
u
u
0
id

Magnetics_C _9
Now idu = iNd| = mmf d| (use eq. 71)

mmf =
}
L
dL H.

d| = d(
}
S
dS B. ) =
}
S
dS dB.

If we take integration along tubular elements following
lines of flux such that H.dL=HdL and dB.dS=dBdS, then

idu =
}
=
} }
vol L S
HdBdv ) dLdS ( HdB

or change in stored energy per unit volume, i.e. the
energy density,

dw
F
= HdB.

The final energy density stored in the magnetic field can
therefore be expressed as

w
F
=
}
B
0
HdB per unit volume. (79)

The energy density w
F
is represented by the area bounded
by the B-H curve and the B-axis. The area bounded by
the B-H curve and the H-axis is known as the co-energy
w
F
' and w
F
+ w
F
' = HB

B





H H

For linear magnetic media, B=H, and
w
F
= w
F
' =
2
2
H
2
1
BH
2
1 B
2
1
dB
B
= =

=
}

(80)
Magnetics_C _10
Magnetic forces
Except for special symmetrical cases (two infinitely long
current-carrying conductors), determining the magnetic
forces between current-carrying circuits by Amperes
law of force is a tedious task. The magnetic forces
exerted on an object can also be evaluated by the
principle of virtual work, i.e.

Energy supplied to system (dW
S
)
= mechanical work done by system (dW
M
)
+ increase in energy stored in field (dW
F
)

Two different situations should be considered.
(A) Virtual displacement with constant flux linkage u.

In this case, energy supplied to the field dW
S
= idu
remains unchanged and the virtual work done dW
M
must
come from a reduction in energy stored in the magnetic
field, i.e.
dW
M
= Fdx = dW
F
or F =
dx
dW
F

(B) Virtual displacement with constant current I.

In this case, there will be a change in flux linkage du
following the displacement and the change in energy
supplied to the field

dW
S
= Idu = I(u
2
- u
1
) B
2

= H(B
2
B
1
) per unit vol. B
1


Virtual work done

dW
M
= dW
S
dW
F
= dW
F
'

or F =
dx
' dW
F
O H

Magnetics_C _11

Example

In the horse-shoe magnet
shown l
1
= 50 cm, S = 100 cm
2
and the material has a relative
permeability of 2000. There is
a coil of 100 turns carrying a
current of 4 A. Assuming the
reluctance of the soft iron
weight can be neglected, find
the force acting on the weight when

(i) It is in touching contact with the magnet,
(ii) It is at a distance of 2 mm from the magnet.


Assume virtual displacement dx at constant flux. There is
no change in energy stored in magnetic field in magnet
or iron, and the change in energy stored in magnetic field
in air-gap is

dW
F
= ) Sdx 2 (
B
2
1
0
2



and dW
M
= F
x
dx = dW
F


F
x
=
S
S B
x
W
0
2
0
2
F

|
=

=
c
c


Eq. 80 is for per unit
volume. Therefore to
find total energy here,
we need to multiply by
the volume.
Magnetics_C _12
Now mmf for magnetic circuit

NI = 400 AT

Reluctance of magnet

9
m
=
S
l

1
=
4
7
10 99 . 1
01 . 0 10 4 2000
5 . 0
=
t

AT/Wb

(i) When weight is in touching contact with magnet,

Reluctance of air gap 9
a
= 0.

0201 . 0
10 99 . 1
4 100 NI
4
m
=

=
9
= | Wb

F
x
= =

|
S
0
2
4
7
2
10 215 . 3
01 . 0 10 4
0201 . 0
=
t

N

(ii) When weight is 2 mm from magnet,

Reluctance of air gap
9
a
=
S
x
0

=
5
7
10 59 . 1
01 . 0 10 4
002 . 0
=
t

AT/Wb

3
5
100 4
1.183 10
2 3.382 10
m a
NI
|

= = =
9 + 9
Wb

F
x
= =

|
S
0
2
2 6
7
1.183 10
111.3 N
4 10 0.01 t

=



Magnetics_C _13
Hysteresis Loss

Consider the magnetisation of a ferromagnetic material
by an AC source. The magnetization goes through the
hysteresis loop in each cycle as illustrated.

From a to c, H > 0, dB > 0,
w
ac
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0 (use eq. 79)
Energy is supplied to magnetic field.

From c to d, H > 0, dB < 0,
w
cd
=
}
r
max
B
B
HdB < 0
Energy is returned from magnetic field.

From d to f, H < 0, dB < 0,
w
df
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0
Energy is supplied to magnetic field.

From f to a, H < 0, dB > 0,
w
fa
=
}

r
max
B
B
HdB < 0
Energy is returned from magnetic field.

As the material undergoes a complete magnetization
cycle, the energy stored in the magnetic field should
remain unchanged. The total energy supplied to the field
would therefore represent losses dissipated as heat, the
hysteresis loss.

Hence

Area of hysteresis loop = hysteresis loss/unit vol./cycle


Magnetics_C _14
Hysteresis Loss

From a to c, w
ac
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0, energy supplied.
From c to d, w
cd
=
}
r
max
B
B
HdB < 0, energy returned.
From d to f, w
df
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0, energy supplied.
From f to a, w
fa
=
}

r
max
B
B
HdB < 0, energy returned.

Magnetics_C _15
Mutual and self-inductance

A close contour with
time-varying current
creates a time-varying
magnetic field. This will
induce an emf in another
contour nearby
magnetic coupling as
well as producing an effect on itself.

Consider two stationary conductive contours C
1
and C
2
in
a linear medium. When a time-varying current i
1
(t) flows
through the first contour C
1
, it creates a time-varying
magnetic field B
1
. Of the total flux |
11
that links C
1
, only
a fraction |
12
will link with C
2
. For linear magnetic
circuits,
|
12
= k
1
|
11

where k
1
is a constant s 1, its value being dependent on
the relative reluctance of the magnetic paths.

By Faradays law, an emf is induced in C
1
given by

dt
) t ( d
) t ( e
11
11
u
=
where u
11
(t) = N
1
|
11
(t) is the total flux linkage of C
1

caused by current i
1
(t) in C
1
.


Equally, an emf is induced in C
2
given by
e
12
(t) =
dt
) t ( d
12
u

where u
12
(t) = N
2
|
12
(t) is the total flux linkage of
contour C
2
caused by current i
1
(t) in C
1
.
Magnetics_C _16
Since u
11
and u
12
is a function of i
1
, we may write

e
11
(t) =
dt
di
L
dt
di
di
d
dt
) t ( d
1
11
1
1
11 11
=
u
=
u

where
1
11
1
11
11
I di
d
L
u
=
u
= is the self inductance of C
1
.

and e
12
(t) =
dt
di
L
dt
di
di
d
dt
) t ( d
1
12
1
1
12 12
=
u
=
u

where
12 12
12
1 1
d
L
di I
u u
= =
2
1 11
1
N
k L
N
=
is the mutual
inductance between contours C
1
and C
2
.

L
11
and L
12
can be interpreted as flux linkage per unit
current and have the dimension of Wb/A.

Similarly, when a time-varying current i
2
(t) flows
through the second contour C
2
, it creates a time-varying
magnetic field B
2
. Of the total flux |
22
that links C
2
, only
a fraction |
21
will link with C
1
. For linear magnetic
circuits,
|
21
= k
2
|
22
where k
2
is a constant s1.

We can define the corresponding inductances

2
22
2
22
22
I di
d
L
u
=
u
= as the self inductance of C
2
.
and
22 2
2
1
2
21
2
21
21
L k
N
N
I di
d
L =
u
=
u
= as the mutual
inductance between contour C
2
and C
1
.
Magnetics_C _17
With currents flowing in both coils, by superposition,

u
1
= u
11
+

u
21
;
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
dt
d
e
2
21
1
11
1
1
=
u
=
u
2
= u
22
+

u
12
;
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
dt
d
e
1
12
2
22
2
2
=
u
=

where the sign of the second term depends on the relative
polarity of u
11
and u
21
, u
22
and u
12
.

Let contours C
1
and C
2
be connected to voltage sources
v
1
(t) and v
2
(t) respectively and the corresponding
contour resistances be R
1
and

R
2
. The energy supplied by
the sources during a short time dt is partly converted into
Joules losses and partly stored as energy in the magnetic
field, i.e.
dW
S
= dW
J
+ dW
F
(use eq. 78)

For contour C
1
,
v
1
= R
1
i
1
+ e
1

dW
S1
= v
1
i
1
dt = R
1
i
1
2
dt + i
1
du
1

For contour C
2
,
v
2
= R
2
i
2
+ e
2

dW
S2
= v
2
i
2
dt = R
2
i
2
2
dt + i
2
du
2

Hence total energy supplied to the system

dW
S
= (R
1
i
1
2
+ R
2
i
2
2
)dt + (i
1
du
1
+ i
2
du
2
)

The first summation is the Joules losses dW
J
and hence

dW
F
= (i
1
du
1
+ i
2
du
2
)

The total energy required to establish the currents i
1
(t)
and i
2
(t) is therefore

W
F
= ) d i d i (
2 2 1
t
0
1
u + u
}

Magnetics_C _18
From conservation of energy, energy stored in the
magnetic field will be independent on the way i
1
and i
2

were established. Consider two different ways of
establishing i
1
and i
2
:

(A) First keep i
2
= 0, increase i
1
from 0 to final value I
1
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F1
=
1 1
2
1 1 1 11 1 11 1
0 0
1
2
t t
i d i L di L I u = =
} }


Next keep i
1
= I
1
, increase i
2
from 0 to final value I
2
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F2
= ) d i d i (
2 2 1
t
t
1
2
1
u + u
}

= ) di L i di L I (
2 22 2 2 21
t
t
1
2
1
+
}

= L
21
I
1
I
2
+
2
2 22
I L
2
1

Hence total energy stored in magnetic field
W
F
=
2
1 11
I L
2
1
+
2
2 22
I L
2
1
+ L
21
I
1
I
2

(B) First keep i
1
= 0, increase i
2
from 0 to final value I
2
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F1
=
1 1
2
2 2 2 22 2 22 2
0 0
1
2
t t
i d i L di L I u = =
} }


Next keep i
2
= I
2
, increase i
1
from 0 to final value I
1
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F2
= ) di L I di L i (
1 12 2 1 11
t
t
1
2
1
+
}

= L
12
I
1
I
2
+
2
1 11
I L
2
1

Hence total energy stored in magnetic field
W
F
=
2
1 11
I L
2
1
+
2
2 22
I L
2
1
+ L
12
I
1
I
2
Magnetics_C _19
Since the two energy expressions must be the same,
therefore
L
12
= L
21
=M (81)
And
M =
21 12
L L =
22 11 22 11 2 1
L L k L L k k =

where k =
2 1
k k s 1 is the coefficient of coupling.

Strictly speaking, M (and k) is positive, and it is the
induced emf due to mutual coupling relative to that due
to self inductance that can be negative. However,
sometimes it is more convenient to consider that M can
take on positive or negative values with 1 s k s 1.

Example

Consider a length h of a
very long co-axial cable of
conductor radius a, sheath
inner radius b and carrying
a current I.

For space between conductors, H = Ha
|
and
H = ,
r 2
I
t
B = ,
r 2
I
0
t


Total flux
a
b
ln
2
Ih
hdr B
0
b
a
t

=
}
= |

Hence external self inductance per unit length of cable
L =
a
b
ln
2
0
t

(
di
d
L
u
=
)

For example, if b = 3a, then L = 0.22 H/m.
Magnetics_C _20
Example

Consider a toroidal coil and a single wire loop encircling
the toroid. For a current I
2
in coil C
2
, from previous
example (Magnetics_A_13), flux through toroid


|
.
|

\
|
t

= |
a
b
ln h
2
I N
2 2 0


Flux linkage of coil 2,
u
22
= N
2
| =
|
.
|

\
|
t

a
b
ln h
2
I N
2
2
2 0

Hence
L
22
=
|
.
|

\
|
t

=
u
a
b
ln
2
h N
I
2
2 0
2
22


Flux linkage of coil 1,

u
21
= | =
|
.
|

\
|
t

a
b
ln h
2
I N
2 2 0

Hence
L
21
= M =
|
.
|

\
|
t

=
u
a
b
ln
2
h N
I
2 0
2
21


Note that in this example, it is much easier to find L
21

than L
12
, which should be the same. (refer to eq. 81)
Magnetics_C _1
Maxwells equations for
static electric fields and steady magnetic fields


Differential Form Integral Form

V . D = (see eq. 21) } = S D. d Q =
}
v
vol
d

V E = 0 (see eq. 55a) } = 0 dL E.

V H = J (see eq. 55) } = L H.d I = }
S
dS J.

V . B = 0 (see eq. 59) } = 0 dS B.

Together with

D = cE (see eq. 15) c = permittivity of material

B = H (see eq. 67) = permeability of material

J = o E (see eq. 15) o = conductivity of material

And

E = VV (see eq. 28) V = scalar electric potential

H = VV
m
(see eq. 15) V
m
= scalar magnetic potential


Magnetics_C _2
Time Varying Fields - Electromagnetic Induction

For time invariant electric field and magnetic field,

F = QE + Qv B = Q(E + v B)
(Lorentzs force equation)

Normally the first term is referred to as the electric force
while the second term the magnetic force on the charge.

Consider a charge Q moving with velocity v in a time-
invariant magnetic field B (no electric field). To a
stationary observer, there is a magnetic force F = Qv B
on the charge. However, to an observer riding on Q, Q
would be stationary and the force therefore represents an
electric force due to an induced field E
ind
= v B. A
variable force due to a varying magnetic field B (in
space) would appear as a variable electric force due to a
variable electric field E
ind
. Thus a variable magnetic field
is always associated with a variable electric field and
vice versa.

The charges within a conductor will therefore experience
a driving force, the induced electromotive force (emf),
when the conductor moves in a magnetic field. If there is
a closed path, then this emf would tend to establish a
current through the path.

emf induced in a closed path = }
L
ind
dL . E
= }
L
d ) ( L . B v (73)
Magnetics_C _3
Faradays Law
Consider the closed path shown.

emf = L . B r L . B
r
d ) (
t
1
d )
t
(
L
0 t
L
0 t
lim lim A
A
=
A
A
} }
A A

But
(Ar B).dL = dL.(Ar B) = (dL Ar).B = AS.B

where AS = (dL Ar) is the area swept by the path
element dL over the time At.

emf = ) (
t
1
L
0 t
lim .B S } A
A
A

= ) d element by swept area through
t
1
L
0 t
lim } |
A
A
L
=
) (
1
lim
0
t in L by swept area through
t t
A
A A

= ) t in L through (
t
1
lim
0 t
A | A
A A

= ) L through (
dt
d
|

This can also be expressed as
emf =
dt
d
}
S
dS B.

A(BC) = (AB)C
Magnetics_C _4
If we extend our consideration to time varying fields, a
non-zero value of d|/dt may result from

1. Time-changing flux linking a stationary closed path.
2. Relative motion between a steady flux and a closed
path.
3. Combination of the two.

The emf can therefore be written

emf = =
|

dt
d
dt
d
}
S
dS B. (74)
= } } +
c
c

L S
d ) ( d
t
L . B v S .
B

The minus sign is an indication that the emf is in such a
direction so as to produce a current whose effect on flux
would reduce the magnitude of the emf - Lenzs law.

If the closed path is that taken by an N-turn conductor,
then it is necessary to consider the flux linking each turn
and write

dt
d
) ... .... (
dt
d
emf
N i 2 1
u
= | + + | + + | + | =
where

| = u
i
i
(75)
is referred to as the flux-linkage of the circuit.

If all the flux links with all turns, then
emf =
dt
d
N
|

where | is the flux passing through any one of the N
coincident paths.

Magnetics_C _5
Emf due to time varying field with a stationary path:-
(Transformer emf)

emf = S .
B
d
t
S
}
c
c
since S is stationary. (76)


Example : Eddy currents


B due to eddy current

When a conductor is subject to a time-varying magnetic
field, current is induced in it due to the emf produced by
the time varying induced field. In a solid conductor we
can imagine there exists many conductive loops and the
induced currents circulating in these loops are called
eddy currents. As the consequence of eddy current flow :

1. Power is lost as Joules heat
2. There is a demagnetizing effect according to
Lenzs law

To reduce these effects, ferromagnetic cores are made of
mutually insulated thin sheets. Now the area enclosed by
the resultant current loops are much smaller and hence
the induced emf is also much smaller. As a consequence,
the eddy current flow will also be reduced significantly.
Magnetics_C _6
Emf due to time constant flux and a moving closed
path:- ( motional or generator emf )
emf = }
L
d ) ( L . B v since B is constant. (77)

Example : Linear motion
A straight piece of wire which can slide along two
parallel wires 1 and 2 that are at a distance L apart. There
is a uniform magnetic flux density B perpendicular to the
set-up and a mechanical force is tagging the piece of wire
with a constant velocity v.

Induced emf in the loop:
Note B is into page and dS is out of page.

e = =
|

dt
d
dt
) t ( d . S B

dt
) t ( BdS
=
vBL
dt
vdt L B
= =

Note that this can also be obtained by
e = }
L
d . ) ( L B v = (v B).L = vBL (from above eq. 77)

If R is the total resistance of the loop, then
I =
R
vBL
R
e
= giving a loss P
elec
= I
2
R =
R
) vBL (
2

Magnetics_C _7
The magnetic force acting on the moving wire

F
mag
=
}
L
I dL B = ILB (from eq. 61)

and this force is opposite to the mechanical force that is
moving the wire. Since the velocity v is constant, the
mechanical and magnetic forces have to be equal, i.e.

F
mech
= F
mag
=ILB

Also the mechanical power input P
mech
= F
mech
v must be
equal to the power dissipated in the resistor. Hence
ILBv =
R
) vBL (
2
giving v =
BL
IR

Example : AC generator
A rectangular wire loop is rotating in a uniform magnetic
field with an angular velocity e and with the axis of
rotation perpendicular to the field B. Assume at time
t = 0, B is parallel to the normal a
n
to the surface of the
loop. Then at time t = t,
e = =
|

dt
d
= e ) t cos BA (
dt
d
eBA sin et
or e =
}

L
dL B v ). ( = 2a
2
be
B sin et = eBA sin et
( tangential velocity v = radius x angular velocity = e(b/2) )
Thus induced emf is an alternating voltage (ac voltage).
B
y
z
x
b
a
dl
o
1
2
3
4
e
a
n

z
a
n

u
u
e
B
(a) Perspective view (b) View from + x direction
Power = velocity x force
Magnetics_C _8
Energy in Magnetic Fields

Consider a closed contour that has a resistance R is
energised by a voltage source v(t). Then corresponding to
contour current i(t), a flux linkage u(t) will be set up and
an emf is induced in the contour

e(t) =
dt
du
(from eq. 75)
and
v(t) = Ri(t) + e(t)

The electrical energy dW
E
supplied by the source during
a short time dt is partly converted into (i) Joules losses
dW
J
and partly supplied to (ii) the magnetic field dW
S
,
i.e.

dW
E
= dW
J
+ dW
S
(78)

and dW
E
= vi dt = Ri
2
dt + idu

The first term is the Joules losses and the energy
supplied to the magnetic field is therefore

dW
S
= idu

If the system is stationary, i.e. no moving parts, then the
energy supplied to the magnetic field dW
S
would be the
increase in energy stored in the field dW
F
,

dW
F
= dW
S
= idu

The energy stored in the magnetic field corresponding to
a certain flux linkage u is then

W
F
=
}
u
u
0
id

Magnetics_C _9
Now idu = iNd| = mmf d| (use eq. 71)

mmf =
}
L
dL H.

d| = d(
}
S
dS B. ) =
}
S
dS dB.

If we take integration along tubular elements following
lines of flux such that H.dL=HdL and dB.dS=dBdS, then

idu =
}
=
} }
vol L S
HdBdv ) dLdS ( HdB

or change in stored energy per unit volume, i.e. the
energy density,

dw
F
= HdB.

The final energy density stored in the magnetic field can
therefore be expressed as

w
F
=
}
B
0
HdB per unit volume. (79)

The energy density w
F
is represented by the area bounded
by the B-H curve and the B-axis. The area bounded by
the B-H curve and the H-axis is known as the co-energy
w
F
' and w
F
+ w
F
' = HB

B





H H

For linear magnetic media, B=H, and
w
F
= w
F
' =
2
2
H
2
1
BH
2
1 B
2
1
dB
B
= =

=
}

(80)
Magnetics_C _10
Magnetic forces
Except for special symmetrical cases (two infinitely long
current-carrying conductors), determining the magnetic
forces between current-carrying circuits by Amperes
law of force is a tedious task. The magnetic forces
exerted on an object can also be evaluated by the
principle of virtual work, i.e.

Energy supplied to system (dW
S
)
= mechanical work done by system (dW
M
)
+ increase in energy stored in field (dW
F
)

Two different situations should be considered.
(A) Virtual displacement with constant flux linkage u.

In this case, energy supplied to the field dW
S
= idu
remains unchanged and the virtual work done dW
M
must
come from a reduction in energy stored in the magnetic
field, i.e.
dW
M
= Fdx = dW
F
or F =
dx
dW
F

(B) Virtual displacement with constant current I.

In this case, there will be a change in flux linkage du
following the displacement and the change in energy
supplied to the field

dW
S
= Idu = I(u
2
- u
1
) B
2

= H(B
2
B
1
) per unit vol. B
1


Virtual work done

dW
M
= dW
S
dW
F
= dW
F
'

or F =
dx
' dW
F
O H

Magnetics_C _11

Example

In the horse-shoe magnet
shown l
1
= 50 cm, S = 100 cm
2
and the material has a relative
permeability of 2000. There is
a coil of 100 turns carrying a
current of 4 A. Assuming the
reluctance of the soft iron
weight can be neglected, find
the force acting on the weight when

(i) It is in touching contact with the magnet,
(ii) It is at a distance of 2 mm from the magnet.


Assume virtual displacement dx at constant flux. There is
no change in energy stored in magnetic field in magnet
or iron, and the change in energy stored in magnetic field
in air-gap is

dW
F
= ) Sdx 2 (
B
2
1
0
2



and dW
M
= F
x
dx = dW
F


F
x
=
S
S B
x
W
0
2
0
2
F

|
=

=
c
c


Eq. 80 is for per unit
volume. Therefore to
find total energy here,
we need to multiply by
the volume.
Magnetics_C _12
Now mmf for magnetic circuit

NI = 400 AT

Reluctance of magnet

9
m
=
S
l

1
=
4
7
10 99 . 1
01 . 0 10 4 2000
5 . 0
=
t

AT/Wb

(i) When weight is in touching contact with magnet,

Reluctance of air gap 9
a
= 0.

0201 . 0
10 99 . 1
4 100 NI
4
m
=

=
9
= | Wb

F
x
= =

|
S
0
2
4
7
2
10 215 . 3
01 . 0 10 4
0201 . 0
=
t

N

(ii) When weight is 2 mm from magnet,

Reluctance of air gap
9
a
=
S
x
0

=
5
7
10 59 . 1
01 . 0 10 4
002 . 0
=
t

AT/Wb

3
5
100 4
1.183 10
2 3.382 10
m a
NI
|

= = =
9 + 9
Wb

F
x
= =

|
S
0
2
2 6
7
1.183 10
111.3 N
4 10 0.01 t

=



Magnetics_C _13
Hysteresis Loss

Consider the magnetisation of a ferromagnetic material
by an AC source. The magnetization goes through the
hysteresis loop in each cycle as illustrated.

From a to c, H > 0, dB > 0,
w
ac
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0 (use eq. 79)
Energy is supplied to magnetic field.

From c to d, H > 0, dB < 0,
w
cd
=
}
r
max
B
B
HdB < 0
Energy is returned from magnetic field.

From d to f, H < 0, dB < 0,
w
df
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0
Energy is supplied to magnetic field.

From f to a, H < 0, dB > 0,
w
fa
=
}

r
max
B
B
HdB < 0
Energy is returned from magnetic field.

As the material undergoes a complete magnetization
cycle, the energy stored in the magnetic field should
remain unchanged. The total energy supplied to the field
would therefore represent losses dissipated as heat, the
hysteresis loss.

Hence

Area of hysteresis loop = hysteresis loss/unit vol./cycle


Magnetics_C _14
Hysteresis Loss

From a to c, w
ac
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0, energy supplied.
From c to d, w
cd
=
}
r
max
B
B
HdB < 0, energy returned.
From d to f, w
df
=
}

max
r
B
B
HdB > 0, energy supplied.
From f to a, w
fa
=
}

r
max
B
B
HdB < 0, energy returned.

Magnetics_C _15
Mutual and self-inductance

A close contour with
time-varying current
creates a time-varying
magnetic field. This will
induce an emf in another
contour nearby
magnetic coupling as
well as producing an effect on itself.

Consider two stationary conductive contours C
1
and C
2
in
a linear medium. When a time-varying current i
1
(t) flows
through the first contour C
1
, it creates a time-varying
magnetic field B
1
. Of the total flux |
11
that links C
1
, only
a fraction |
12
will link with C
2
. For linear magnetic
circuits,
|
12
= k
1
|
11

where k
1
is a constant s 1, its value being dependent on
the relative reluctance of the magnetic paths.

By Faradays law, an emf is induced in C
1
given by

dt
) t ( d
) t ( e
11
11
u
=
where u
11
(t) = N
1
|
11
(t) is the total flux linkage of C
1

caused by current i
1
(t) in C
1
.


Equally, an emf is induced in C
2
given by
e
12
(t) =
dt
) t ( d
12
u

where u
12
(t) = N
2
|
12
(t) is the total flux linkage of
contour C
2
caused by current i
1
(t) in C
1
.
Magnetics_C _16
Since u
11
and u
12
is a function of i
1
, we may write

e
11
(t) =
dt
di
L
dt
di
di
d
dt
) t ( d
1
11
1
1
11 11
=
u
=
u

where
1
11
1
11
11
I di
d
L
u
=
u
= is the self inductance of C
1
.

and e
12
(t) =
dt
di
L
dt
di
di
d
dt
) t ( d
1
12
1
1
12 12
=
u
=
u

where
12 12
12
1 1
d
L
di I
u u
= =
2
1 11
1
N
k L
N
=
is the mutual
inductance between contours C
1
and C
2
.

L
11
and L
12
can be interpreted as flux linkage per unit
current and have the dimension of Wb/A.

Similarly, when a time-varying current i
2
(t) flows
through the second contour C
2
, it creates a time-varying
magnetic field B
2
. Of the total flux |
22
that links C
2
, only
a fraction |
21
will link with C
1
. For linear magnetic
circuits,
|
21
= k
2
|
22
where k
2
is a constant s1.

We can define the corresponding inductances

2
22
2
22
22
I di
d
L
u
=
u
= as the self inductance of C
2
.
and
22 2
2
1
2
21
2
21
21
L k
N
N
I di
d
L =
u
=
u
= as the mutual
inductance between contour C
2
and C
1
.
Magnetics_C _17
With currents flowing in both coils, by superposition,

u
1
= u
11
+

u
21
;
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
dt
d
e
2
21
1
11
1
1
=
u
=
u
2
= u
22
+

u
12
;
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
dt
d
e
1
12
2
22
2
2
=
u
=

where the sign of the second term depends on the relative
polarity of u
11
and u
21
, u
22
and u
12
.

Let contours C
1
and C
2
be connected to voltage sources
v
1
(t) and v
2
(t) respectively and the corresponding
contour resistances be R
1
and

R
2
. The energy supplied by
the sources during a short time dt is partly converted into
Joules losses and partly stored as energy in the magnetic
field, i.e.
dW
S
= dW
J
+ dW
F
(use eq. 78)

For contour C
1
,
v
1
= R
1
i
1
+ e
1

dW
S1
= v
1
i
1
dt = R
1
i
1
2
dt + i
1
du
1

For contour C
2
,
v
2
= R
2
i
2
+ e
2

dW
S2
= v
2
i
2
dt = R
2
i
2
2
dt + i
2
du
2

Hence total energy supplied to the system

dW
S
= (R
1
i
1
2
+ R
2
i
2
2
)dt + (i
1
du
1
+ i
2
du
2
)

The first summation is the Joules losses dW
J
and hence

dW
F
= (i
1
du
1
+ i
2
du
2
)

The total energy required to establish the currents i
1
(t)
and i
2
(t) is therefore

W
F
= ) d i d i (
2 2 1
t
0
1
u + u
}

Magnetics_C _18
From conservation of energy, energy stored in the
magnetic field will be independent on the way i
1
and i
2

were established. Consider two different ways of
establishing i
1
and i
2
:

(A) First keep i
2
= 0, increase i
1
from 0 to final value I
1
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F1
=
1 1
2
1 1 1 11 1 11 1
0 0
1
2
t t
i d i L di L I u = =
} }


Next keep i
1
= I
1
, increase i
2
from 0 to final value I
2
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F2
= ) d i d i (
2 2 1
t
t
1
2
1
u + u
}

= ) di L i di L I (
2 22 2 2 21
t
t
1
2
1
+
}

= L
21
I
1
I
2
+
2
2 22
I L
2
1

Hence total energy stored in magnetic field
W
F
=
2
1 11
I L
2
1
+
2
2 22
I L
2
1
+ L
21
I
1
I
2

(B) First keep i
1
= 0, increase i
2
from 0 to final value I
2
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F1
=
1 1
2
2 2 2 22 2 22 2
0 0
1
2
t t
i d i L di L I u = =
} }


Next keep i
2
= I
2
, increase i
1
from 0 to final value I
1
.
Energy stored in magnetic field over this period
W
F2
= ) di L I di L i (
1 12 2 1 11
t
t
1
2
1
+
}

= L
12
I
1
I
2
+
2
1 11
I L
2
1

Hence total energy stored in magnetic field
W
F
=
2
1 11
I L
2
1
+
2
2 22
I L
2
1
+ L
12
I
1
I
2
Magnetics_C _19
Since the two energy expressions must be the same,
therefore
L
12
= L
21
=M (81)
And
M =
21 12
L L =
22 11 22 11 2 1
L L k L L k k =

where k =
2 1
k k s 1 is the coefficient of coupling.

Strictly speaking, M (and k) is positive, and it is the
induced emf due to mutual coupling relative to that due
to self inductance that can be negative. However,
sometimes it is more convenient to consider that M can
take on positive or negative values with 1 s k s 1.

Example

Consider a length h of a
very long co-axial cable of
conductor radius a, sheath
inner radius b and carrying
a current I.

For space between conductors, H = Ha
|
and
H = ,
r 2
I
t
B = ,
r 2
I
0
t


Total flux
a
b
ln
2
Ih
hdr B
0
b
a
t

=
}
= |

Hence external self inductance per unit length of cable
L =
a
b
ln
2
0
t

(
di
d
L
u
=
)

For example, if b = 3a, then L = 0.22 H/m.
Magnetics_C _20
Example

Consider a toroidal coil and a single wire loop encircling
the toroid. For a current I
2
in coil C
2
, from previous
example (Magnetics_A_13), flux through toroid


|
.
|

\
|
t

= |
a
b
ln h
2
I N
2 2 0


Flux linkage of coil 2,
u
22
= N
2
| =
|
.
|

\
|
t

a
b
ln h
2
I N
2
2
2 0

Hence
L
22
=
|
.
|

\
|
t

=
u
a
b
ln
2
h N
I
2
2 0
2
22


Flux linkage of coil 1,

u
21
= | =
|
.
|

\
|
t

a
b
ln h
2
I N
2 2 0

Hence
L
21
= M =
|
.
|

\
|
t

=
u
a
b
ln
2
h N
I
2 0
2
21


Note that in this example, it is much easier to find L
21

than L
12
, which should be the same. (refer to eq. 81)
Magnetics_D_ 1
Maxwells Equations with time varying fields.

Faradays law

For electrostatic field, } =
L
0 dL E.

With time varying field, for stationary path L,
} =
L
dL E. emf
dt
d
= S .
B
S B. d
t
d
S S
} }
c
c
= (use eq. 73 & 76)

By Stokes theorem

} } V =
S L
d ) ( d S . E L E.

t
B
E
c
c
= V (82)

Amperes law
From conservation of charge, }
S
dS J.
}
=
vol
dv
dt
d

(use Amperes circuital law on Magnetics_A_11)
For time invariant field, there is no change in and

}
S
dS J. = 0

By Gausss law,

}
S
dS D. = Q
i
=
}

vol
dv (use eq. 14)

Hence, for stationary S,
}
S
dS J. +
dt
d
}
S
dS D. = }
S
dS J. + }
c
c
S
d
t
D
S . = 0
0 d
t
(
S
=
c
c
+ } S ).
D
J

and this is the current continuity equation with time varying
field.
Magnetics_D_ 2
The term
t
D
c
c
has the dimension of current density and is
referred to as the displacement current density J
D
, i.e.
J
D
=

t
D
c
c

We can consider J
Total
= J + J
D
as the total current density
where J = oE is the conduction current density due to
movement of charges.

Amperes law is now modified to :
V H = J + J
D
= J +
t
D
c
c
(from eq. 55) (83)
and S .
D
S J S . H L H. d
t
d . d ) ( d
S S S L
} } } }
c
c
+ = V =

Consider the circuit
containing an air-filled
capacitor and with time
varying current through
it. Consider the contour
and the two surfaces S
1

and S
2
bounded by the
contour as shown.

Taking S
1
through the wire,
} } } } =
c
c
+ =
S S S L
d d
t
d d S J. S .
D
S J. L H. = I
Taking S
2
through the air,
S . J S .
D
S J. L H d d
t
d d .
S
D
S S L
} } } } =
c
c
+ = = I
D

Since these must be equal, I = I
D
and the displacement
current maintains the current continuity through the loop.

Magnetics_D_ 3
Maxwells Equations
Maxwells Equations are a set of four partial differential equations that describe
the properties of the electric and magnetic fields and relate them to their
sources, charge density, and current density.

Differential Form Integral Form

(1
st
) V E =
t
B
c
c
(eq.82) S .
B
L E. d
t
d
S
} }
c
c
=
(Faradays Law for a fixed contour
=Maxwells 1
st
Eqn)
(2
nd
) V H = J +
t
D
c
c
(eq.83) } = L H.d I +}
c
c
S
d
t
S .
D

(Generalized Amperes Law =
Maxwells 2
nd
Eqn)
(3
rd
) V.D = (eq.21) } = S D.d
}
v
vol
d (see Magnetics_C_1)
(Gausss Law = Maxwells 3
rd
Eqn)
(4
th
) V.B = 0 (eq.59) } = 0 dS B.
(Law of conservation of magnetic
flux = Maxwells 4
th
Eqn)
Boundary conditions between two materials:
Normal component
Since the 3
rd
and 4
th
Maxwells equation remain unchanged
from their non-time-varying form, the boundary conditions
are unchanged:

i.e. D
N1
D
N2
= o (eq. 31); B
N1
= B
N2
(eq. 68)


where o is the surface charge density.
Tangential component
Since we are taking a very
narrow contour about the
boundary with Ah0, the
surface integral in the 1
st
and
Magnetics_D_ 4
2
nd
Maxwells equations becomes zero and hence the
boundary conditions also remain unchanged,

i.e. E
t1
= E
t2
(see Statics_C_10);

H
t1
H
t2
= K (see Magnetics_B_10);

where K is the surface current density.
It is often desirable to idealize a physical problem by
assuming a perfect conductor for which o ,
then E = 0 if J = oE is finite.

If E = 0, then 0
t
=
c
cB
, i.e. B is independent of time.
As we may assume initially B is zero, therefore

B = H = 0

inside a perfect conductor.

Now if H = 0, then J +
t
D
c
c
= 0.
As D = cE = 0,

J = 0

inside a perfect conductor and current must be carried on the
conductor surface with a surface current density K. (Note that
K only exists for perfect conductors).

Thus for a boundary between a dielectric (say region 1) and a
perfect conductor (say region 2),

E
t2
= 0 E
t1
= 0

H
t2
= 0 H
t1
= K

D
N2
= 0 D
N1
= o

B
N2
= 0 B
N1
= 0
Magnetics_D_ 5
Poyntings Theorem
(John Henry Poynting, English physicist, 1852-1914, University of Birmingham)
Law of conservation of energy as applied to EM field.
EM waves carry energy as they travel through empty
spaces. There is an energy density associated with both the
electric and magnetic fields.
The rate of energy transport per unit area is described by
the Poynting vector.
The energy flow of an EM wave is perpendicular to the
direction of both the electric and magnetic fields.

From Maxwells 1
st
equation
V E =
t
B
c
c

H.(V E) =
t c
c

B
H.

For linear media, B = H,
H.(V E) =
t c
c

B
.
B
= ) H
2
1
(
t
)
B
2
1
(
t
2
2

c
c
=
c
c


From Maxwells 2
nd
equation
V H = J +
t
D
c
c

E.(V H) = E.J + E.
t
D
c
c


For linear media, D = cE,
E.(V H) = E.J + )
D
2
1
(
t
2
c c
c
= E.J + ) E
2
1
(
t
2
c
c
c



Magnetics_D_ 6
From vector identity
V.(E H) = H.(V E) - E.(V H)

We therefore have
V.(E H) = ) H
2
1
(
t
2

c
c
- E.J - ) E
2
1
(
t
2
c
c
c

or V.(E H)= - ) E
2
1
H
2
1
(
t
2 2
c +
c
c
- E.J

Integrating with respect to a given volume

2 2
2 2
1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
v v
v
S
dv H E dv dv
t
d H E dv dv
t
c
c
c
V = +
c
c
= +
c
} } }
} } }
v
v
. E H E.J
By divergence theorem,
E H . S E.J



The first and second terms on RHS represent the time-rate of
change of the energy stored in the magnetic and electric fields
respectively. The last term is the ohmic power dissipated in the
volume as a result of the flow of conduction current in the
presence of the electric field. Therefore we may interpret the RHS
as the rate of decrease of the magnetic and electric energies
stored, subtracted by the ohmic power dissipated as heat in the
volume V. To be consistent with the law of conservation of
energy, this must equal the power (rate of energy) leaving the
volume through its surface.
This result is known as Poyntings Theorem.
The vector = E H is known as the Poynting vector and
represents the power transfer over surface S per unit area. The
outward normal component of Poynting vector when integrated
over a closed surface, gives the outward flow of electromagnetic
energy through the surface.
Magnetics_D_ 7
Wave Equations

Consider a linear, homogeneous medium with parameters c, ,
and o and that there are no free charges or sources.
Then
V E =
t c
c

B
=
t c
c

H
;
V.E = 0 (no free charges, use Laplaces Equation eq. 35) (84)
V H = J +
t c
cD
= oE +
t c
c
c
E
; V.H = 0.

Take curl operation again

V V E = )
t
(
c
c
V
H
= ) (
t
H V
c
c

=
2
2
t t c
c
c
c
c
o
E E

V V H = o(V E) + ) ( E
t
V
c
c
c
=
2
2
t t c
c
c
c
c
o
H H

But
V V E = V(V.E) V
2
E = V
2
E since V.E=0
V V H = V(V.H) V
2
H = V
2
H since V.H=0

Therefore
V
2
E
2
2
t
E
t
E
c
c
c
c
c
o = 0 (85)
V
2
H
2
2
t
H
t
H
c
c
c
c
c
o = 0 (86)

These are the wave equations for vectors E and H. Note that
solutions to wave equations must satisfy V.E=0 and V.H=0.
Magnetics_D_ 8
Uniform Plane EM Wave in perfect dielectric

The vector wave equation may be represented by 3 scalar
equations expressed in the appropriate coordinates. Thus in
cartesian coordinates, we have


2
x
2
x
2
x
2
2
x
2
2
x
2
t
E
t
E
z
E
y
E
x
E
c
c
c +
c
c
o =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(from eq. 85)

and similarly for E
y
and E
z
components.

Assume, in the simplest case,

1. Both E and H depend only on z-coordinates and time,
i.e. E = E(z, t); H = H(z, t).

2. The field exists in a homogeneous, lossless medium with
parameters c, and o = 0.

Then, since o = 0, the wave equations become

V
2
E
2
2
t c
c
c
E
= 0; V
2
H
2
2
t c
c
c
H
= 0.

Now for the solution E,

V.E = 0
z
E
y
E
x
E
z
y
x
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c


i.e. 0
z
E
z
=
c
c
or E
z
= constant

As we are interested in time variations and not in time constant
fields, let us choose E
z
= 0 without loss of generality.

Magnetics_D_ 9
Next let us choose x-y axis such that E
y
= 0 (or E
x
= 0),
Then
E(z, t) = E
x
(z, t) a
x

And V
2
E
2
2
t
E
c
c
c = 0
becomes V
2
E
x

2
x
2
t
E
c
c
c = 0
or
2
x
2
z
E
c
c

2
x
2
t
E
c
c
c = 0
It is exactly the same form as the wave equation. This is called
electromagnetic (EM) waves

The general solution is

) z t ( f E ) z t ( f E E
2 2 1 1 x
c + + c =

where f
1
and f
2
are arbitrary functions to be determined from
boundary conditions.

The first term represents an incident wave with velocity of
propagation v = 1/ c . The second term represents a reflected
wave with the same velocity.

For wave in free space,
v =
12 7
0 0 10 854 . 8 10 4
1 1

t
=
c


= 2.998 10
8
m/sec

i.e. electromagnetic waves propagates in free space with the
velocity of light.
Magnetics_D_ 10
Now from V E =
t c
c

H



t
H
z
E
y
E
x
y
z
c
c
=
c
c

c
c
, (x direction)

t
H
x
c
c
= 0 H
x
= 0 (or constant)


t
H
x
E
z
E
y
z x
c
c
=
c
c

c
c
, (y direction)

t
H
z
E
y
x
c
c
=
c
c



t
H
y
E
x
E
z x
y
c
c
=
c
c

c
c
, (z direction)

z
H
0
t
c
=
c
H
z
= 0 (or constant)

Hence only y-component of H exists and H(z, t)=H
y
(z, t)a
y
.

Consider ) z t ( f E E
1 1 x
c =

Then ) z t ( f E
z
E
'
1 1
x
c c =
c
c

) z t ( f E
t
H
'
1 1
y
c

c
=
c
c


Hence
x x 1 1 y
E
1
E ) z t ( f E H
q
=

c
= c

c
=
where
c

= q is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.





The intrinsic impedance is a property of a medium an area of space. For a vacuum, the
intrinsic impedance is given by
7
0
0 12
0
4 10
Z 377
8.854 10

t
= = ~ O
c
. Intrinsic impedance has nothing
to do with the electrical impedance of an antenna. Intrinsic impedance: ratio of E to H.
Characteristic impedance: ratio of voltage to current in a traveling wave
Magnetics_D_ 11
Hence the E
x
component of the E wave is associated with a H
y

component of the H wave which is scaled replica of E
x
.
Consider, for example, a sinusoidal source at z = 0,

E
x
(0, t) = E
m
sin et
Then
E
x
(z, t) = E
m
sin e(t - c z)
H
y
(z, t) =
q
1
E
m
sin e(t - c z)

Energy density stored in H field
w
F
=
2
1
H
2
=
2
) E (
2
1

c
=
2
E
2
1
c (use eq. 80)
i.e., energy density stored in E field and H field are equal.

The Poynting vector
= E H = (E
x
a
x
) (H
y
a
y
) =
q
1
E
x
2
a
z
i.e., the EM wave travels and transports energy in the z direction.

Thus the E vector is in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave and is uniform in this plane, and
similarly for the H vector. Hence the waves are known as uniform
plane waves. Also since E and H are transverse to the direction of
wave propagation, they are also known as transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) waves.
Magnetics_D_ 12
Now if we have chosen E
x
= 0 such that

E(z, t) = E
y
(z, t) a
y

then from V E =
t c
c

H


H
y
= H
z
= 0;
t
H
z
E
x
y
c
c
=
c
c


i.e. H(z, t) = H
x
(z, t) a
x

and if ) z t ( f E E
1 1 y
c =

then
y y 1 1 x
E
1
E ) z t ( f E H
q
=

c
= c

c
=

The Poynting vector
= E H = (E
y
a
y
) (H
x
a
x
) =
q
1
E
y
2
a
z
i.e. the EM wave is again travelling and transporting energy in the
z direction.

A solution in the form

E = E
x
a
x
) z t ( f E
2 2
c + = a
x

will be associated with a corresponding H wave
H = H
y
a
y
) z t ( f E
1
2 2
c +
q
= a
y

And the Poynting vector
= E H = (E
x
a
x
) (H
y
a
y
) =
q

1
E
x
2
a
z

i.e., the reflected EM wave will be travelling and transporting
energy in the z direction.
More_EM_1

B. More on Electromagnetic Theory



Time harmonic Maxwells equation

Maxwells equations are 4 mathematical equations describe how
the Electric Field (E) and magnetic field (B) related to the
charge () and current (J) densities that specify the fields and
give rise to electromagnetic radiation.

A time varying magnetic field produces a time varying electric
field. On the other hand, time varying electric field produces a
time varying magnetic field.

Gausss law:
v
= V D


Gausss law for magnetic field:
0 = V B


Faradays Law:
dt
dB
E = V


Ampere-Maxwell Law:
dt
dD
J H + = V


E electric field (V/m)
H magnetic field (A/m)
D electric flux density (C/m
2
)
B magnetic flux density (T = Wb/m
2
)
J electric current density (A/m
2
)

o
c = 8.854 10
-12
F/m
o
= 4 10
-7
H/m

For time harmonic Maxwells equation, it is to relate the
function to phasor (frequency domain). In real applications,
More_EM_2

time signals can be expressed as sum of sinusoidal waveforms.


So it is convenient to use the phasor notation to express fields in
the frequency domain.

The phasor idea is based on Eulers Identity:
t j t e
t j
e e
e
sin cos + =


Assume that the above Maxwells equations possess wave-like
solutions. The plane-wave solutions of the E-field:
( ) ( ) t t r e
o
= kz E E cos ,


E- and H-field vectors for a plane wave, propagating in
z-direction

E
o
is constant, k is the wave-number,
e
is the angular
frequency.
e
=2
t
f. We can express tthe sinusoids in complex.
It is more convenient to rewrite by Eulers Identity,

( )
| |
t j
e
e
o
-
=
z k
E E Re


Let E be a function of x, y, z and t,

( ) ( ) | |
t j
e z y x E t z y x E
e
, , Re , , , = E


( ) ( )
( ) | | E e e
e
e
j e z y x E j
t
e z y x E
t
t z y x E
t j
t j
= =
(

c
c

c
c
, , Re
, ,
Re
, , ,

More_EM_3

Applying the constitutive relations


E D c =
and
H B =
, the
Maxwells equations will change to

Original Change
Gausss law
v
= V D

o
c

v
= V E
Gausss law for
magnetic field
0 = V B

0 = V H

Faradays Law
dt
dB
E = V
H E e j = V

Ampere-Maxwell
Law dt
dD
J H + = V
E J H ec j + = V


In a source-free media, i.e. v = 0,
Maxwells equations become:

v
= V D


0 = V E


0 = V B


0 = V H


dt
dB
E = V


H E e j = V


dt
dD
J H + = V

( ) E J E H o ec o = + = V j



( )E H ec o j + = V
can be written as
E H
c
jec = V


e o c c c c / j j
c

' '

'

, it is called complex permittivity.


More_EM_4

Complex Permittivity
The difference that material response to external E-field than in
vacuum, is that it generally depends on the frequency of the
E-field. The frequency dependence reflects the fact that a
materials polarization does not respond instantaneously to an
applied field. You can think of it like the harmonic oscillator
model. While there is the external applied E-field, there are also
restoring force (Coulomb binding force between electron and
positive nuclei) and friction (e.g. electron experiences forces
and collisions from neighbouring oscillators). Thus a materials
polarization does not make instantaneous response. The
response must always be causal which can be represented by a
phase.
e o c c c c / j j
c

' '

'


c
'
is the real part and
c ' '
is imaginary part of complex
permittivity
c
c
.

The total current on the right hand side of the Amperes law
consists of a conduction current term and a displacement current
term. These two terms can be combined into one using the
concept of a complex-values permittivity. The size of the
displacement current is dependent on the frequency of the
applied E-field; There is no displacement current in a constant
field.











More_EM_5

The ratio of the imaginary part of the complex permittivity


c ' '
to
the real part of the complex permittivity
c
'
is the ratio of the
magnitude of the conduction current density to the magnitude of
the displacement current density. The ratio is defined as the loss
tangent of the medium.

u
c
c
ec
o
ec
o
tan =
'
' '
= = =
s
s
nt displaceme
onduction
j E
E
J
J
c


BioEM_1
BIOELECTROMAGNETICS

INTRODUCTION
The bodies of humans and all animals are actuated by a complex network of
noiseless, lossless coaxial transmission lines, or axons, controlled by a parallel-
processing computer, or brain. This chapter includes sections on the axon, retinal
optic fibers, the heart dipole field, cardiac pacemakers, defibrillators, electric fields
and pulse signals of fish, magnetic navigation of birds, bone healing, and finally
radiation hazards and the related environmental and health issues.

THE AXON: AN ACTIVE, LOSSLESS, SHIELDED, NOISELESS
TRANSMISSION LINE
The nervous systems of animals consist of many neurons (nerve cells) each having
an active transmission line, or axon, with input and output terminals. At the input
end, structures called dendrites interface with specialized transducer sensitive to
beat, pressure, or other stimuli. The dendrites are connected to a central cell body
(soma), and when the algebraic sum of the excitations it receives from the
dendrites exceed a certain threshold value, it fires a signal down the axon to the
terminal region, activating a motor unit (muscle) or another axon. A neuron with
axon 1 m long is shown in Fig. 1.

The axon is an active transmission line with emf inputs all along it, and this results
in zero attenuation of the signal. The other transmission lines we have considered
are passive, having no energy inputs except at the input terminals.















FIGURE 1
Idealized diagram of a typical neuron, as found in the sciatic (leg) nerve of a large mammal,
with connection shown to an adjacent neuron. The axon acts as the inner conductor, the myelin
sheath as its insulation, and the surrounding medium as the outer conductor of a coaxial
transmission line. It is a noiseless, lossless transmission line. A bundle (cable) of thousands of
such axons or nerve fibers forms the sciatic nerve.


A transmission line is the material medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place
to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves,
as well as electric power transmission. Types of transmission line include wires, coaxial cables,
dielectric slabs, striplines, optical fibers, electric power lines, and waveguides.
BioEM_2
Many neurons may be connected in series by structures called synapses, in which
the output dendrites of one neuron connect with the input dendrites of the next
neuron. The velocity of signal propagation along a particular axon transmission
line is constant, but different axon may have different velocities. Axon of larger
diameter (20 m) may have signal velocities of 100 m S
-1
.

The axon is enclosed in a myelin sheath, which is electrically passive and act as an
insulator. At millimeter intervals along the axon the sheath may be interrupted at
nodes exposing the axon to the surrounding medium. By diffusion of ion from the
surrounding medium through the outer membrane of the axon, emfs are applied
between the inner axon (as one conductor) and the surrounding medium (as the
second conductor) like the voltage across a coaxial transmission line. This voltage
produces a current via the axon and surrounding medium through the next node,
triggering emfs there and so on down the line.

The first definitive theory of axon behavior was published by A. L. Hodgkin and A.
F. Huxley in 1952. Their work, based on research on the properties of a giant axon
of the squid, earned them Nobel Prize.

The equivalent circuit of an axon transmission line according to Hodgkin and
Huxley's theory is shown in Fig. 2. The line has series resistance and hunt
conductance and capacitance. There is no series inductance, but some models
include a shunt inductance. In addition, shunt emfs are applied through variable
conductances which act like switching elements. Normally the diffusion of
potassium (K) ions and miscellaneous leakage (L) ions keeps the inner axon
negative by about 100 mV. But on excitation, the diffusion of sodium (Na) ions
swings the potential positive for the period of the impulse, which is typically a few
tenths of a millisecond. The recovery of the axon to its normal negative potential
after the passage of the impulse is accomplished in less than 1 ms. Since the full
impulse voltage is received at the terminals, the axon transmission line has zero
attenuation. It is also a "noiseless" line in that it either transmits a full impulse or
none at all. There is no intermediate condition.


FIGURE 2
Equivalent circuit of an axon transmission line, divided into node and sheath regions. The axon
has only a membrane separating it from the surrounding medium in the node region but it has a
myelin enclosure in the sheath region.
BioEM_3
Although this brief discussion is greatly oversimplified, it provides some insights
into the remarkable properties of the active coaxial transmission lines present in
great numbers in all animals.


Example 1. Axon action.
If there are 7 neurons in series between the brain and leg of an animal and each
neuron is 8 cm long, find (a) time for brain pulse to arrive at leg. Take velocity =
75 m s
-1
, (b) If the brain pulse is I mV, what is the pulse voltage at the leg?

Solution. Time t = 7 x 0.08175 = 7.5 ms. Ans. (a).
Since attenuation = 0, V = 1 mV. Ans. (b).


Problem 2-1. Axon voltage.
A coaxial axon transmission line is insulated by a tubular membrane of 100-m
wall thickness. The membrane maintains a low sodium ion concentration inside at
a 100-mV difference. What is the electric field in the membrane insulation
between the inner and outer conductors?

Solution.
Electric field=
3
6
100 10
100 10

=1000V/m
Ans. 1000 V/m.



RETINAL OPTIC FIBERS
The retina of a human eye contain a bundle of more than 100 million optical fibers,
each acting as both a light waveguide and also a photon detector (receptor). *There
are two classes of these fibers: the cones, occupying the central area of the retina,
and the more numerous rods in the outer surrounding regions. Almost all of the
cones are individually connected by nerve transmission lines (axons) to the brain,
where signal processing and image formation occurs, and it is with the cones that
fine details (such as the book printing you are reading) can be distinguished. The
rods provide much poorer resolution of image details but can give better vision at
low light levels because of their higher sensitivity and the fact that many rods may
be connected in parallel to a single axon-brain line. The rods also provide
peripheral vision.


* All electromagnetic waves are transmitted in quantum units, called photons, of
energy equal to h , where h = Planck's constant (= 6.63 10
-34
J s) and =
frequency (Hz).



BioEM_4



































FIGURE 3
(a) Section of human eye, (b) enlarged section of retina, and (c) details of cone. The retina
contains over 100 million optical fibers (rods and cones) which act as both polyrod antennas and
photon detection devices. Normal vision wavelengths cover the range from 400 to 700 nm,
which is approximately half the diameter of the outer segments of the rods and cones. The
diagrams are simplified and somewhat schematic. Note that the nerve (axon) connectors are in
front of the rods and cones. This does not interfere with transmission of light to the rods and
cones because the connections are transparent.


Figure 3a is a cross-section of a human eye showing lens, retina, and optic nerve to
the brain. Figure 3b is an enlarged view of a section of the retina, which is a
transparent medium containing rods, cone, cells, and dendrites. It has an opaque
backing called the pigmented layer. Figure 3c is a still more enlarged view of a
single cone. The narrow ends of the rods and cones, called outer segments, are of
the order of 1m in diameter and about 20 times as long. The outer segments have
an index of refraction
1
of about 1.39 with the cladding or surrounding
BioEM_5
(interstitial) medium index
2
a few percent less. These index values are very close
to those employed in typical commercial optical fibers (
1
= 1.46,
2
= 1.44), but
the diameter of the outer segments is less (1.5 to 2), so that the outer segments
apparently have more radiating or receiving action than a standard commercial
optical fiber.

The nucleus of a cone or rod acts as a lens, concentrating light into the interior,
where it travels through both segments by total internal reflection. Any light
photons not absorbed in the outer segment pass out the far end and impinge on the
opaque pigmented layer. In human beings the pigmented layer absorbs light.
preventing any reflection, but in night-hunting animals, such as cats, the
pigmented layer is replaced by a tapetum which is highly reflective so that light
not absorbed on its way to the tapetum is reflected back to the rods and cones. This
gives cats a 6-dB dark vision advantage over humans.

It is to be noted that although the index of refraction of the rods and cones varies
somewhat with position, it is always greater than that of the cladding or
surrounding medium, which is a necessary condition for total internal reflection.
When photons are absorbed by molecules in the outer segment, a current is
initiated which flows back to the bipolar cell, which fires the impulse that travels
to the brain via the axons and dendrites. Thus, a rod or cone might be described as
similar to an end-fire (polyrod) antenna (with unity front-to-back ratio) which is
also equipped with sensitive detectors that convert the light photon frequencies
(10
15
Hz) to near dc impulses for transmission to and processing by the brain.
Hence, the human retina may be said to have an array of more than 100 million
polyrod antennas.



HEART DIPOLE FIELD
The heart of all mammals contracts or beats in response to an electric potential
difference across it which reaches a maximum value just prior to the start of the
blood-pumping contraction. The potentials measured on the skin of the animal at
this instant of maximum voltage have a distribution like that from a dipole aligned
with the heart. The similarity of the field measured on a human chest (Fig. 5a) to
the field of a dipole in an isotropic medium (Fig. 5b) is apparent. The electric
fields of animals are of great diagnostic value. For example, a different (or
abnormal) heart position would be evident from a field map. An advantage of this
mapping technique is that it is harmless, in contrast to X-ray or certain other
techniques for acquiring similar information.


BioEM_6




FIGURE 5
(a) Equipotential contours of electric field from the heart measured on a human chest just prior to
heart contraction with approximate position of the equivalent heart dipole. The field shown is a
somewhat simplified version of an actual measured field. (b) Equipotential and field lines of
electric dipole in an isotropic medium. Note that the heart dipole is within an imperfect
(conducting) dielectric medium and the potentials are measured on a surface displaced from it.
The dipole in (b), however, is in a uniform medium and the map is in a plane parallel to and
coincident with the dipole. Thus, one should not expect the two maps to be identical. The
equipontential contours in (a) are in millivolts. [(a) is after B. Taccardi, Cite. Res., 1963.)]


DEFIBRILLATORS AND PACEMAKERS*
The heart is a bioelectrically controlled blood pump. During a heart attack the
action of the heart muscle deteriorates from a regular contraction to a convulsive
quiver called fibrillation. To restore normal heart action to a human subject, a
capacitor may be discharged through electrodes, called paddles, placed across the
chest as in Fig. 6.

Example 2. External defibrillator.
For a capacitor energy E = 400 J discharged in a time t = 3 ms as the
defibrillation pulse, find (a) pulse current, I, and (b) pulse voltage, V.

External defibrillator
BioEM_7

FIGURE 6 Placement of defibrillator electrodes and of defibrillator-pacemaker.

Solution. From Example 3, the chest resistance R between the paddles is 50 .
Thus,
Energy,
2
I Rt VIt = = E
And the pulse current
3
400
51.6
50 3 10
I = A
Rt

= =

E
Ans. (a)
and pulse voltage
-3
400
V = = = 2.58kV
It 51.6 3 10
E
Ans. (b)

* Design of Cardiac Pacemakers, J. G. Webster, ed., IEEE Press, New York,
1995.




Example 3. Chest resistance.
For a chest width w = 250 mm, find the resistance between two defibrillator
paddles placed under the armpits across the chest.



FIGURE 7 Field map for chest resistance.

BioEM_8
Solution. Draw a field map a in Fig. 7. Animal body has the conductivity = 0.2
m
-I
. Thus,
0
1
R
n n
R
N N d o
= =
where n= number of cell in series = 3
N = number of cells in parallel = 2
= 0.2 m
-I

d = chest dimension (perpendicular to page) = 150mm
Thus,
3 1
R 50
2 0.2 0.15
= = O

Ans.


With the development of small implantable (or internal) defibrillators having
electrodes placed directly in the heart as in Fig. 6, the required pulse energy is
much reduced. The great advantage of an implanted defibrillator is that the pulse is
delivered immediately when the defibrillator unit detects the onset of fibrillation.
There is no wait for a medical team to arrive with a paddle-type defibrillator.


Example 4. Internal defibrillator.
An implanted defibrillator with electrodes in the heart, as in Fig. 6, delivers a 25-J,
5-A, 10-ms pulse. Find the circuit resistance R.
Solution.
2 2 3
25
R 100
I 5 10 10 t

= = = O

E
Ans.
Although the path between electrodes is much less than with external paddles, the
electrodes are tiny compared to the paddles, thus increasing the path resistance.


Problem 5-1. Defibrillator voltage.
What is the pulse voltage for the defibrillator of Example 4? Ans. 500 V.

Implantable heart pacemakers are widely used to maintain normal heart action.
Whereas a defibrillator may fire one big pulse, a pacemaker fires small pulses at
heart beat rates of 50 to 100 per minute. Each pulse may have only one-millionth
the energy of a defibrillator pulse.


Example 5. Pacemaker.
A pacemaker delivers 5- V, 10-mA, 0.5-ms pulses. Find: (a) pulse energy and (b)
path resistance.
Solution.
Energy
-3 -6
5 0.01 0.5 10 25 J 25x10 J 25 J VIt = = = = = E Ans. (a)
Resistance 500 R V I = = O Ans. (b)




BioEM_9
Problem 5-2. Pacemaker battery life.
A pacemaker delivers 5-V, 10-mA, 0.5-ms pulses 60 times per minute. How many
years will a 1-A-h battery last assuming no deterioration?

Solution.
8
8
3 3
1 3600 7.2 10
7.2 10 23
10 10 0.5 10 365 24 3600
t s years


= = = ~


Ans. 23 years.

Many implantable devices combine a defibrillator and a pacemaker in one 0.l-liter
unit (see Fig. 6). Both may remain on standby until the onset of fibrillation when
the defibrillator fires. The pacemaker may then activate for a time to help restore
normal heart action. Or in other situations where a pacemaker i needed to maintain
regular heart action, the pacemaker may be on continuously with the defibrillator
on standby.


Problem 5-3. Pacemaker shielding and radiation.
Pacemaker-defibrillators may be adversely affected by strong magnetic field (of
stereo speakers), by magnetic wand used at airports, by welding machines, by
motors of cordless power tools, by cellular phone, and by wireless remote-control
units for doors and toys. Conversely, the pacemaker-defibrillator can trigger
security alarms.
























BioEM_10
BIOLOGICAL FIELDS
Walk across a rug on a dry day, touch a metal object and zap! You are a
triboelectric (friction) generator. If the spark you drew is only a millimeter long,
you developed a potential of 5000 V. The friction of your feet on the rug drew
electrons to your body and the electrons then jumped from your finger to the metal
object. Although startled, you were not injured because the amount of electric
charge was small. Much less voltage can be lethal if the charge available is large
enough.

Triboelectric effect: the polarity and strength of the charges produced differ
according to the materials, roughness, temperature, strain, and other properties.

Frictionally generated charges attract dust and lint to photographic films and
circuit boards. They can damage microprocessor chips. In the presence of
combustibles they can start a fire or cause an explosion. But they also have many
useful applications.

Out-of-doors on a clear day we are in an electrostatic field of about 200 V/m.
Under a thundercloud the field may be 20,000 V/m. (See "Hey man, hit the ditch,"
Project 2). And rain or shine, we are in a magnetic field of about 1 gauss (1 G).
The thundercloud may alert us when our hair stands on end. But without a
compass or other device, we are unaware of the earth's magnetic field. Not so for a
shark which detect it by internal voltages developed as it moves through the field.
Bees, some bacteria, many birds, and other animals also have a magnetic sense via
internal magnetic bodies of an iron oxide, magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
), which act as a
compass.

Many aquatic forms both generate electric fields and are sensitive to them. Some
fish signal via electric currents in the same way that scuba diver communicate.
Some fish use continuous waves of the order of 700 Hz while other use 2-ms
pulses at a repetition rate of 50 Hz.

Perhaps the most spectacular aquatic form is the electric eel that can deliver 500-V
shocks for stunning prey or warding off predator. (For more information on
electric species see IEEE Spectrum, March 1996, p. 22.)


Example 6. Electric eel.
A freshwater eel, Fig. 8a, develops 500 V between electrodes on its body spaced
750 mm apart. If the eel's internal battery resistance is 15 , find: (a) resulting
current and (b) power developed. Eel's radius = 40 mm, water conductivity =
0.01 rn
-1
.





BioEM_11























FIGURE 8
(a) Freshwater electric eel. (b) Field map between eel's electrodes.

Solution. Draw field map, Fig. 8b. Assume most current flow within volume of
map (to right in water, to left in eel). Note that this is a 3-dimensional situation.
The resistance of the water path is given by the resistance of the nine annular
sections in series. From map, r
2
= 160 mm so the resistance of the shaded annulus
is given by
( )
2 1
2 2 2 2
2 1
0.12
R 159
( ) 0.01 0.16 0.04
r r
r r ot t

= = = O


Taking 159 as the average value
( ) water path 159 9 1432 R = = O
( ) internal 15 R = O
( ) total 1432 15 1447 R = + = O
Thus,
V 500
I 346
R 1447
mA = = = Ans. (a)
2 2
500
P 173
1447
V
W
R
= = = Ans. (b)
Note: Of the 173 W generated, 99 percent is delivered externally and only 1
percent is dissipated internally in the eel, as in a well-designed generating station.





BioEM_12
Problem 61. Electric field of eel.
What is the electric field at point P in Fig. 8b?

Solution.
single
1 1432 500
V 55.0
9 9 1447
waterbath
total
R
V V
R

= = =


single
0.16 d m =
single
single
50.0
343.7
0.16
p
V
E V m
d
= = ~
Ans. 343 V/m.



Problem 62. Eel current.
If a 500-V eel delivers a 25-J shock in 0.1 s, what is the current?

Solution.
25
0.5 500
500 0.1
I A mA = = =


Ans. 500 mA.



Another aspect of biological fields is that bone is piezoelectric, that is, a pressure
applied produces a potential difference while a potential difference applied
produces a mechanical stress. In simplistic terms, exercise stresses a bone,
producing an electric potential difference, which, in turn, promotes calcium
deposit, strengthening the bone. Astronauts in orbit exercise to maintain bone
strength. Persons with a broken arm in a cast can't exercise it, but if a potential
difference is applied across the arm, it can produce an electric field at the bone,
promoting calcium deposit and more rapid healing.


Example 7. Field in bone.
If 50 V is applied by insulated "capacitor plates" across a 75-mm-diameter arm, as
in Fig. 9, what is the electric field E in the bone?
ri
c (insulation) = 1.5,
rb
c (bone)
= 2,
rt
c (tissue) = 4. Bone diameter = 25 mm. Note that since the plates are
insulated, there is no current flow. The insulation thickness =
1
2
mm.
BioEM_13

FIGURE 9
Capacitor plates across arm for application of electric field to bone

Solution. Consider that the field at the bone is essentially uniform so that the
problem can be treated approximately as parallel-plate capacitors with different
dielectrics in series.
Using subscript i for insulation, t for tissue and b for bone we have
V 2 2
i i t t b b
E d E d E d = + +
and since D (normal) is continuous
0 0 0 ri i rt t rb b
D E E E c c c c c c = = =
Introducing numerical values gives
1
Field in bone 970 V m

= =
b
E Ans.


Problem 6-3. Voltage applied for bone therapy.
If the permittivity
r
c , of the insulation = 3 and the field in the bone is 700 V/m,
what is the applied voltage for the configuration of Fig. 9?


Solution.
V 2 2
i i t t b b
E d E d E d = + +
0 0 0 ri i rt t rb b
D E E E c c c c c c = = =
3
V 2 2
2 700 1 2 700
2 2 25 700 25 10 35.5
3 2 4
rb b rb b
i t b b
ri rt
E E
d d E d
V
c c
c c

= + +
| |
= + + =
|
\ .

Ans. 36 V.





BioEM_14
Problem 6-4. Shark velocity.
If a shark can detect an electric field of 1 / V m , what is the minimum velocity at
which it can detect the earths 1-G magnetic field?

Solution:
6
4
1 10
0.01
1 10
E
v
B

= = =

m/s=10mm/s
Ans. 10 mm/s.



ELECTROMAGNETIC HAZARDS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
For years, lightning bolts were mankind's only electromagnetic hazard. But with
the electrical-electronic revolution of the last century many new ones have
emerged involving power lines at frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz and radio
transmitters at kilohertz to gigahertz frequencies.

Heating with radio frequencies is used for medical diathermy treatments, in the
melting of plastics for injection molding, and for cooking food in microwave
ovens. In these applications, the radio frequency power is presumed to be used in a
controlled manner. The question of hazard also arises from the unintentional
exposure to radiation from high-power radio, FM, TV, radar, and wireless
transmitters.

It is of concern to human that radio frequency heating can occur internally without
much awareness because our heat sensors are in the skin. Thus, safe power density
guidelines are needed to avoid being cooked internally without realizing it.

The 1991 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) guideline
specifies the maximum safe power density level in uncontrolled environments as



The amount of heating this power can produce is given in the following example.


Example 8. Heating at 2 W/m
2
.
An electromagnetic wave with power density 2 W m
-2
is incident on a 1-square-
meter slab of absorbing material 1crn in thickness (Fig. 10). Assuming a perfect
match by the slab, find: (a) time to raise slab temperature 1C. (b) What is the
equivalent volt per meter level?

2W/m
2
IEEE safe level of power density
BioEM_15

FIGURE 10 Absorbing slab

Solution. The volume of the slab = 10 liters. We assume the slab is thermally
equivalent to water, for which 1 kg-cal heat energy raises the temperature of 1 liter
l C.
The energy required to raise the slab temperature 1C is given by
mass specific heat 10 1 1 10 kg-cal T = A = = E ,
Since 1 kg-cal 4.2 kJ = ,
42000
Time required 21000 5.8
2 1
energy
s hrs
power
= = = =

Ans. (a)
1
2 377 27.5 V m E PZ

= = = Ans. (b)


In the above example, power density and field strengths have been translated into a
temperature increase. This gives another way of measuring the effect of radio-
frequency field. The next example involves the baking of a potato.


Example 9. Baked Idaho potato in microwave oven.Power factor (PF).
A homogeneous 200-ml, 200-g Idaho potato has constants
rd
= 65 - j 15 at 2.45
GHz. If the oven applies an electric field E = 30 kV m
-1
at 2.45 GHz, how long
will it take to bring the potato temperature from 23C (room temperature) to
100C and hold it there long enough to convert 25 percent of its water content to
steam? This may be considered sufficient for baking the potato. Assume that the
potato is equivalent to an equal volume of water for which the specific heat is 1
cal/g and the heat of vaporization is550 cal / g. 0 o = ; 1 gcal 4.2J = .
The relative permittivity
rd
is a complex quantity. Putting o = J E and
' "
rd
j c c c = in Maxwell's equation, we have
' ( ") jwc o ec = + + E E H
where ' " = + w o o c is an equivalent conductivity and
total
( ") ' ' ' ' = + + = + j j o ec e c o ec J E E E E
with a conduction current density ' o E and a displacement current density ' ec E in
time-phase quadrature. The ratio
tan
o
o
ec
'
= =
'
loss tangent
and
o
90 o u =
cos = (PF) power factor
BioEM_16
For small , PF tan o ~ .
For small dc conductivity ( 0), ' = " so the power factor for the potato is
approximately
15
PF 0.23
65
ec
ec
''
= = =
'




FIGURE 11 Microwave oven.

Solution. The energy required for baking is
( )
(mass specific heat T) (mass heat of vaporization)
200 1 100 - 23 (200 0.25)550 42900g-cal
= A +
= + =
E

and
42900 4.2 180 kJ = = E
The equivalent conductivity
-12
' " 2 2.45 109 15 8.85 10 2.0 m o ec t = = =
From the oven geometry of Fig. 11, we have
For E through the potato:
0 d
V E h E h = +
For E alongside the potato: 2 V hE = so
0 d
2E = E +E
The normal component of D are continuous so
0 0 d d
E E c c =
0 rd d
E = E c
and
4
-1
2 2 3 10
909Vm
1 65 1
d
rd
E
E
c

= = =
+ +

( )
( )( )
2
3
2 6
energy
Baking time =
power potato volume
180 10
545 9
2 909 200 10
d
E
s min
o

=
'

= = =

E
Ans.

Experienced cooks make slits or holes in the potato to allow steam to escape and
prevent the potato from exploding.







As opposed to the response of a vacuum, the response of normal materials to external fields generally
depends on the frequency of the field. This frequency dependence reflects the fact that a material's
polarization does not respond instantaneously to an applied field. The response must always be causal
(arising after the applied field) which can be represented by a phase difference. For this reason
permittivity is often treated as a complex function (since complex numbers allow specification of
magnitude and phase) of the (angular) frequency of the applied field .
BioEM_17
Problem 7-2. Potato.
In Example 9, (a) what is the value of E
0
? (b) If h = 4 cm, what is V?

Solution.
(a)
0
65 909 59.1
rd d
E E kV c = = =
(b)
3 2
0
(59.1 10 909) 4 10 2.4
d
V E h E h kV

= + = + =
Ans. (a) 59 kV; (b) 2.4 kV.



A microwave oven is a resonator and, if well constructed, has negligible radiation
leakage. Although an electric field of 30 kV m
-1
is considered safe inside the oven,
such a level in the open is hazardous. An electromagnetic wave of this field
strength has a power density
2 4 2
6 -2
E (3 10 )
2.4 10 W m
Z 377
P

= = =

This exceeds the IEEE safe level of 2 W m
-2
by
6
6
2.4 10
1.2 10
2

= or 61 dB!

Many high-power radio and radar antennas have such megawatt per square meter
power density levels in their vicinity and warnings to keep away are posted. This
power density level applied to the square-meter 10-liter slab of Fig. 10 reduces the
time for a 1C temperature rise from 5.8 hr to
3
6
21000
=17.5 10 s 18 ms
1.2 10

=



And if the 30 kV m
-1
field of the microwave oven was not attenuated to 909 V m
-1

in the potato, the baking time would be reduced from 9 min to
1
2
s as given by
2
4
909
540 0.5 s
3 10
| |
=
|

\ .


The difference of the field E
d
in the potato and the applied field E involves a
mismatch. Thus, if a person stands in an applied field E, the internal field may be
less. However, if the wavelength is a multiple of the person's height, the person
could resonate like a /4 or /2 antenna and develop higher internal fields.

In addition to the safe-level guideline for radio- frequency waves, there are even
more stringent requirements for controlling unintentional radiation from electronic
equipment which could interfere with other systems. A requirement of the U.S.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is that unintentional radiation from
electronic equipment be less than


100V/m at a distance of 3 m FCC level
BioEM_18
To comply with this electromagnetic interference (EMI) rule, electronic equipment
manufacturers test for spurious emission from their units in an electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) chamber, such as the anechoic chamber in Haking Wong
Building in HKU. A field strength of 100 V m
-1
is equivalent to a power density
level of
2 -6 2
-11 2 -2
E (100 10 )
2.7 10 W m 27 pW m
Z 377
P

= = = =
This is 109 dB less than the IEEE safe level of 2 W m
-2
.
The above field and power density levels are summarized in Table 1.



TABLE 1
Table of power density, field strength, and time to heat 10 liters l
o
C.































Anechoic chambers
BioEM_19
INTERESTING PROJECTS
Project 1. EM survey unit.


FIGURE 12 Electromagnetic survey unit.

Build the simple unit in Fig. 12 and observe rf emission from a few hertz to a few
gigahertz. For example, observe the strong broadband radiation from TV and
computer screens and from fluorescent lamps. Note where AM broadcast signals
and TV station 60-Hz carriers are strongest and weakest in houses and buildings.
Observe continuous emissions from digital clocks and scanners and pulses from
garage door openers, wireless keys and from cellular phones when you push the
"Send" button. Trace 60-Hz wiring. The unit can do this and much more, making
you aware of the electromagnetically polluted world in which we live. On FM
signals the unit detects only the spurious AM that accompanies the signal. None of
the parameters of the circuit are critical.


Project 2. Storm fields and thundercloud potentials.




BioEM_20

FIGURE 13 Thundercloud potentials.

Very high electric potentials develop under thunderclouds resulting in lightning
strikes. To observe the fluctuation of thundercloud potentials, John Kraus
assembled a very simple monitoring device (Fig. l3a). A field-effect transistor
(FET) inside a plastic pipe has gate connected to two branching wires as an
electrostatic antenna, like a bug's antenna, with drain connected to a voltage
supply and recorder. The pipe is in an open area with the recorder in the Kraus
home.

An actual record is shown in Fig. l3b. The potential rises quickly until there is a
single lightning discharge, then it builds up again to a multiple discharge. The
discharges or lightning strikes are gigantic "sparks" that produce radio waves.
These travel long distances and make loud "cracks" or "pops" in an AM receiver.
The strikes at the time of the observations of (b) were heard at the instant the
spikes appeared on the record.

The fast rise to dangerous potentials does not give the man in Fig. 13c much time
to "hit the ditch" where the electric field is 1000 times less than at his head.
With relay and siren, the system can warn when to seek shelter.


Problem P2-1. Storm fields.
What are the electric fields at points P
1
, P
2
, P
3
and P
4
in Fig. 13c?

Solution:
The rough length of distance in each area containing P
1
, P
2
, P
3
and P
4
could be
measured by ruler.
1
0.75
p
d m ~
2
1.00
p
d m ~
3
0.63
p
d m ~
4
0.50
p
d m ~
4
3 10
V 7.5 V
4
area
k

= =
BioEM_21
1 1
7.5
E V 10.0
0.75
p area p
d kV = = = d=0.86, e=8.72kV/m
2 2
7.5
E V 7.5
1.00
p area p
d kV = = = d = 1.07, e= 7kv/m
3 3
7.5
E V 11.9
0.63
p area p
d kV = = = d= 0.7, e= 10.7 kv/m
4 4
7.5
E V 15.0
0.50
p area p
d kV = = = d = 0.51, e = 14.7 kv/m
Ans. 9, 7, 11, and15 kV m
-1
.


Solar Power to Food
It is solar power, converted by photosynthesis into edible plants, which supplies
the world's food for humans and the animals that humans eat. Without solar-power
photosynthesis of green leaves, life as we know it would not be possible on the
earth.

Example 10. From solar power to cole slaw.
Alice Kraus, wife of the senior author, is an avid gardener who grows big Savoy
cabbages. A plant takes about 10 weeks to mature and during that time the leaves
of a cabbage plant with 5-kg head cover an average area of about 0.4 m
2
.
Assuming an equivalent of 32 six-hour days of "full sunshine" at an average
elevation angle of 50, what is the conversion efficiency from sun to body energy?
Raw cabbage (no mayonnaise) gives 250 calories per kilogram. 1 kg-cal = 4186 J.
We assume that the energy required for maintaining the electrochemical gradient
in the roots necessary for the acquisition of water and mineral is negligible since
the soil was moist. Take sun's power at normal incidence = 1 kW m
-2
. The "solar
constant" or sun's power above the atmosphere = 1353 W m
-2
. Allowing for
atmosphere absorption, haze, jet trails and scattered clouds, we take the incident
power at the ground =1 kW m
-2
. (1 kg-cal = amount of heat to raise 1 kg or 1 liter
of water 1C.)

Solution.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
-2 2
6
Solar energy incident power W m sin elevation angle time s area m
1000 sin 50 32 6 3600 0.4 210 10 J
=
= =
6
Body energy 5 250 4186 5.2 10 J = =
body energy 5.2
Efficiency 0.025 or 2.5%
solar energy 210
= = = Ans.

This is a typical value for solar energy to body energy conversion efficiency.
When humans eat animal meat, the conversion efficiency is much lower because
of the two-step conversion: plant to animal - animal to human.
If the leaves and roots of the cabbage plant were eaten, the efficiency would be
about 20 percent higher (or 3.0 percent) but these parts are customarily discarded.
Photovoltaic solar panels convert solar energy to electrical energy with somewhat
higher efficiencies of around 20 percent.
Particle_Accelerators_1
1

Particle Accelerators in Medical Application


Definition
The particle accelerator is a device that uses electric field to
direct the electrically-charged particles into high speed by
providing them an energy gain through the voltage difference
between the electrodes inside the accelerator. In some
accelerators, magnetic field is utilized to bend the particle beam
to the desired location or to converge the beam.
For a particle accelerator, the electrically-charged particles can
be:
1. an electron;
2. a proton;
3. a heavier ion, e.g. a carbon ion
The accelerators do not have a specific size. They can be as
small as a desk-top computer or have a diameter of a few
kilometers.
Table 1. Particle accelerators around the world
[1]

Synchrotron Location & Country
Australian Synchrotron Melbourne, Australia
BESSY II
Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin in Berlin,
Germany
Bevatron Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, USA
Canadian Light Source University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Cosmotron Brookhaven National Laboratory, USA
Diamond Light Source Oxfordshire, UK
ELETTRA Trieste, Italy
ISIS Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK
MAX-III MAX-lab, Sweden
Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility
(SSRF)
Shanghai, China
Soleil Paris, France
SPring-8 RIKEN, Japan
Particle_Accelerators_2
2

Stanford Synchrotron Radiation


Lightsource
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory,
USA
Swiss Light Source Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland
Synchrotron Light Research Institute
(SLRI)
Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
Taiwanese National Synchrotron
Radiation Research Center
Hsinchu Science Park, Taiwan
Tevatron
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory,
USA
The electric field and magnetic field can be constant or varying.
For the accelerator used in biomedical field, the electric field is
usually changing in radiofrequency.

Application in biomedicine
[2]

The accelerators are used to produce high speed particles. These
particles are of high energy and they can be used in the
following applications:

Radiotherapy
[3]

Radiotherapy is done by damaging the DNA of the cells by
ionizing the atoms that make up the DNA chain. The
ionization can due to a photon, electron, proton or ion beam.
Apart from directly ionizing the atom through the particles,
ionization can also be caused by the formation of free radicals
through the ionization of water. As the cancer cells have a
diminished ability to repair sub-lethal damage compared to most
healthy cells. The DNA damage would be accumulated through
their reproduction and causing them to die or reproduce slowly.
Particle_Accelerators_3
3


Particle accelerators can be used in the following common
therapy types:

1. Radiation therapy
At the end of the accelerator, a target substance, usually
elements with high atomic mass, was put. The high speed
particles, usually electrons, would strike on that target to
produce radiation. Then the radiation would strike on the
patient in order to kill the cancer cell. The X-ray produced by
this mean is much stronger in energy than the traditional X-ray
tubes.

2. Particle therapy
The configuration of this type of machines is similar to the
previous one. However, in this type, the high atomic mass target
is absent. Instead of radiation, the high speed particles are
directly used to kill the cancer cells. Protons or some heavier
ions like the carbon ions are usually used as the high speed
particles. This method is better than radiotherapy because,
unlike radiation, the affected area of the high speed particle is
relatively small. Hence the damage to neighbouring tissue is
relatively smaller.
Particle_Accelerators_4
4

Particle_Accelerators_5
5

Figure 1. A typical particle therapy system


[4]

Particle_Accelerators_6
6


The device usually consists of a cyclotron supplying particles to the treatment rooms.

Cyclotron or synchrotron is usually adapted for their small size.

Bending magnet is present to direct the beam while the selecting magnet would bend the particle beam
into the gantry.
Particle_Accelerators_7
7


A gantry is like a rail which allows the nozzle to rotate around it.
The beam passes in would be guide to the nozzle.

A nozzle is where the beam comes out.
Therapist would point the nozzle to the cancer cell and send out the beam.
Figure 2. Different parts of a particle therapy unit
[5]
Particle_Accelerators_8
8


Radioisotope production
Hospital can use accelerators to produce radioisotopes locally.
Although some isotopes can be prepared by factories and
brought to the hospital, the hospital still needs to produce some
locally, as some isotopes have a relatively shorter half-life and
they would become much less active or a large amount is
needed to transport to the hospital. So it is more economical to
produce locally. These accelerators are relatively smaller than
those for therapy.





Figure 3. A cyclotron used to produce radioisotope
[6]
Particle_Accelerators_9
9


Table 2. Radioisotope produced in hospital
[2]



Sterilization
The radiation of the high speed particles can also be used to kill
the micro-organisms on a surface and hence, sterilize an
object. The advantage over the conventional method is that it
can destroy bacteria that are difficult to destroy, e.g. anaerobes,
just as well as it destroy ordinary bacteria.
[2]

Particle_Accelerators_10
10


Figure 4. A sterilizing system using accelerators
[2]




Table 3. Medical accelerators manufacturers
Varian http://www.varian.com/us/oncology/proton/treatment_delivery_technology.html
Sumitomo http://www.shi.co.jp/quantum/
Siemens http://www.medical.siemens.com
Mitsubishi http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/particlebeam/products/index.html
Protom
international
http://www.protominternational.com/index.html
IBA http://www.iba-worldwide.com/

Particle_Accelerators_11
11

Types of Accelerators

Figure 4. Simple classification of accelerators used in medical field

The particle accelerators used in medical area can be classified
into two big groups, according to their shape, the linear type and
the cyclic type. The linear types contain long accelerating units
while the cyclic types are circular in shape.
Under the type cyclic, the accelerators can be further divided
into cyclotron and synchrotron. In a cyclotron, the particles
would move in a spiral path under constant magnetic field while
in a synchrotron, the magnetic field would keep changing to
keep the particles in a fixed orbit
Particle_Accelerators_12
12


Magnetic Force
[7]

According to definition of Lorentz Force, the magnetic force
for charge particle (with charge q) moving with velocity
in a magnetic field is . As it is a cross-product,
by right hand rule, the magnetic force is perpendicular to both
the velocity and magnetic field . The power done by the
magnetic force So the magnetic force will not
change the kinetic energy of the charge particle, It only
charge the direction of the velocity for the charge particle. If
the velocity is in the same direction of the magnetic field, then
there is no magnetic force acting on the charge particle. For
charge particle moving in a uniform magnetic field , The
velocity can be represented as , is a component of
velocity along B, which will not change. The particle
advances along while it moves in a circle in the plane formed
by and .

Linear Accelerator
A linear accelerator is the one which has a linear acceleration
unit. The acceleration unit is made up of hollow tubes. The
tubes are connected to a voltage source which changes in
radiofrequency.
Particle_Accelerators_13
13


Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a linear accelerator
[8]

Structural Components
A typical linear accelerator has at least 2 components: the
source of particles and the acceleration units. Usually, the
accelerator also contains some magnets to focus or direct the
beam of particles to the desired location.

Figure 6. The linear accelerator composition
[9]
1. Particle Source
As the acceleration unit is linear, the particle source is located
in one of the end of the acceleration unit. Usually the particles
are produced with an initial velocity to move into the
acceleration tube.
2. Acceleration Unit
For linear accelerators, the acceleration unit consists of several
hollow tube electrodes of different length. The particle beam
Particle_Accelerators_14
14

would travel through the tubes and accelerate every time it


passes through the gap between two tubes.

Figure 7. The acceleration tubes

3. Focusing Unit
In a linear accelerator, the magnetic field is used for focusing
and directing the particle beam. The unit is composed of some
quadrupoles for focusing and bending magnets for changing
the beam direction.

Figure 8. Bending Magnet
Particle_Accelerators_15
15


Figure 9. A quadrupole magnet used in focusing the beam
[10]

Working principle
1. Particle source
Different types of source for particles can be used in the
accelerators. Usually, the electron source provides a
pre-accelerated beam while the ion source may be much
non-directional.
Electron Source
Most of the time, the electron source is in the form of electron
gun. The configuration of the electron gun is shown below. The
filament is made of tungsten. It is supplied with high energy so
that the electron would leave the atom through thermionic
emission. As the filament is supplied with a voltage relatively
negative, the electron emitted would be repelled and move to
the anode. In front of the cathode, there is a Wehnelt cylinder. It
Particle_Accelerators_16
16

is supplied with a negative bias to the filament so that the


electron beam would be focused in the d
0
.

Figure 10. Diagram of an electron gun
[11]

Ion Source
For ion source, there are usually 2 different methods to generate.
The first method is to bombard the surface of a solid with a
stream of high-energy particles. In the second method we can
heat the metal atoms into vapours and then ionize them.
Then, we can bombard the element vapours with high energy
electrons. The configuration of the machine is shown below.
Similar to the electron source, there is also a hot cathode to
supply high speed electrons, but the electrons are used to
bombard the atom vapour inside the chamber to produce
Particle_Accelerators_17
17

ions. The collision ionization produced electrons and they


would be propelled by the electrode in the chamber and get
pre-accelerated to the anode. The electrons would not be
propelled at the same time but go relatively straight towards the
other side as it has a high velocity.





Figure 11. Diagram for linear ion source
[12]

Particle_Accelerators_18
18


2. Acceleration tubes
Acceleration Principle
For linear accelerators, an energy gain is applied every time
the particles pass through the gap between the beam guides.
With that energy gain, the speed of the particles would also
increase. From figure 15 you may see voltage is supplied
alternately. This is to ensure that the E-field is flowing through
the gap between the tubes. Also, the voltage would be changed
in radiofrequency so that every time the particles enter the
gap, they would receive an accelerating E-field, which means,
the polarity should change every time the particle beam
passes through the gap. The relationship of length a of the tube,
the period of the voltage T and the speed of particle v is: .
However as the voltage is like a sinusoidal wave, it is
not guaranteed that every time the particle are at the
crest of the voltage. Hence, the acceleration is not efficient. To
overcome the problem, we need velocity modulation.

Figure 12. E-field line between two accelerating tubes
[8]

Particle_Accelerators_19
19


Figure 13. Plot of energy against ratio of speed to speed of light
[2]

Velocity Modulation
[13]

As the particle beam may arrive in the gap at different time
and hence, has a difference in acceleration and cause waste in
energy, a velocity modulation system is applied. The system is
just as the acceleration tubes, providing the particles passing
through the gap with a gain in energy. The voltage is also a
sinusoidal wave; with the faster particles have a small
acceleration while the slower ones have a greater
acceleration. There is a distance between the Buncher resonator
and the acceleration unit. This distance is to allow the particle
to be packed into bunches due to their acceleration
difference. Suppose there are 3 particles passing the Buncher
distance, the first particle experienced a negative voltage and
was decelerated. The second particle experienced zero voltage.
Its velocity was unchanged. The third particle experienced
positive voltage and was accelerated. The 3 particles are now
packed into a bunch. The bunch of particles would reach the
crest of the acceleration voltage when the reaches the gap
between two tubes in the accelerator.
Particle_Accelerators_20
20


Figure 14. Energy gain by particles arriving at different time
[14]


Figure 15. Linear Accelerator and the Velocity Modulator
[8]
B Velocity modulator, D Acceleration tubes, V - Voltage supply, L Space for the Beam to
be packed, S Particle source, G tube space

Figure 16. The effect of Buncher Resonator
Particle_Accelerators_21
21


Figure 17. Bunch of beam and acceleration voltage
[8]

3. Magnets
The beam would keep diverging when it is travelling as it is just
like a light source, and the beam would not sharply strike on the
target or affect other areas. To overcome this problem, some
magnet would be used to keep the beam focusing and direct it to
its target.
Focusing Magnets
The most common type of focusing magnet is the quadrupole. It
is a magnet with alternating poles on the 4 sides. By Flemings
left hand rule, the particle beam passes through would
experience magnetic forces forcing them either packed
vertically or horizontally. By using alternating quadrupoles,
the beam would keep focusing and not to be too converge or
too diverge.
Particle_Accelerators_22
22


Figure 18. Quadrupole configuration
[2]


Figure 19. Effect of quadrupoles
[15]

Figure 20. The effect of alternating quadrupoles
[15]

Bending Magnets
Another type of magnet used in a linear accelerator is the
bending magnets. They are in the shape of a sector to provide
Particle_Accelerators_23
23

constant magnetic field for the particle to changes its direction.


By switching the strength of the field, the beam can be focus to
different position. The principle behind is similar to the particle
filter for mass spectrometer, but instead of mass per charge ratio,
the momentum is the criteria for the bending. The particles
with lower momentum would bend more while those with
higher would bend less.

Figure 21. A diagram shows the effect of momentum on bending

Cyclotrons
Cyclotrons are circular type accelerators. The electrodes are
two D-shaped electrodes (dees) which are hollow for the
particles to move inside. The magnets are packed on top and
bottom of the dees like a hamburger.


Particle_Accelerators_24
24


Figure 22. Configuration of a cyclotron

Figure 23. The D-shaped electrodes
Structural Components
1. Particle Source
Comparing with linear accelerator, the particle source for the
cyclotron is put at the middle between the 2 dees. Comparing
with the source used in linear accelerator, it is usually an ion
Particle_Accelerators_25
25

source and the particle beams coming out do not have specific
direction until they are directed by the electric field between the
dees.

Figure 24. A design of cyclotron, S is where the source located
[16]

2. Acceleration Unit
As mentioned before, the acceleration unit of the cyclotron
consists of two D-shaped electrodes. The D-shaped electrodes
are hollow plates where particles can move inside the dees. The
electric field is only present between the dees and the
particles accelerate here.
3. Magnets
The magnets pack on top and bottom of the dees like a
sandwich to provide a magnetic field on the electrodes. The
particles inside the dees would not be affected by the E-field to
change its speed but change its direction by the magnetic
field.
Particle_Accelerators_26
26


Figure 25. Magnetic field in the cyclotron
[2]


Working Principle
1. Particle Source
For ion source in cyclotron, the principle is similar. The electron
source would be placed in the middle of the gap between the
dees. The ion source, some vaporized atoms, would be
pumped into the chamber of the electrodes where the
electron generated would bombard with the atom and form
ions. The ions, with the action of the E-field between the dees,
would be accelerated and perform its cyclic movement.
Particle_Accelerators_27
27


Figure 26. Ion Source for Cyclotron
[17]


2. Acceleration Unit
The unit consists of two hollow D-shaped disks (dees). The
voltage is applied to the disks. As the surrounding is shielded,
there is no E-field inside the disks. Hence the particles only
experience E-field when they are passing through the gap
between the dees. Similarly, as we have to compromise that the
particles receive acceleration each time they pass through, the
voltage applied would be changing every time the particles
pass. As the speed of the particles is close to speed of light, the
changing rate should lie on the radiofrequency.
Particle_Accelerators_28
28


Figure 27. Side-view of a cyclotron
Magnetic Field
[7]

Let us consider the forces in the magnetic field. As mentioned in
the magnetic force part, the particle with velocity V would
move in a spiral path with its axis along . As the magnetic
force provide the centripetal force , then
, where R is the radius. So we have momentum
And the angular velocity of the circular motion
which is independent of the velocity of the charge
particle! ( is the cyclotron frequency). This is for the
Derivation in the next part.
Mathematic Derivation
Particle_Accelerators_29
29

As mentioned before, when a charged particle going through a


magnetic flux, there would be a force acting on its 90 direction.
As this force must be perpendicular to the velocity of the
particle and there is no other force acting on it, we can conclude
that magnetic force F
B
would be equal to the centripetal
force F
C
.
and
As , we get:

Also as kinetic energy , we can find that:



Moreover, to find out the relationship between the
radiofrequency and the energy gain, we need to first find out the
angular velocity:
The revolution period T of the cycle:

Where T = 1/f , angular velocity
Particle_Accelerators_30
30

As the particles need to be accelerated every time they pass


through the gap, the voltage change frequency should equal to
the frequency for the particles circular motion. Let the
wavelength of the radiofrequency be .


Sub into previous equations, we get:

The wavelength is inversely proportional to the induction


B.


As (energy of particle at rest mass), we can this is
find the energy ratio between the accelerated particle and the
particle at rest mass.
Particle_Accelerators_31
31

By this equation, given a shorter wavelength of the


accelerating field, the Kinetic energy if the given particle is
larger. However, the valueis limited since the induction
cannot exceed 2T. We can increase the energy of the accelerated
particles by increasing the r
max
of the orbit of the particles.
Particle_Accelerators_32
32


Synchrotrons
Comparing with cyclotron, the synchrotron is a much complex
machine. In addition to the acceleration unit, it also has a
storage ring to keep the high speed particles for later uses.

Figure 28. A synchrotron (storage ring absent)
[18]

Particle_Accelerators_33
33


Structural Components

Figure 29. A layout of a medical synchrotron system
[19]
1. Injection system
Before the particles being accelerated in the booster ring, it is
first accelerated in linear accelerator. Like a linear accelerator,
the beam from the source would pass through the acceleration
tubes for a pre-acceleration.
2. Booster Ring
The booster ring is the main acceleration area for a synchrotron.
Unlike the cyclotron, the synchrotron does not use dees as
electrodes. Instead, it uses acceleration cavities like linear
accelerators and some quadrupoles or even sextupoles to
focus the beams.
3. Storage Ring
Particle_Accelerators_34
34

After the beam has been accelerated to the desired speed, the
beam would be passed to a large ring called the storage ring.
Here, the beam would be circulated for several hours or
several days until it is needed. However, medical use
synchrotron would not have this part as the beam generated
would be immediately used.

Working Principle
1. Injection System
Actually the injection system is just the same as a linear
accelerator. It is simpler than the one mentioned before as this is
not the main acceleration part.
2. Booster Ring
[20]

The working principle of the synchrotron can be considered in a
similar way like the cyclotron. Through the equation,
we can rewrite it into where E is the total
energy ( in non-relativistic case, where the mass is at
rest, it is called rest mass). When particles are still gaining
energy in the non-relativistic condition, the magnetic field of the
synchrotron increases so that increases to keep the rotating
orbit constant through the relation . At the same time, the
frequency of the electric field also increases so that the particle
beam received energy gain every time it passes through the
Histhemagneticfield.Inairorvacuum,H=E
Particle_Accelerators_35
35

acceleration cavity. When particle is being accelerated to a


speed comparable to the speed of light, it mass is no longer a
rest mass. The kinetic energy of the particle also adds to the
mass of it. It is in a relativistic condition. After the particle
reaches the relativistic condition, the energy would no longer
only non-relativistic part. And hence, the magnetic field need to
be adjust to have the suitable .
3. Storage Ring
Similar to the booster ring, the storage ring also keep the high
speed particle beam in a fixed orbit using magnets. However, in
the storage ring, the beam would not be accelerated. In addition,
as high speed particle performing circular motion would cause
loss of energy through radiation, the storage ring would have
some accelerating cavity to compensate the energy loss.
Comparison
Particle Therapy vs. X-ray Radiotherapy
As mentioned before, radiotherapy uses the ionization power of
high energy particles or photon to damage the DNA of cancer
cells. However, different radiation would have different range
and ionization properties in the tissue. Every radiation has its
specific range through the tissue. Moreover, along its range, the
radiation dose along its path is different depends on is nature.
Particle_Accelerators_36
36


Figure 30. Radiation dose along the path for photon and proton beam
[21]

From the figure, the photon beam would have most of its
energy in the swallower part and decrease slowly along its
path. On the other hand, for proton beam, most of its
radiation is concentrated in a sharp distance of its range and
decrease greatly after the peak. This effect is known as Bragg
Peak. Before the Bragg Peak, the radiation dose of proton beam
is kept low and hence less damage is done on the healthy tissue.
From the figure above, you can also see that, we can get a
broad peak by modifying the beam. As the dose peak and
range is depending on the intensity and the energy of the proton
beam, by using a complex beam with a composition of energy
and intensity, we can adjust the width of the Bragg peak for the
beam and hence targeting the cancer cells properly.
Dose means the amount of radiation a particle is exposed to. Here, it means the amount
of radiation deposited in the medium. (energy deposit per unit mass)
Intensity = Energy of radiation striking a unit area per unit time
Energy is the energy carried by the photon.
Particle_Accelerators_37
37


Figure 31. The spread out effect by using different proton beams
[22]


Figure 32. Comparison of affect area of photon and proton, colored area shows the dose of
radiation receive by the tissue
[23]

Particle_Accelerators_38
38

Bragg Peak
[24]
BetheBlochformulaforheavychargedparticles:

E=energyofparticle
x=pathlength
dE/dx=thestoppingpower
=v/c
v=velocityoftheparticle
c=speedoflight
e=electroncharge
z=atomicnumber
m=restmassofelectron
n=electrondensityofthetarget
I=meanexcitatioinpotentialofthetarget,dependsonthematerialandx
=permittivityofvacuum
According to the equation found by Bethe
[25]
, high speed
particles would cause ionization in the medium they pass. The
energy they lose due to this ionization depends on the speed,
the charge and also the mass of the particles. For heavy
particles like protons, due to their large mass comparing to
electrons and photon, they would cause less ionization when
they are still in high speed. However, when their speed, which
related to their kinetic energy, decrease (<<1, dE/dx),
the energy they lose due to ionizing the medium would increase
(the peak rises up). When the protons are slow enough to
capture electrons from the surrounding medium to neutralize its
charge, its ionization power decreases to zero (the peak dies off).
i.e. 0, dE/dx0. Hence, a sharp radiation dose near the
maximum range can be seen for the ionization curve for heavy
particles like protons.
Particle_Accelerators_39
39

Carbon ion vs. Proton


Although proton beam has many advantages over photon beam,
the heavy ion beam is even more superior. For heavy ions, the
Bragg Peak is even sharper. For example, the Bragg Peak for
carbon ion shown in the figure below is much sharper then the
peak for proton. With a sharper peak, the therapist can do a
much accurate targeting on the cancer cells without doing much
harm to the healthy cells. Moreover, another issue that affects
the curing effect of the radiation is the Relative Biological
Effectiveness (RBE).
Higher RBE means greater biological damage which is the
desired output for radiotherapy. However, though heavier ions
have much sharper peak than lighter ions, their RBE do not go
the same with the peak. The RBE would be at the maximum
even before its radiation dose reaches the Bragg Peak. Hence,
carbon, as a balanced atom in these two fields, is widely
used in cancer treatment.
[
26]


Dose of reference radiation required to produce specific biolodical response
RBE
Dose of the test type radiation required to produce same response

Particle_Accelerators_40
40

Figure 33. The Bragg Peak for proton and heavy ion
[27]


Figure 34. Comparison of carbon ions and photon in medication, the center area is where the
cancer cells located and the coloured area shows the radiation received by the tissue.
[23]


Constant Voltage vs. Radiofrequency
Some non-medical accelerators use constant voltage to
accelerate. However, the energy gain by the particle is smaller
than radiofrequency ones. Moreover, a high voltage is needed
for the static accelerator and it may more easily cause
electrical breakdown of the insulator.

Linear vs. Cyclotron
Comparing with linear accelerator, cyclotrons occupy a
smaller space as they do not have long acceleration tubes.
However, limited by its magnetic strength, the cyclotron
cannot accelerate heavier ions properly.
[28]


Cyclotron vs. Synchrotron
Although both cyclotron and synchrotron are cyclic in shape,
Particle_Accelerators_41
41

they are very different in structure and their accelerating


mechanisms. First of all, the cyclotrons use constant
frequency voltage and constant magnetic field. Hence as the
speed of the particles increases, they would travel a bigger
circular path and a spiral pathway is formed. In synchrotron,
the E-field and B-field is set to control the beam in a fixed
circle. Secondly, as the beam passes in a spiral path, the
maximum energy gain is limited by the size of the cyclotron.
However, for synchrotron, this limit does not exist. Finally, as
the cyclotron does not have a storage ring, the particles would
escape from the cyclotron once they pathway exceed the radius
of the magnet while synchrotron can store the particle for
non-immediate uses.
Particle_Accelerators_42
42

Reference
[1] Synchrotron Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrotron
[2] Scharf, W., & Cole, F. T. (1986). Particle accelerators and their uses. Accelerators and storage rings, v. 4. Chur:
Harwood Academic.
[3] Radiation Therapy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotherapy
[4] Pummeling Cancer with Protons Interactive Graphic NYTimes.com,
http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/12/14/business/20071217_PROTON_GRAPHIC.html
[5] Iba Proton Therapy Facility Design The most advanced Prtoton Therapy sysem on the market,
http://www.iba-worldwide.com/healthcare/radiotherapy/particle-therapy/facility-design.php
[6] 62Zn/62Cu Microgenerator,
http://www.proportionaltech.com/new_site/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=45&Itemid=56
[7] Cyclotron, www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/cyclotron/cyclotron.html
[8] Wangler, T. P., & Wangler, T. P. (2008). RF linear accelerators. Physics textbook. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
[9] Stanford Linear Acceleration Center, http://www.slac.stanford.edu/
[10] File:Aust.-Synchrotron,-Quadrupole-Focusing-Magnet,-14.06.2007.jpg Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aust.-Synchrotron,-Quadrupole-Focusing-Magnet,-14.06.2007.jpg
[11] Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM),
http://www.nhml.com/resources/1998/10/1/scanning-electron-microscopes-sem
[12] Untitled Document, http://www.hull.ac.uk/chemistry/masspec3/principles%20of%20ms.html
[13] Velocity Modulation, http://www.tpub.com/neets/book11/45a.htm
[14] Virtual Visitor Center at SLAC, http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/default.htm
[15] Welcome to the World of Beam, http://bc1.lbl.gov/CBP_pages/educational/WoB/home.htm
[16] Saha, G. B. (2005). Basics of PET imaging: Physics, chemistry, and regulations. New York, NY: Springer.
[17] Rutengers Cyclotron, http://www.physics.rutgers.edu/cyclotron/welcome.shtml
[18] Synchrotron, http://www.werc.or.jp/english/reseadeve/activities/accelerator/accelerator/synchro/index.htm
[19] Particle Beam Treatment System Mitsubishi Electric,
http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/particlebeam/products/carbon_proton.html
[20] Blumenthal I.S. The Operating Principle of Synchrotron Accelerators. American Journal of Physics.
1953;21:164-170
[21] Bragg Peak Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bragg_Peak
[22] Proton Therapy | Benefits, http://www.varian.com/us/oncology/proton/benefits.html
[23] Clinical, http://www.medical.siemens.com/
[24] Jayaraman, S., & Lanzl, L. H. (1996). Clinical radiotherapy physics. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
[25] Segr, E. (1953). Experimental nuclear physics. New York: Wiley.
[26] Carbon ions pack a punch CERN Courier, http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/30578
[27] GUNMA UNIVERSITY HEAVY-ION MEDICAL CENTER,
http://heavy-ion.showa.gunma-u.ac.jp/en/therapy02.html
[28] Cyclotron Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotron

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