CLAS146 FINAL: 6/8 terms to id (30%), essay questions (30%), unseen essays (40%) Second Triumvirate: Formed Nov

ov 27, 43BC, the Second Triumvirate was a formally recognized emergency magistracy (through lex titia). The Second Triumvirate was a military dictatorship composed of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus (Caesars vice-dictator). They were not popular among the Roman people, although Antony got most of the blame. Fought in the Battle of Philippi (October, 42 BC) against Brutus & Cassius. Although the second triumvirate defeats their optimates opponents, eventually more war breaks out (Caesar v. Pompey/Octavian vs. Antony). Antony: Antony, who was consul in 44 BC, took over command of the state after Caesar died before forming the nd 2 triumvirate with Lepidus and Octavian in 43 BC after the Senate tries to get Octavian to wipe out Antony. Antony later marries Octavia in 40 BC, but runs off to Egypt to be in a relationship with Cleopatra that emasculates him. He later celebrates a triumph in Egypt, paid tribute to his kids in 34 BC, and ends up fighting and losing in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC to Octavian. Due to Antonys involvement with Cleopatra, he was a prime target for Octavian propaganda such as his representation of his sons at the donations of Alexandra as a betrayer of Roman values and customs, which during their eventual clash at the Battle of Actium, the war was depicted as well as a an holy war, so much so that some of Antonys soldiers defected to Octavian in fear of betraying their Roman heritage by being a soldier of Antony. Symbolic of Antonys behavior, he was identified with Dionysus, the god of win and fertility, but also the one who is crazy and mad with no control over their emotions (such as Dido in the late parts in Book 4 of the Aeneid). Roman perceptions of Cleopatra: In 40BC, Antony goes to Egypt (on the premise that he was inquiring if Egypt supported Brutus & Cassius) where he falls in love with Cleopatrameaning to the Romans that he was engaging in childish play, DEROMANIZING, and going native. Cleopatra was despised by the Romans, not only because she was foreign/eastern and a queen, but because she emasculated their Roman leader and caused him to be soft, abandoning his duties and becoming completely absorbed in her. Antony eventually goes to war with Octavian, in which he will lose. Social Commentary of Epode 16: Written around 30s BC by Horace, this epode displayed the despair and nd hopelessness Romans felt under the 2 Triumvirate; there was no real solution, one could only hope for utopia and pretend to be serious. Lament for the civil war was still a very prevalent theme. Social Commentary of Eclogue 4: Battle of Actium: The Battle of Actium took place on September 2, 31 BC between Octavian and Antony (with Cleopatra) that was a naval battle which was a stalemate for the most part until Cleopatra fled to the open sea due to Antony trying to reinforce his flanks, which Antony at the sight of this, chases after Cleopatra. This battle marked the beginning of the empire and a figure-piece in Octavians propaganda as Octavian spins the situation as Cleopatra panicking and fleeing the battle scene reinforcing the idea that women should not be able to hold so much power especially as a naval commander (rather they should be like Julia, Pompeys wife and daughter of Julius Caesar). He also makes it as Antony losing all hope at the sight of her leaving; he follows her which signifies the culmination of the emasculation due to his involvement with her and rather controlling her, shes controlling him (unlike Octavia who was a dutiful wife travelling and living while waiting for her husband in Athens while he eloped with Cleopatra). Augustus: Augustus which is derived from auctus meaning increase (in dignity) or avium gestum gustusve (the movement or feeding of the birds) was a term used to identify sacred places or thing made sacred. The name was bestowed to Octavian in 27 BC. The title was symbolic of Augustus association with the gods as an intermediate between the gods and the people which reflect that he was deemed worthy to oversee the State in this time of nd turmoil as he was an individual that was holy, and was therefore considered or likened as the 2 founder of Rome (such as Romulus setting the foundation for the city, he set the foundation for the empire). tribunicia potestas: In 23 BC, with the power of the 2 Settlement, Augustus gained the power of veto of a tribune
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for any laws as a way to prevent any harmful laws (aka legislative action he did not approve) from being passed. Most importantly, it allowed him to obtain the power needed to prevent laws that he did not approve, while at the same time maintaining the image of a person who is acting within the rules of the constitution, and that the power was constitutional, rather than tyrannical (such as Caesar being dictator-for-life). maius imperium pro consule: n 23 BC, with the power of the 2 Settlement, Augustus gained the power of imperium pro consule which contained the power similar to proconsuls but even better (outranks) than others. nd Since he stepped down as consul to allow the 2 consular position to be pursued by another senator, he needed the power to intervene in Roman provinces if the governors there would be doing something unsatisfactory. As a result, the imperium pro consule allowed him to intervene in provinces, while at the same time he pleased the other Senators by opening a position up for consul. Augustan Military Treasury: In 6 AD, Augustus creates a new military treasury funded by his own 120 million sesterces and later by State taxes such as a 5% manumission tax which provided a predictable and stable pay for the soldiers as well as a nice bonus upon their retirement after 16 years in the army. This effectively provided a career for the citizens as soldiers and shifted the loyalty to the State rather than the commanders (unlike Caesars soldiers) due to their dependence of land which was supposed to be furnished by the commander upon finishing the campaign (a problem Pompey and Octavian faced) which would be solved by offering 9000 sesterces at the soldiers retirement, allowing them to use the money for whatever purpose such as buying land. This provided stability in the Republic as few commanders in the next hundred years revolted (like Caesar marching on Rome) except for those such as Lucius Camillus in 42 AD against the new emperor Claudius. Ara Pacis: Known as the Altar of Augustan Peace it was built from 13-9 BC as a the first monument to peace and depicts the sacrifice in honor of Augustus returning from Spain and Gaul, but also pictures of the twins and the she-wolf, Rome seated upon a pile of weapons, and also a portrayal of peace. This structure was one of many that was a piece of Augustan propaganda, most notably that of Augustan peace (as seen in the panel with the goddess with the two kids), made possible by the military prowess of the Roman Empire (as seen in the panel with Rome sitting on the weapons). Primas Porta portrait: Horaces otium: Horaces depiction of withdrawal from the public and a life in the countryside while talking about his pursuit of love tells the reader to value his leisure (carpe diem, i.e. to pluck the day) and not to think about the future (and leave it up to Augustus). By rejecting public values Horace uses the otium to smooth over tensions of civil war and also at the same time indirectly praise Augustus by linking the peace and otium as a result of the gods and Augustus (similar to the Ara Pacis). The Odes are primarily directed to the optimates who might still be tense against Augustus (as a way to prevent something happening to him such as Caesar due to their unhappiness). Horaces Secular Hymn: Recusatio: A recusatio is a poem in which a poet claims he is unworthy or unable to write the type of poem his client requests, in this case Augustus. It allows the poet to pretend to be humble by pretending to lack the talent necessary which in this case Horace claims he cant compose poems of epic wars between men and nations, but only of those among lovers. By using the recusatio he could politely deny writing an epic poem for Agrippa who he did not like very well. Lex Julia: Jupiters prophecy: Jupiters prophecy in the 1 book was to calm his crying daughter Venus who cried why her son and the Trojans were befit with all these troubles and why he was allowing it. To quell her weeping, he told her the story of Ascanius, Romulus, and Caesar foretelling the future glory of the race of Trojans. The prophecy acts as an indirect piece of Augustan propaganda by having Jupiter celebrate Augustus due to the fame and glory that the Julio-Claudian line and his ancestors shall bring to Rome, so much so that Jupiter, king of gods prophesized it, giving him legitimacy (such as the statue portraying him as Pontifex Maximus).
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Venus in the Aeneid: Aeneas in Troy (Bk. 2): Aeneas in Book 2 details his trials and the fall of Troy to Dido and the rest of the audience in which he was greeted in his sleep by Hector, charged back into the city to fight and kill, came back to his house and gathered his father, son, and wife off to leave the city in search of the promise land, only to lose his wife in the end. In Book 2, he typifies some Roman, yet also Greek values, by showing pietas to his family by not refusing to leave behind his dad, but also running in mad anger to the city to avenge his comrades and also wishing to die in battle (which typifies the Greek, self-centered epic hero like Achilles). He is also weak, and not mature, lacking the strong will and purpose that Roman leaders have by being extremely uncertain and not embracing his mission and destiny (unlike himself in the latter part of the Aeneid). Aeneas speech to Dido in Book 4: Aeneas speech in Book 4 is detached to any emotion he feels for Dido and in fact starts off addressing Dido formally rather than personally. While he acknowledges all she has done for him, he says he cannot be with her because the gods command him to continue on his journey to complete his destiny; he is driven by Anchises spirit nightly, and he wants the best for his son. He claims it is not his will that he does this and that he had never offered her marriage and would rather be in Troy. The speech shows his traditional masculinity of Romans (by not falling into Didos pleas) and enormous pietas towards the gods (he does as he is commanded by them to go on this journey) and his family (thinking about his sons future), but also shows his coldness and detachment that is desired from a Roman leader (such as Romulus killing his brother to found the city.) Dido as Cleopatra: Dido is mentioned in Book 4 near the end of the death in terms similar to Cleopatras death in Book 8, specifically in terms of pale with a pallor of approaching death. Similar to Cleopatras death, she killed herself rather than live in disgrace. Horaces interpretation of Cleopatras death depicts her as noble, calm, and courageous, while watching over the kingdom that was hers, and then killing herself than rather face the disgrace of being dragged in a triumph. Likewise, Dido kills herself not wanting to face the disgrace of having to find a husband or to face her people after she had abandoned them. These characteristics are seen with admiration, especially women who would kill themselves to not be a role model for other women due to the disgrace they have gained (like Lucretia killing herself.) Aeneas Journey to the Underworld: Aeneas journeys to the underworld in Book 6 with Sibyl and meets with many people of his past (such as Dido and the son of Priam) before entering Elysium and meeting with his father who foretells a prophecy to Aeneas of Numitor, Silvius Aeneas, Caesar, and Augustus himself and the glorious empire that they shall bring about. This prophecy is used to fire up Aeneas, and ultimately changes him to fully embrace his mission onwards and to fulfill his destiny no longer dwelling with the past but looking towards the future. We see however that later on Aeneas loses part of his character due to the loss of his past, which reflect on the ideal Roman who masters his emotions, almost seemingly detached and has a moral ambiguity within him (noticeable in Romulus behavior). Allecto: Allecto is one of the three Furies who in Book 7 was called by Juno to bring strife and chaos among the Italians and the Trojans so that the Trojans would have a hard time settling upon this land and one last obstacle to face. She strikes Amata bringing out her desire to wed Lavinia to Turnus, led Turnus to be emblazoned with passion against the Trojans, and led Ascanius to strike down the stag. By doing these things, she helped set in motion war among the Italians and the Romans. The fact that Juno would not let Allecto rampant on Earth shows that she was even afraid of what would happen if Jupiter saw her out and loose, as she was a goddess of the underworld and is meant to stay there. Juno in the Aeneid: Juno plays a major role in the Aeneid as the one who helps put in motion obstacles that prevents Aeneas from reaching his destiny and her personal clash against Venus. Due to her favorite city being Carthage, she does not wish for the fall of it and does everything in her power to prevent Aeneas to establish Rome which would lead to the destruction of her city. As such she summons Aeolus to cause a storm, Allecto to create strife, and Juturna to help her brother out in an attempt to defeat Aeneas. Juno represents on the other hand a way a Roman woman should not act, strong-headed, strong-willed, and trying to defy the Fates and

destinies causing as much havoc as possible despite the inevitable outcome (such as the women who helped revoke the lex Oppia). Turnus: Turnus was the king of the Rutulians and was the favored suitor for Lavinia had there not been a prophecy in place which restricted King Latinus to marry his daughter to a foreigner. He starts a war against Aeneas driven by Allectos madness and proves to be a formidable warrior despite being a bloodthirsty berserker. He eventually fights Aeneas in Book 12, but loses to him as it was his destiny. However, he is depicted as a mere teenager in the light of Aeneas, and is depicted by Virgil as a human, one who was with moral at the time of his death (acknowledging that it is against Fate that he should win but nevertheless masters his emotions) and requesting to Aeneas to let his body be returned to his father. By portraying this, Virgil makes it that the Italians are part of the conquered people but also humans and an essential part of Romes society and heritage. Tacitus portrayal of Tiberius: Tacitus portrays Tiberius as too Republican-minded, trying to pass as Cato the Younger by being disciplined, a holder of gravitas, morally upright, and a herald of the Roman Republican system. However, he instead was passed as a Roman emperor who was a bitter, old man rather than a respected elder who upheld the values of his ancestors. On the other hand, compared to Germanicus who was seen favorably as a young, charismatic, energetic guy, it shows the Roman majority was now no longer truly interested or fascinated in the upholding the ancestral Roman values, probably due to the success and propaganda-use Augustus had during his reign, which showed that the days of the Republic were long gone, and the rise of the Empire was in place. Germanicus: Germanicus was born in 24 BC and was adopted by Tiberius in 4 AD on conditions set by Augustus and was portrayed as a great general in Germany, but was in reality a poor general whose speech didnt rouse any of the soldiers; which in an attempt to kill himself than to seize the throne, a soldier came up to him and offered him a sharper sword in fear that his sword was not sharp enough. However, Germanicus, a young, charismatic, and energetic man was popular among the Roman populace for his supposedly excellence as a leader and general compared to Tiberius who was seen as an old and bitter man. He later died in 19 AD in Syria on a campaign which was met with much suspicion due to the feud he and Piso had at the time. Germanicus helps mark the shift from the moderate majority AND the senators who once held the conservative ancestral values in high esteem (even in Cato the Youngers speech drew support from the senators), but nowadays neither the senators nor the moderate majority held it in favorable light (as seen in Asinius Gallus test to Tiberius). Neros Domus Aurea: Neos Domus Aurea was built from 64-68 AD in an area of about 125 acres of land which were aristocratic buildings that had been cleared from the Great Fire in Rome in 64 BC. Almost like an extravagant theme park, Nero deviated from the old emperors in keeping buildings austere as to not to offend the poor. However, the poor and progressive by now would have felt excited that such a luxurious building was built which would have allowed them to slightly experience the life of the rich (such as the baths) when visiting, as well as feel pride that the Empire can build such a building. The rich though would be quite mad and angry that such a building would have been built on the place where they once had their houses and their pride would be hurt that such a magnificent thing was built and that they cannot replicate it with their own money or own something that great. Neros tour of Greece: From September 66 AD January 68 AD, Nero toured Greece competing and winning 1808 prizes for sports, music, and acting performances and indulging in his otium for his fascination of the Greek culture and arts, such as singing, poetry, and chariot races. He later celebrated a military-like triumph for his victory in the games which led to the army turning on him, with one rebelling in Gaul which indirectly led to his death in 68 AD. Nero despite obtaining popularity due to his love for the games and singing which allowed him to connect to the common people, took it too far by participating in these games, which was deemed as shameful (such as Tacitus, Annals, Book 8, 3), since performers were below the rank of the citizens. While Tiberius was too conservative, Nero was overly progressive and by participating in these games which is not what an emperor should be doing. Lucans Cato: Lucan in his poem The Civil War (written in 65 AD) describes Cato the Younger siding with Pompey (the lesser evil) in the civil war between Pompey and Caesar out of civil duty to protect the State and preserve peace and harmony. Personified as the Messiah of the State, Lucan describes Cato as willing to sacrifice his body

so that Rome would not live in tyranny and be peaceful once more. Since the Stoics emphasized self-control and virtue, Cato the Younger became a martyr to them, an ideal man who in the face of the madness embroiled in the civil war, stood calm and took the cause of the State. Depicted as anti-imperialistic, the emperors are seen as people who in their ambitions and desires will destroy Rome, rather than become a father to Rome (which Augustus tries to portray). Lucans Julius Caesar: Lucan describes Caesar in his poem The Civil War (written in 65 AD) as a ruthless and bloodthirsty man driven by furor, who was bent by ambition and desire for power to build an empire. Most notably, Lucan portrays Caesar who has the gods on his side who are evil by allowing this to even occur. Furthermore to compound on this, Lucan even describes Caesar worse than Carthaginians, for he wouldnt let them build a funeral pyre for the dead. By comparing him to the Carthaginians, the Stoics make it known that any emperor filled with destructive ambition is one of the worst enemies to Rome as well. Lex de imperio vespasiani: This law on the imperium of Vespasian was written in 70 AD and appeals to the precedent of the imperium of his predecessors which is similarly bestowed on him. Likewise, it also reinforces an idea of a partnership with the Senate (similar to the idea of Augustus partnership with his colleagues in the Achievements, 34), but yet at the same time nothing that he had more auctoritas than all. However, what differentiates the Achievements from the Vespasian law is that Vespasian is so blatantly open and blunt about how he can do whatever he wishes with no repercussions and in a law no less! This extraordinary, unrepublican law marks the end of the transition of the Republic to the empire, and the end of the Republican era for good. Indeed an imperator was now attributed to the emperor rather than a holder of imperium as in the past. Trajans foreign policy: Trajans foreign policy helped unite the Roman provinces as not merely conquered Roman territories and cities to be taxed, but actually a part of Roman society itself. Under Trajan, Romanization of the provinces occurred where provinces built temples to the Roman gods and Roman buildings such as the theatres. Notably, richer children within the provinces got a Roman education learning Latin and oratory, as well as the Senate during Trajans time was comprised of 40% foreigners. People within the provinces were encouraged to wear togas and have banquets and baths. Trajan is also the last emperor to actively seek conquest and expansion, conquering Dacia in 101-106 AD and Parthia in 113-117 AD. As the Roman Empire became more of a cultural melting pot (like the US today), intermingling of cultures can be seen such as the monument a Syrian male made to his British wife which combined elements of the Syrian, British, and Roman culture. Truly caring about what went on in the provinces as seen in his correspondence with Pliny in trivial matters such as how to deal with Christians, Trajan pushed for solidarity among the Roman provinces and Rome which helped make the borders quite secure. Trajans domestic policy: Trajan instituted a building program from 106-113 AD building a forum, a marketplace, and ports to help facilitate the daily activities the empire. The new forum was 328X196 yards and within it contained a monument to the Dacian campaign and a Roman and Greek library to each side. The markets of Trajan which was originally made to be a grain dole distribution center became the first shopping mall containing 150 shops on 5 levels that helped the lower classes have better access to groceries and resources. Trajans port enabled super tankers carrying 1300 tons of cargo to dock near Ostia instead of docking in Naples. These building programs were practical and helped stabilize and improve the empire, unlike Neros Domus Aurea, which even though might be marvelous and impressive did not improve the condition of the people/State. Trajans column: Trajans column was built in 113 AD and is located in Trajans forum commemorating Trajans Dacian campaign, rising 130 tall with 2500 figures in a spiral of 23 layers. In it contains detailed depictions of Trajan organizing the daily military activities in the army and ordering a soldier what to do with a Dacian captive. The monument marks the lesser need of emperors to hide their commemoration and achievements anymore and the lack of self-consciously promoting the empire (unlike the Ara Pacis). Hadrians foreign policy: Hadrians foreign policy increased the openness of the provinces and Rome to each other helping create a multicultural empire, but he stopped any further expansion of the Roman empire which later on effectively ended any dreams of continuous Roman expansion as in the old days. Hadrian withdrew from the East and all the conquered territories Trajan had accumulated and instead strengthened the north-eastern border by

fencing off any weak areas in the natural borders (ex: Rhine River) such as building a wall in North Britain that spanned 73 Roman miles and was 20 feet tall. While these measures were ineffective, they did help create a psychological perspective that these borders will be permanent and maintained. Hadrian also traveled frequently and spent more time abroad than in Rome. Hadrian effectively continued where Trajan left off, helping build solidarity among the provinces and Rome as a mixing pot of cultures, noted by the many coins which personified a specialization of each individual province (compared to Augustus Achievements where the provinces are seen as places to be conquered and exploited). Hadrians love of Greece: Hadrian identified with the East a lot and spent a lot of time in his travels in Greece, notably in Athens, where he built a temple to Olympian Jupiter, restored many of the broken-down temples, and giving multiple gifts to the Athenians. He poured a lot of money into restoring ancient Greece and also was initiated to the Eleusinian mysteries. Similar to Nero, he also had a fascination for geometry, arithmetic, poetry, and gladiatorial arms. However, unlike Nero he did not perform in public but rather enjoyed his otium in private. By not actively performing in public, Hadrian did not disgrace himself like Nero did and maintained that respectable emperor image, while at the same time connecting to the common people as a lover of the arts which they enjoyed themselves. Roman theater: In the early Roman Empire there were three main theatres in Rome: the Theater of Balbus built in 13 BC, Theater of Pompey which was redid in 32 BC, and the Theater of Marcellus built in 13 BC. While the plays of the old times had an intricate plot, the plays in the empirical period while still based on a Greek-aesthetic model were focused on visuals and presentations filled with costumes, dancing, and naked actors. This type of entertainment was similar to pop entertainment in todays culture which appealed the lower class and was exported throughout the entire empire as another form to experience the Roman life. Roman bath: The Roman baths were a huge part of the Roman lifestyle which people would spend their entire afternoons there to socialize and do other activities (as evidenced by the gym, conference rooms, library, and racetracks attached to the baths), as well as bathe. In the height of its popularity, Rome had 821 baths some which resembled the Baths of Caracalla (built in 216 AD) which had four levels and measured 450X430 yards. While the luxurious baths irritated Seneca by the extravagance and lack of self-control (as noted by his complaint of all the multiple noises in the baths in his Letters to Lucilius, 56.1-2), the baths were well-liked among the lower class and foreign people which gave them the opportunity to experience the life as a rich person by hanging out with the rich and famous and as a Roman respectively. Circus Maximus: The Circus Maximus was generally used as a Roman chariot racing stadium and a mass entertainment venue which after Julius Caesar had remodeled the Circus in 50 BC was able to hold up to about 250,000 people and later on with further remodifications possibly 385,000 people. It was 650 yards long and chariot races which were held there generally consisted of 4 teams who ran 7 laps around the racetrack. The chariot races were very dangerous where accidents occurred frequently (almost the equivalent of your NASCAR racing today) which provided a rush of adrenaline to the masses. The races appealed to both the rich and the poor, and were the most popular form of entertainment. To get a sense of how much people were into the races, a curse tablet was found hoping a demon would kill the horses of the Green and White teams, which could be on par to the crazy rivalries people have today in sports such as soccer. Colosseum: The Colosseum finished in 80 AD was a place for the gladiatorial games and slaughter of wild animals were seen for the public. Originally a makeshift structure that was taken down after a festival as it was a guilty pleasure, Vespasian built the first permanent amphitheater which could accommodate the flow of 70,000 people at one time. The games were more as a spectacle and ritualistic in nature which included the hunting of exotic animals which gave the Romans a view and appreciation of how far-reaching the empire is. In imperial times, the gladiatorial occupation had many volunteers (unlike during the Republic when most were condemned criminals or slaves) which if one was successful, they could garner a lot of popularity as celebrities. The Colosseum allowed people to keep in touch with their past by exposing them to violence since during the empire few became soldiers. It allowed the spectators to feel a little Roman and connect to Roman traditions.

Isis: Isis was a goddess from Egypt who eventually became one of the most popular goddesses in the Empire as seen by the only building left intact made by Calligula was the Temple to Isis. This goddess drew the interest of the Romans by how Horus was born out of her suffering and compassion, which is noted by Lucius situation in Metamorphoses which Isis came to save him out of pity and not out of his cultus. The public ceremony prays for the well-being of the State as a whole which emperors after Augustus encouraged, but tried to prevent the private initiation rites that occurred after it. This cult, similar to Mithras, focused on the afterlife or the spirit life, which offered a higher glimpse of this life. This attracted both the rich and the poor as it was a way for them to interact with the gods rather than be supplicants to them. Mithras: Mithras was a god from Parthia and originally came from India who eventually came to Rome by way of the Sicilian pirates. An ether god who represented a half-way point and a mediator between heaven and earth, Mithras is most famously depicted for killing the bull of death where a dog and snake try to lap up the bulls blood and the scorpion the semen, which from this episode comes fertility and life to earth. Worship of the god was generally confined in man-made cave-like structures so the people could get away from the city. Like Isis, the cult attracted the poor and rich (especially the military and apparently women despite they were not allowed to worship him) and represented a connection to the spirit life and a means to escape public life. Constantine: Constantine was born in modern-day Serbia and reigned as emperor of the Roman empire from 312337 AD which during that time he reversed Diocletians Christian policies and made Christianity a protected religion of the State. Using evocatio he prayed to the Christian god before a battle for favor and hence the religion became protected after his victory. In 330 AD, Constantine moved the Roman capital to Constantinople to better combat the troubles on the north-eastern borders. Unlike< Emperor Augustus who privately or indirectly told of his accomplishments and divinity through monuments and literature, the Arch of Constantine which depict Constantine with no face sitting on a throne shows that the deification of the emperor is becoming more and more explicit. Theodosius: Theodosius who was from Spain, ruled the empire from 378-395 AD and made Christianity as the States official religion and banned paganism notably extinguishing Vestias flame and also ending the Olympic games after they had been maintained for over 1000+ years. Also in order to deal with the problem of the Germans who were pressing the borders of the empire he opened the borders for them on the condition that they were loyal to him and fought for him when needed. However, this proved to be disastrous since the Visigoths though agreeing, wished to maintain their own legion separate and under their own commanders. Since the lacked discipline and was unruly, this lowered morale in the Roman armies by seeing that these people were allowed to act this way. As such less and less people volunteered for the army. Theodosius by making Christianity the State religion highlights the lack of faith people had in the empire, especially in the old-age worship of the Roman gods, which shows the lack of pietas and devotion that the Republic commanded.

Essays (30%) 1. Explain either similarities or differences in the ways Stoics (Seneca and Lucan) and the mystery cults challenged traditional Roman religion. Stoicism: One may achieve virtus by purging passions and having gravitas. One should be rational, well-balanced, and exhibit self-control. Good is found within oneself, and if there is a god he is an accessible one, not the gods on Olympus. Stoics want universal pax (harmony with the universe) and they are not Christianity. The goal of stoicisim is order and rationality. The rise of stoicism shows Romans were looking for something more personal. I. STOICS A. Call for different religion; challenge to cultus (Senecas Letters to Lucilius) 1. 2. 3. Do not practice cultus simply for ritual; no more superstition Gods serve all of humanity, not just individuals Show cultus by imitating the godsshowing kindness to everyone

B. Dispel notion of proud Roman identity; challenge to pietas (Senecas Letters to Lucilius) 1. 2. 3. Much higher praise is due when human treats human with kindness Stoic goal is to have pax with the universe, and universe made us all inter-related Treat all humans well to achieve universal pax and show cultus to gods

C. Better if Battle of Pharsalus had not happened; challenge to pax (Lucans The Civil War) 1. 2. 3. 4. No gods were involved (not sanctioned) Furor motivated war = bad (Although Aeneid tells us furor plus pietas is ideal in a leader) Father-in-law vs son-in-law; kinsmen fought against kinsmen Cato is the god-like figure (Cato vs. Caesar/gods) a. Shows how Stoics like the detached heroes with a lot of gravitas b. Caesar is flesh-hungry; enjoys sight of carnage and bloodshed

II. MYSTERY CULTS A. Call for more personal religion; challenge to cultus (Dionysus/Bacchus, Mithras, Isis) 1. 2. 3. Many mystery cults were conversionist/require initiation Further into initiation, more intimate with god (Dionysus/Bacchus) Gestures are not enough; love & feeling is needed on both sides

B. Separation between church & state; challenge to pietas, unity of Roman empire 1. 2. 3. More people withdrawing to worship religion *** Publicly conservative, privately progressive*** Cults incompatible with Roman politics (i.e. Christianity), showing loss of faith in Roman state

C. Importation of Eastern elements; challenge to gravitas, negotium 1. 2. 3. Eastern elements tend to be more otium Romans feeling less guilty about personal happiness One less unifying factor for Roman empire

2. Was poetry in the 20s BC more optimistic than in the 30s BC? Compare Virgils Aeneid to his 4 Eclogue. Yes. In the 30s BC, Romans were on the brink of Civil War right after the Battle of Philippi (where populares nd defeated optimates). Romans were unhappy with the 2 Triumvirate and very depressed about the constant state of civil war they were engaged in. 4 Eclogue: Virgil depicts an overly optimistic world to show his depression and current situation of the state. In doing so, he insinuates that the only solution to the depression is paradise, divine intervention, utopia. Aeneid: Virgil helped Romans forget about the past and enjoy the here and now and how the Roman Empire will continue to grow and expand as a result of the hard work of the Romans from the past. Virgil focused on the universal pax present during the 20s BC. The three prophecies featured in the Aeneid from Jupiter, Ascanius, and the shield predict the future glories of Rome which reach its climax during Augustus reign. The Aeneid restores prestige and pride in being a part of the Roman Empire/Roman citizen. For example, the shield depicts the Battle of Actium, a glorious fight where the gods are all on the the Roman (Augustus) side. The prophecy of Jupiter tells of how the brave and heroic Aeneas will come to form an empire that will birth great leaders such as Caesar and Augustus, other heroic leaders in their own way.
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4. Why was August more successful than Tiberius in appealing to moderate majority? What does this say about changes in Roman society? A. Handling of Rivals Augustus dealt with Antony by ruining Antonys image through rumors (Antonys scandals with Cleopatra, abandoning Roman empire & duty, betrayal of his pious wife Octavia), thus appealing to the public. Augustus portrayed as young in Prima Porta Tiberius unable to compare to Germanicus; Tiberius was old, backwards, senile while Germanicus was young, charismatic, and progressive

B. Handling of Politics Augustus redistributed power, restored prestige, funds military treasury, restored confidence in public institutions. Knew how to address the Senate Augustus often uses indirect propaganda (making it seem as though he wasnt groveling to the public) Augustus reign pushed for moral rejuvenation, hence the passing of Lex Julia, which allowed the public to seem publically conservative but stay privately progressive (Lex Julia mostly for his image) Tiberius efforts to display republic gravitas are seen as backwards Tiberius doesnt show proper honor and respect (ex. Germanicus funeral, doesnt allow his mother to be renamed Augusta (even though the public desired it) Tiberius speeches to Senate often convoluted and confusing

C. Rapport with Public Augustus engaged in bread & circuses, made the city healthier, grain dole distribution (loved by the poor) Augustus propaganda in Aeneid and Horaces poems concerning otium and pleasure helped his public image Tiberius seen as overly proud and republic; held himself higher than everyone else, thinking that princeps and imperial peoples not fit to engage in what commoners do

Shows that Roman society Becoming more and more progressive, but need a slow/more indirect change, like Augustus subtle propaganda. Tiberius too straightforward and too much on the right side. Otium is becoming more prominent in daily Roman life through games and social entertainment, pride spreading to foreigners in being Roman. Different ways of showing gravitasgravitas becoming more like a front than a personal value.

6) What were two popular forms of Roman entertainment in imperial times and how does their success show that traditional Roman values were changing or declining? A. Gladiatorial games Performed in Colosseum, huge amphitheater opened in 80AD Slaughter of animals by day, gladiatorial fights by night Gladiators were slaves in the Republic, but citizens gave up rights to become these slaves for fame Official sport of the empire Emperors invest a lot so people can fall in love with the system and thus the empire Violence and bloodshed was used to connect to the olden days and roots of being in the army due to fewer men enlisting in the army

B. Theater 55BC Pompey established the first theatre Serious plays fade and superficial ones become popularized Closer to ballet with a lot of skin, more dancing, actresses Nero popularized himself through the theatre Extremely popular for urban plebs

Success of Roman entertainment shows traditional Roman values changing/declining by Gladiatorial games meant for slaves, not citizens. Romans giving up citizenship to participate in these games show a decline in gravitas. Roman citizenship was always extremely prized; such behaviour would nd be seen as preposterous prior to 2 Punic War. Spectators in the gladiatorial games too. Theatre was a guilty pleasure (they used to mock the Greek plays) but now Romans need not hide it. The superficiality of plays during Roman imperial times show the permeation of Greek aesthetic, negotium values and its increasing influence over the Roman empire throughout the years.