Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 27

The sect i on of t he shaf t w her e angul ar di spl acement i s zer o i s know n as node.

Hydr ost at i c t est f or boi l er consi st s of f i l l i ng t he Boi l er wi t h wat er and pr essur i zi ng


t he wat er t o at l east one and hal f t i mes t he maxi mum oper at i ng pr essur e f or a
shor t t i me. Ever y par t i s subj ect t o mor e t han t he maxi mum st r ess i t w i l l nor mal l y
encount er . Thi s i s an endur ance t est ; any weak l i nk f ai l s dur i ng t he t est .
The car r adi at or show n i s a cr ossf l ow heat exchanger , because t he l i qui d i s f l ow i ng
ver t i cal l y i nsi de t ubes and t he ai r i s f l owi ng hor i zont al l y t hr o ugh t he spaces
bet ween t he f i nned t ubes. Al so, by t he way, i t i s a f i nned t ube heat exchanger
because of t he use of f i nned t ubes i n i t s const r uct i on.
In machi ni ng, boring i s t he pr ocess of enl ar gi ng a hol e t hat has al r eady been
dr i l l ed (or cast ), by means of a si ngl e-poi nt cut t i ng t ool , f or exampl e as i n bor i ng
a cannon bar r el . Bor i ng i s used t o achi eve gr eat er accur acy of t he di amet er of a
hol e, and can be used t o cut a t aper ed hol e. Bor i ng can be vi ewed as t he i nt er nal -
di amet er count er par t t o t ur ni ng, w hi ch cut s ext er nal di amet er s.
t he t hi ckness of t hi s bo undar y l ayer as t he di st ance f r o m t he wal l t o t he poi nt
wher e t he vel oci t y i s 99% of t he " f r ee st r eam" vel oci t y, t he vel oci t y i n t he mi ddl e
of t he pi pe or r i ver .
In 1757, mat hemat i ci an Leo nhar d Eul er der i ved a f or mul a t hat gi ves t he maxi mum
axi al l oad t hat a l o ng, sl ender , i deal col umn can car r y wi t ho ut buckl i ng. An i deal
col umn i s one t hat i s per f ect l y st r ai ght , ho mogeneo us, and f r ee f r om i ni t i al st r ess.
The maxi mum l oad, somet i mes cal l ed t he cr i t i cal l oad, causes t he col umn t o be i n
a st at e of unst abl e equi l i br i um; t hat i s, t he i nt r o duct i on of t he sl i ght est l at er al
f or ce wi l l cause t he col umn t o f ai l by buckl i ng. The f or mul a der i ved by Eul er f or
col umns w i t h no consi der at i on f or l at er al f or ces i s gi ven bel o w. Ho wever , i f l at er al
f or ces ar e t aken i nt o consi der at i on t he val ue of cr i t i cal l oad r emai ns appr oxi mat el y
t he same.

wher e
= maxi mum or cr i t i cal f or ce (ver t i cal l oad on col umn),
= modul us of el ast i ci t y,
= ar ea mo ment of i ner t i a,
= unsuppo r t ed l engt h of col umn,
= col umn ef f ect i ve l engt h f act or , whose val ue depends on t he condi t i o ns of end
suppor t of t he col umn, as f ol l o ws.
For bot h ends pi nned (hi nged, f r ee t o r ot at e), = 1. 0.
For bot h ends f i xed, = 0.50.
For one end f i xed and t he o t her end pi nned, = 0. 699....
For one end f i xed and t he o t her end f r ee t o move l at er al l y, = 2.0.
i s t he ef f ect i ve l engt h of t he col umn.
Examination of this formula reveals the following interesting facts with
regard to the load-bearing ability of slender columns.
1. Elasticity and not compressive strength of the materials of the column
determines the critical load.
2. The critical load is directly proportional to the second moment of
area of the cross section.
3. The boundary conditions have a considerable effect on the critical load
of slender columns. The boundary conditions determine the mode of
bending and the distance between inflection points on the deflected
column. The closer together the inflection points are, the higher the
resulting capacity of the column.

The Ranki ne Gor do n f or mul a i s al so based on exper i ment al r esul t s and suggest s
t hat a st r ut wi l l buckl e at a l oad Fmax gi ven by:

wher e Fe i s t he Eul er maxi mum l oad and Fc i s t he maxi mum compr essi ve l oad. Thi s
f or mul a t ypi cal l y pr oduces a conser vat i ve est i mat e of Fmax.
Carnot ' s t heorem i s a f or mal st at ement of t hi s f act : No engi ne oper at i ng bet ween
t wo heat r eser voi r s can be mor e ef f i ci ent t han a Car not engi ne oper at i ng bet ween
t he same r eser voi r s.
Thi s maxi mum ef f i ci ency i s def i ned t o be:

wher e
i s t he wor k done by t he syst em (ener gy exi t i ng t he syst em as wor k),
i s t he heat put i nt o t he syst em (heat ener gy ent er i ng t he syst em),
i s t he absol ut e t emper at ur e of t he col d r eser voi r , and
i s t he absol ut e t emper at ur e of t he hot r eser voi r .
A cor ol l ar y t o Car not ' s t heor em st at es t hat : Al l r ever si bl e engi nes oper at i ng
bet ween t he same heat r eser voi r s ar e equal l y ef f i ci ent .
The Coef f i ci ent of Per f or mance (COP) of t he heat engi ne i s t he r eci pr ocal of i t s
ef f i ci ency.
Cent r i f ugal compr essor s ar e al so si mi l ar t o cent r i f ugal pumps
[ 1]
of t he st yl e show n
i n Fi gur e 2.4. The key di f f er ence bet ween such compr essor s and pumps i s t hat t he
compr essor wor ki ng f l ui d i s a gas (compr essi bl e) and t he pump wor ki ng f l ui d i s
l i qui d (i ncompr essi bl e). Agai n, t he engi neer i ng met hods used t o desi gn a
cent r i f ugal pump ar e t he same as t hose t o desi gn a cent r i f ugal compr essor . Yet ,
t her e i s o ne i mpor t ant di f f er ence: t he need t o deal w i t h cavi t at i on i n pumps.
A clut ch i s a mechani cal devi ce t hat pr ovi des f or t he t r ansmi ssi o n of po wer (and
t her ef or e usual l y mo t i on) f r om one component (t he dr i vi ng member ) t o anot her
(t he dr i ven member ). The opposi t e compo nent of t he cl ut ch i s t he br ake.
A pr i mi t i ve way t o i mpl ement cr ui se cont r ol i s si mpl y t o l ock t he t hr o t t l e posi t i o n
when t he dr i ver engages cr ui se cont r ol . However , i f t he cr ui se cont r o l i s engaged
on a st r et ch of f l at r oad, t hen t he car w i l l t r avel sl o wer goi ng uphi l l and f ast er
when goi ng dow nhi l l . Thi s t ype of cont r ol l er i s cal l ed an o pen-l oop
cont r ol l er because no measur ement of t he syst em o ut put (t he car ' s speed) i s used
t o al t er t he cont r ol (t he t hr o t t l e posi t i o n.) As a r esul t , t he cont r ol l er can not
compensat e f or changes act i ng on t he car , l i ke a change i n t he sl ope of t he r oad.
In a closed-loop cont rol syst em, a sensor moni t or s t he syst em out put (t he car ' s
speed) and f eeds t he dat a t o a cont r ol l er whi ch adj ust s t he cont r ol (t he t hr o t t l e
posi t i on) as necessar y t o mai nt ai n t he desi r ed syst em o ut put (mat ch t he car ' s
speed t o t he r ef er ence speed.) Now when t he car goes uphi l l t he decr ease i n
speed i s measur ed, and t he t hr ot t l e posi t i on changed t o i ncr ease engi ne power ,
speedi ng t he vehi cl e. Feedback f r om measur i ng t he car ' s speed has al l o wed t he
cont r ol l er t o dynami cal l y compensat e f or changes t o t he car ' s speed. It i s f r o m t hi s
f eedback t hat t he par adi gm of t he cont r ol l oop ar i ses: t he cont r ol af f ect s t he
syst em o ut put , whi ch i n t ur n i s measur ed and l ooped back t o al t er t he cont r ol .
Natural convection
Main article: Natural convection
Natural convection, or free convection, occurs due to temperature
differences which affect the density, and thus relative buoyancy, of the fluid.
Heavier (more dense) components will fall, while lighter (less dense)
components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement. Natural convection can
only occur, therefore, in a gravitational field. A common example of natural
convection is the rise of smoke from a fire. it can be seen in a pot of boiling
water in which the hot and less-dense water on the bottom layer moves
upwards in plumes, and the cool and more dense water near the top of the
pot likewise sinks.
Natural convection will be more likely and/or more rapid with a greater
variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to
gravity that drives the convection, and/or a larger distance through the
convecting medium. Natural convection will be less likely and/or less rapid
with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the thermal gradient that is
causing the convection) and/or a more viscous (sticky) fluid.
The onset of natural convection can be determined by the Rayleigh
number (Ra).
Note that differences in buoyancy within a fluid can arise for reasons other
than temperature variations, in which case the fluid motion is
called gravitational convection (see below). However, all types of buoyant
convection, including natural convection, do not occur
in microgravity environments. All require the presence of an environment
which experiences g-force (proper acceleration).
[edit]Forced convection
Main article: Forced convection
In forced convection, also called heat advection, fluid movement results
from external surface forces such as a fan or pump. Forced convection is
typically used to increase the rate of heat exchange. Many types
of mixing also utilize forced convection to distribute one substance within
another. Forced convection also occurs as a by-product to other processes,
such as the action of a propeller in a fluid or aerodynamic heating. Fluid
radiator systems, and also heating and cooling of parts of the body by blood
circulation, are other familiar examples of forced convection.
Forced convection may happen by natural means, such as when the heat of
a fire causes expansion of air and bulk air flow by this means. In
microgravity, such flow (which happens in all directions) along with diffusion
is the only means by which fires are able to draw in fresh oxygen to maintain
themselves. The shock wave that transfers heat and mass out of explosions
is also a type of forced convection.
Although forced convection from thermal gas expansion in zero-g does not
fuel a fire as well as natural convection in a gravity field, some types of
artificial forced convection are far more efficient than free convection, as
they are not limited by natural mechanisms. For instance, a convection
oven works by forced convection, as a fan which rapidly circulates hot air
forces heat into food faster than would naturally happen due to simple
heating without the fan.

The r at e of r adi at i ve ener gy emi ssi on f r om a hot sur f ace i s gi ven by t heSt ef an-
Bol t zmann l aw .

Her e P i s t he po wer emi t t ed f r om t he ar ea, and E i s t he ener gy cont ai ned by t he
obj ect . For ver y hot obj ect s, t he r ol e of t he ambi ent t emper at ur e can be negl ect ed.
If t he hot t emper at ur e i s mor e t han 3. 16 t i mes t he ambi ent , t hen t he cont r i but i o n
of ambi ent t er ms i s l ess t han 1%. For exampl e, f or 300K ambi ent on t he ear t h, an
obj ect of t emper at ur e hi gher t han 1000K can be t r eat ed l i ke a pur e r adi at o r i nt o
space. If t he heat l oss i s pur el y r adi at i ve and not l i mi t ed by heat t r ansf er t o t he
r adi at i ng sur f ace, t hen t he cool i ng t i me can be mo del ed f or a hot o bj ect .
If t he ener gy of t he obj ect can be char act er i zed by pur e t r ansl at i o nal ki net i c ener gy
accor di ng t o equi par t i t i on of ener gy, t hen

What i s t he si gni f i cance of speci f i c speed ?
The speci f i c speed i nver sel y pr opo r t i o nal t o t he head acr oss t he machi ne. So l o w
speci f i c speed cor r esponds t o hi gh head acr oss i t and vi ce-ver sa. The speci f i c speed
i s di r ect l y pr o por t i onal t o t he di schar ge t hr ough t he machi ne or power pr oduced
by t he machi ne. So l ow speci f i c speed t her ef or e r ef er s t o l ow di schar ge or l ow
power machi ne and vi ce-ver sa.
Low head t ur bi ne - Kapl an t ur bi ne
M edi um head t ur bi ne - Fr anci s t ur bi ne
Hi gh head t ur bi ne - Pel t on w heel .
Drop Forging
Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by
dropping a heavy hammer with a die on its face onto the work piece.
For monoat omic;\

For diat omic;

For polyt ropic;

Heat conduct ion, al so cal l ed di f f usi on, i s t he di r ect mi cr oscopi c exchange of ki net i c
ener gy of par t i cl es t hr ough t he bo undar y bet ween t wo syst ems. When an o bj ect i s
at a di f f er ent t emper at ur e f r om anot her body o r i t s sur r o undi ngs, heat f l ows so
t hat t he body and t he sur r oundi ngs r each t he same t emper at ur e, at whi ch poi nt
t hey ar e i n t her mal equi l i br i um. Such spont aneous heat t r ansf er al ways occur s
f r om a r egi on of hi gh t emper at ur e t o anot her r egi on of l ower t emper at ur e, as
r equi r ed by t he second l aw of t her modynami cs.
Heat convect ion occur s w hen bul k f l o w of a f l ui d (gas or l i qui d) car r i es heat al o ng
wi t h t he f l o w of mat t er i n t he f l ui d. The f l ow of f l ui d may be f or ced by ext er nal
pr ocesses, or somet i mes (i n gr avi t at i o nal f i el ds) by buoyancy f or ces caused w hen
t her mal ener gy expands t he f l ui d (f or exampl e i n a f i r e pl ume), t hus i nf l uenci ng i t s
own t r ansf er . The l at t er pr ocess i s of t en cal l ed " nat ur al convect i on" . Al l convect i ve
pr ocesses al so move heat par t l y by di f f usi on, as wel l . Anot her f or m of convect i o n
i s f or ced convect i on. In t hi s case t he f l ui d i s f or ced t o f l ow by use of a pump, f an o r
ot her mechani cal means.
The final major form of heat t r ansf er i s by r adi at i on, w hi ch occur s i n any
t r anspar ent medi um (sol i d or f l ui d) but may al so even occur acr oss vacuum (as
when t he Sun heat s t he Ear t h). Radi at i on i s t he t r ansf er of ener gy t hr ough space
by means of el ect r omagnet i c waves i n much t he same way as el ect r omagnet i c
l i ght waves t r ansf er l i ght . The same l aws t hat gover n t he t r ansf er of l i ght gover n
t he r adi ant t r ansf er of heat .
[ 1]

The f undament al modes of heat t r ansf er ar e:
Conduct ion or dif fusion
The t r ansf er of ener gy bet ween o bj ect s t hat ar e i n physi cal cont act
Convect ion
The t r ansf er of ener gy bet ween an o bj ect and i t s envi r onment , due t o f l ui d mot i o n
Radiat ion
The t r ansf er of ener gy t o or f r om a bo dy by means of t he emi ssi on o r absor pt i on of
el ect r omagnet i c r adi at i o n
Advect ion
The t r ansf er of ener gy f r om one l ocat i o n t o anot her as a si de ef f ect of physi cal l y
movi ng an o bj ect cont ai ni ng t hat ener gy
High speed st eels bel o ng t o t he Fe-C-X mul t i -component al l oy syst em w her e X
r epr esent s chr omi um, t ungst en, mol ybdenum,vanadi um, or cobal t . Gener al l y, t he
X component i s pr esent i n excess of 7%, al ong w i t h mor e t han 0.60% car bon.
(However , t hei r al l oyi ng el ement per cent ages do not al one best o w t he har dness-
r et ai ni ng pr o per t i es; t hey al so r equi r e appr o pr i at e hi gh-t emper at ur e heat
t r eat ment i n or der t o become t r ue HSS; see Hi st or y above.)
In t he uni f i ed number i ng syst em (UNS), t ungst en-t ype gr ades (e.g. T1, T15) ar e
assi gned number s i n t he T120xx ser i es, whi l e mol ybdenum (e.g. M 2, M 48) and
i nt er medi at e t ypes ar e T113xx. ASTM st andar ds r ecogni ze 7 t ungst en t ypes and 17
mol ybdenum t ypes.
[ 6]

The addi t i on of about 10% of t ungst en and mo l ybdenum i n t o t al maxi mi ses
ef f i ci ent l y t he har dness and t oughness of hi gh speed st eel s and mai nt ai ns t hese
pr oper t i es at t he hi gh t emper at ur es gener at ed w hen cut t i ng met al s.
The hor i zont al el ement s of t he " I" ar e f l anges, w hi l e t he ver t i cal el ement i s
t he w eb. The web r esi st s shear f or ces whi l e t he f l anges r esi st most of t he bendi ng
moment exper i enced by t he beam.Beam t heor y shows t hat t he I-shaped sect i on i s
a ver y ef f i ci ent f or m f or car r yi ng bot h bendi ng and shear l oads i n t he pl ane of t he
web. On t he ot her hand, t he cr oss-sect i on has a r educed capaci t y i n t he t r ansver se
di r ect i on, and i s al so i nef f i ci ent i n car r yi ng t or si o n, f or w hi ch hol l ow st r uct ur al
sect i ons ar e of t en pr ef er r ed.
Induct ion hardening i s a f or m of heat t r eat ment i n w hi ch a met al par t i s heat ed
by i nduct i o n heat i ng and t hen quenched. The quenched met al under goes
a mar t ensi t i c t r ansf or mat i on, i ncr easi ng t he har dness and br i t t l eness of t he par t .
Induct i o n har deni ng i s used t o sel ect i vel y har den ar eas of a par t or assembl y
wi t ho ut af f ect i ng t he pr o per t i es of t he par t as a w hol e.
The planer is especially adapt ed t o lar ge wor k: t he shaper can do
only small work. On t he planer t he wor k is moved against a
st at ionary t ool: on t he shaper t he t ool moves across t he work,
which is st at ionar y. On t he planer t he t ool is fed int o t he wor k; on
t he shaper t he work is usually fed across t he t ool. The drive on t he
planer t able is eit her by gears or by hydraulic means. The shaper
ram also can be dr iven in t his manner, but many t imes a quick-
ret urn link mechanism is used.
In surveying the Jacob's staff, contemporaneously referred to as a jacob
staff, is a single straight rod or staff made of nonferrous material, pointed
and metal-clad at the bottom for penetrating the ground.
[16]
It also has a
screw base and occasionally a ball joint on the mount, and is used for
supporting a compass, transit, or other instrument.
[17]

The term cross-staff may also have a different meaning in the history of
surveying. While the astronomical cross-staff was used in surveying for
measuring angles, two other devices referred to as a cross-staff were also
employed.
[18]

1. Cross-head, cross-sight, surveyor's cross or cross - a drum or box
shaped device mounted on a pole. It had two sets of mutually
perpendicular sights. This device was used by surveyors to measure
offsets. Sophisticated versions had a compass and spirit levels on the
top. The French versions were frequently eight-sided rather than
round.
[18]

2. Optical square - an improved version of the cross-head, the optical
square used two mirrors at 45 to each other. This permitted the
surveyor to see along both axes of the instrument at once
New t ons law of cooling;

The Pelt on w heel i s an i mpul se t ur bi ne whi ch i s among t he most ef f i ci ent t ypes
of wat er t ur bi nes. It was i nvent ed by Lest er Al l an Pel t on i n t he 1870s. The Pel t on
wheel ext r act s ener gy f r o m t he i mpul se (moment um) of movi ng wat er , as o pposed
t o i t s wei ght l i ke t r adi t i o nal over sho t wat er wheel . Al t ho ugh many var i at i o ns of
i mpul se t ur bi nes exi st ed pr i or t o Pel t on' s desi gn, t hey wer e l ess ef f i ci ent t han
Pel t on' s desi gn; t he wat er l eavi ng t hese wheel s t ypi cal l y st i l l had hi gh speed, and
car r i ed away much of t he ener gy. Pel t on' s paddl e geo met r y was desi gned so t hat
when t he r i m r uns at t he speed of t he w at er j et , t he wat er l eaves t he w heel w i t h
ver y l i t t l e speed, ext r act i ng al most al l of i t s ener gy, and al l ow i ng f or a ver y ef f i ci ent
t ur bi ne.
===Suppose we add a set of t wo member s and a j oi nt agai n, we get a per f ect
f r ame as sho wn i n f i gur e 3. Hence f or a per f ect f r ame t he number of j oi nt s and
number of member s ar e gi ven by, n=2j -3
Wher e, n= number of member s and j =number of j oi nt s
The Prandtl number is a dimensionless number; the ratio of momentum
diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to thermal diffusivity. It is named after the
German physicist Ludwig Prandtl.
It is defined as:

where:
: kinematic viscosity, , (SI units : m
2
/s)
: thermal diffusivity, , (SI units : m
2
/s)
: dynamic viscosity, (SI units : Pa s = (N s)/m
2
)
: thermal conductivity, (SI units : W/(m K) )
: specific heat, (SI units : J/(kg K) )
: density, (SI units : kg/m
3
).
Note that whereas the Reynolds number and Grashof number are
subscripted with a length scale variable, the Prandtl number contains no
such length scale in its definition and is dependent only on the fluid and
the fluid state.
For mercury, heat conduction is very effective compared to convection:
thermal diffusivity is dominant. For engine oil, convection is very effective in
transferring energy from an area, compared to pure conduction: momentum
diffusivity is dominant.
In heat transfer problems, the Prandtl number controls the relative thickness
of the momentum and thermal boundary layers. When Pr is small, it means
that the heat diffuses very quickly compared to the velocity (momentum).
This means that for liquid metals the thickness of the thermal boundary layer
is much bigger than the velocity boundary layer.
The mass transfer analog of the Prandtl number is the Schmidt number.
Positive displacement pump
A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed
amount of it and then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the
discharge pipe.
Some positive displacement pumps work using an expanding cavity on the
suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into
the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out
of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant given each
cycle of operation.
Pumps can be arranged in serial or parallel to provide an additional head or
flow rate capacity.
Pumps in Serial - Head Added
When two (or more) pumps are arranged in serial their resulting pump
performance curve is obtained by adding their heads at the same flow rate
as indicated in the figure below.

Centrifugal pumps in series are used to overcome larger system head loss
than one pump can handle alone.
for two identical pumps in series the head will be twice the head of a
single pump at the same flow rate - as indicated in point 2.
With a constant flowrate the combined head moves from 1 to 2.
Note! In practice the combined head and flow rate moves along the system
curve to point 3.
point 3 is where the system operates with both pumps running
point 1 is where the system operates with one pump running
Series operation of single stage pumps is seldom encountered - more often
multistage centrifugal pumps are used.
Pumps in Parallel - Flow Rate Added
When two or more pumps are arranged in parallel their
resulting performance curve is obtained by adding their flowrates at the
same head as indicated in the figure below.

Centrifugal pumps in parallel are used to overcome larger volume flows than
one pump can handle alone.
for two identical pumps in parallel, and the head is kept constant, the
flowrate doubles as indicated with point 2 compared to a single pump
Note! In practice the combined head and volume flow moves along the
system curve as indicated from 1 to 3.
point 3 is where the system operates with both pumps running
point 1 is where the system operates with one pump running
In practice, if one of the pumps in parallel or series stops, the operation
point moves along the system resistance curve from point 3 to point 1 - the
head and flow rate are decreased.
A hygr omet er i s a devi ce used f or measur i ng t he humi di t y of ai r . Relat ive
humidit y i s a t er m used t o descr i be t he amount of wat er vapor i n a mi xt ur e of ai r
and wat er vapor . It i s def i ned as t he r at i o of t he par t i al pr essur e of wat er vapor i n
t he ai r -wat er mi xt ur e t o t he sat ur at ed vapor pr essur e of a f l at sheet of pur e wat er
at t hose condi t i o ns. The r el at i ve humi di t y of ai r depends not onl y o n t emper at ur e
but al so on t he pr essur e of t he syst em of i nt er est . Rel at i ve humi di t y i s of t en used
i nst ead of absol ut e humi di t y i n si t uat i o ns wher e t he r at e of wat er evapor at i on i s
i mpor t ant , as i t t akes i nt o account t he var i at i on i n sat ur at ed vapor pr essur e.

A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed a rivet
consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end
opposite the head is called the buck-tail. On installation the rivet is placed in
a punched or pre-drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e.,
deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter,
holding the rivet in place. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet,
the original head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called
the shop head or buck-tail.
Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can
support tension loads (loads parallel to the axis of the shaft); however, it is
much more capable of supporting shear loads (loads perpendicular to the
axis of the shaft). Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications.
Fastenings used in traditional wooden boat building, like copper nails
and clinch bolts, work on the same principle as the rivet but were in use long
before the term rivet came about and, where they are remembered, are
usually classified among the nails and bolts respectively.
Solid rivets are used in applications where reliability and safety count. A
typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts
of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of solid rivets are used to assemble the
frame of a modern aircraft. Such rivets come with rounded (universal) or
100countersunk heads. Typical materials for aircraft rivets
are aluminium alloys (2017, 2024, 2117, 7050, 5056, 55000, V-65), titanium,
and nickel-based alloys (e.g.Monel). Some aluminum alloy rivets are too
hard to buck and must be softened by annealing prior to being bucked. "Ice
box" aluminum alloy rivets harden with age, and must likewise be annealed
and then kept at sub-freezing temperatures (hence the name "ice box") to
slow the age-hardening process. Steel rivets can be found in static
structures such as bridges, cranes, and building frames
Sof t mat er i al s ar e used t o make r i vet s.
Processes
Roll bending

Roll bending produces a cylindrical shaped product from plate or steel
metal.
[10]

Roll forming

Roll forming is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of metal
(typically coiled steel) is passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or stands,
each performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired
cross-section profile is obtained. Roll forming is ideal for producing parts
with long lengths or in large quantities. There are mainly 3 main processes,
4 rollers, 3 rollers and 2 rollers, and have different advantages according to
the specifications of the plate (thickness length and diameter) and the
shapes.
Also call roll bending or plate rolling process this is used in many fields,
Exhaust pipes, Trucks brakes, Pressure Vessel Tanks Gaz tanks,
Components for airbags, Fire extinguishers, Hot water boilers, Drawer rails,
Filter housings, Fittings, Fuel filters, Gear components, Gear selector forks,
Multi diameter Shells, Pressurized containers, Pumps' shells, Rear axles,
Sink mountings, Spinning compatible tubes, Washing drumbs.


Flat rolling
Flat rolling is the most basic form of rolling with the starting and ending
material having a rectangular cross-section. The material is fed in between
two rollers, called working rolls, that rotate in opposite directions. The gap
between the two rolls is less than the thickness of the starting material,
which causes it todeform. The decrease in material thickness causes the
material to elongate. The friction at the interface between the material and
the rolls causes the material to be pushed through. The amount of
deformation possible in a single pass is limited by the friction between the
rolls; if the change in thickness is too great the rolls just slip over the
material and do not draw it in.
[1]
The final product is either sheet or plate,
with the former being less than 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the latter greater
than; however, heavy plates tend to be formed using a press, which is
termed forming, rather than rolling.
[citation needed]

Oftentimes the rolls are heated to assist in the workability of the metal.
Lubrication is often used to keep the workpiece from sticking to the
rolls.
[citation needed]
To fine tune the process the speed of the rolls and the
temperature of the rollers are adjusted.
[12]

Foil rolling
Foil rolling is a specialized type of flat rolling, specifically used to
produce foil, which is sheet metal with a thickness less than 200 m
(0.0079 in).
[citation needed]
The rolling is done in a cluster millbecause the small
thickness requires a small diameter rolls.
[6]
To reduce the need for small
rolls pack rolling is used, which rolls multiple sheets together to increase the
effective starting thickness. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they
are trimmed and slitted with circular or razor-like knives. Trimming refers to
the edges of the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into several
sheets.
[12]
Aluminum foil is the most commonly produced product via pack
rolling. This is evident from the two different surface finishes; the shiny side
is on the roll side and the dull side is against the other sheet of foil.
[13]

Ring rolling

Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that increases the diameter of
a ring. The starting material is a thick-walled ring. This workpiece is placed
between two rolls an idler roll, while another roll, called the driven roll,
presses the ring from the outside. As the rolling occurs the wall thickness
decreases as the diameter increases. The rolls may be shaped to form
various cross-sectional shapes. The resulting grain structure is
circumferential, which gives better mechanical properties. Diameters can be
as large as 8 m (26 ft) and face heights as tall as 2 m (79 in). Common
applications include rockets,turbines, airplanes, pipes, and pressure
vessels.
[7]

The di st ance bet ween each t hr ead i s cal l ed t he " pi t ch" . The maj or i t y of scr ews ar e
t i ght ened by cl ockw i se r ot at i on, w hi ch i s t er med a r i ght -hand t hr ead; a
common mnemoni c devi cef or r emember i ng t hi s when wor ki ng wi t h scr ews or
bol t s i s " l ef t y-l oosy, r i ght y-t i ght y." Scr ews w i t h l ef t -hand t hr eads ar e used i n
except i onal cases. For exampl e, w hen t he scr ew w i l l be subj ect t o
count er cl ockw i se t or que (whi ch woul d w or k t o undo a r i ght -hand t hr ead), a l ef t -
hand-t hr eaded scr ew wo ul d be an appr opr i at e choi ce. The l ef t si de pedal of
a bi cycl e has a l ef t -hand t hr ead.
M or e gener al l y, scr ew may mean any hel i cal devi ce, such as a cl amp,
a mi cr omet er , a shi p' s pr opel l er or an Ar chi medes' scr ew wat er pump.
Scr ews and bo l t s may be made f r om a w i de r ange of mat er i al s, wi t h st eel bei ng
per haps t he most common, i n many var i et i es. Wher e gr eat r esi st ance t o weat her
or cor r osi on i s r equi r ed, st ai nl ess st eel , t i t ani um, br ass (st eel scr ews can di scol or
oak and o t her woo ds), br onze, mo nel or si l i con br onze may be used. Gal vani c
cor r osi on of di ssi mi l ar met al s can be pr event ed (usi ngal umi ni um scr ews f or
doubl e-gl azi ng t r acks f or exampl e) by a car ef ul choi ce of mat er i al . Some t ypes of
pl ast i c, such as nyl o n or pol yt et r af l uo r oet hyl ene (PTFE), can be t hr eaded and used
f or f ast eni ngs r equi r i ng mo der at e st r engt h and gr eat r esi st ance t o cor r osi on or f o r
t he pur pose of el ect r i cal i nsul at i o n. Of t en a sur f ace coat i ng i s used t o pr o t ect t he
f ast eni ng f r om cor r osi o n (e.g. Br i ght Zi nc Pl at i ng f or st eel scr ews), t o i mpar t a
decor at i ve f i ni sh (e.g. j appani ng) or ot her wi se al t er t he pr oper t i es of t he base
mat er i al . Sel ect i o n cr i t er i a of t he scr ew mat er i al s i ncl ude t emper at ur e, r equi r ed
st r engt h, r esi st ance t o cor r osi on, j oi nt mat er i al and cost .
The lead is defined as the linear distance the screw travels in one
complete revolution (360) of the shaft. The lead determines
the mechanical advantage of the screw; the smaller the lead, the higher
the mechanical advantage.
[19]

The pitch is defined as the axial distance between the crests of adjacent
threads.
ever yday si phons, at mospher i c pr essur e i s t he dr i vi ng mechani sm, The uphi l l f l o w
of wat er i n a si phon doesn t vi ol at e t he pr i nci pl e of cont i nui t y because t he mass of
wat er ent er i ng t he t ube and f l o wi ng upwar ds i s equal t o t he mass of wat er f l o wi ng
dow nwar ds and l eavi ng t he t ube. A si phon doesn' t vi ol at e t he pr i nci pl e
of conser vat i o n of ener gy because t he l oss of gr avi t at i onal po t ent i al ener gy as
l i qui d f l o ws f r om t he upper r eser vo i r t o t he l o wer r eser voi r equal s t he wor k done
i n over comi ng f l ui d f r i ct i o n as t he l i qui d f l ows t hr o ugh t he t ube. The maxi mum
hei ght of t he cr est i s l i mi t ed by at mospher i c pr essur e, t he densi t y of t he l i qui d, and
i t svapour pr essur e. When t he pr essur e w i t hi n t he l i qui d dr o ps t o bel o w t he l i qui d' s
vapor pr essur e, t i ny vapor bubbl es can begi n t o f or m at t he hi gh poi nt and t he
si pho n ef f ect wi l l end.
Diametral Pitch
Pitch diameter
Number of teeth
Divide the number of
teeth by the pitch
diameter
P
d
= N / D

The greatest advantage of square threads is that they have a much higher
intrinsic efficiency than acme threads. Due to the lack of a thread
angle there is no radial pressure, or bursting pressure, on the nut. This also
increases the nut life.
[1]

The greatest disadvantage is the difficulty in machining such a thread.
The single-point cutting tools or taps and dies used to cut the thread cannot
have efficient rake and relief angles (because of the square form), which
makes the cutting slow and difficult. Square threads also cannot carry as
much load as a trapezoidal thread, because the root of the square thread is
smaller. Also, there is no way to compensate for wear on the nut, so it must
be replaced when worn out.
[1]


One way i s t o def i ne t he st r eam f unct i on f or a t wo di mensi o nal f l ow such t hat
t he f l ow vel oci t y can be expr essed as:



A common met hod t o r emove syst emat i c er r or i s t hr o ugh cal i br at i o n of t he
measur ement i nst r ument .
Random error is always present in a measurement. It is caused by
inherently unpredictable fluctuations in the readings of a measurement
apparatus or in the experimenter's interpretation of the instrumental reading.
Random errors show up as different results for ostensibly the same
repeated measurement. They can be estimated by comparing multiple
measurements, and reduced by averaging multiple measurements.
Systematic error cannot be discovered this way because it always pushes
the results in the same direction. If the cause of a systematic error can be
identified, then it can usually be eliminated.
Because random errors are reduced by re-measurement (making n times as
many measurements will usually reduce random errors by a factor of n), it
is worth repeating an experiment until random errors are similar in size to
systematic errors. Additional measurements will be of little benefit, because
the overall error cannot be reduced below the systematic error.

Temper i ng i s done i mmedi at el y af t er quench har deni ng. When t he st eel cool s t o
about 40 C (104 F) af t er quenchi ng, i t i s r eady t o be t emper ed. The par t i s
r eheat ed t o a t emper at ur e of 150 t o 400 C (302 t o 752 F). In t hi s r egi o n a sof t er
and t ougher st r uct ur e Tr oost i t e i s f or med. Al t er nat i vel y, t he st eel can be heat ed t o
a t emper at ur e of 400 t o 700 C (752 t o 1292 F) t hat r esul t s i n a sof t er st r uct ur e
kno wn as Sor bi t e. Thi s has l ess st r engt h t han Tr oost i t e but mor e duct i l i t y and
t oughness.
Poi sson s Rat i o;

For a per f ect l y i sot r o pi c el ast i c mat er i al , Poi sson' s Rat i o i s 0.25, but f or most
mat er i al s t he val ue l i es i n t he r ange of 0. 28 t o 0. 33.
E = 2 (1 + n) G.
Lame' s const ant s ar e der i ved f r om modul us of el ast i ci t y and Poi sson' s r at i o.
Common f or ms of t he equat i o n of st at e of an i deal gas: PV = nR
u
T
PV = mRT
w her e n i s t he number of mol es, R
u
i s t he uni ver sal gas const ant , and R i s t he
speci f i c gas const ant . The uni ver sal and speci f i c gas const ant s ar e r el at ed as
f ol l ows: R=R
u
/ M , w her e M i s t he mol ecul ar wei ght of t he gas.




In heat t r ansf er anal ysi s, t hermal diffusivit y i s t he t her mal conduct i vi t y di vi ded by
densi t y and speci f i c heat capaci t y at const ant pr essur e. It has t he SI uni t of m/ s.
The f or mul a i s:
Syst em
Heat (+)
Wor k (+)

wher e
i s t her mal conduct i vi t y (W/ (mK))
i s densi t y (kg/ m)
i s speci f i c heat capaci t y (J/ (kgK))
The denomi nat o r can be consi der ed t he vol umet r i c heat capaci t y (J/ (mK)).

The mai n l i mi t at i on w i t h t her mocoupl es i s accur acy and syst em er r or s of l ess t han
one degr ee Cel si us (C) can be di f f i cul t t o achi eve.
[ 3]

Any j unct i on of di ssi mi l ar met al s wi l l pr oduce an el ect r i c po t ent i al r el at ed t o
t emper at ur e. Ther mocoupl es f or pr act i cal measur ement of t emper at ur e ar e
j unct i ons of speci f i c al l o ysw hi ch have a pr edi ct abl e and r epeat abl e r el at i o nshi p
bet ween t emper at ur e and vol t age. Di f f er ent al l oys ar e used f or di f f er ent
t emper at ur e r anges. Pr o per t i es such as r esi st ance t o cor r osi o n may al so be
i mpor t ant w hen choosi ng a t ype of t her mocoupl e. Wher e t he measur ement poi nt
i s f ar f r om t he measur i ng i nst r ument , t he i nt er medi at e connect i on can be made by
ext ensi on wi r es whi ch ar e l ess cost l y t han t he mat er i al s used t o make t he sensor .
Ther mocoupl es ar e usual l y st andar di zed agai nst a r ef er ence t emper at ur e of 0
degr ees Cel si us; pr act i cal i nst r ument s use el ect r oni c met hods of col d-j unct i on
compensat i on t o adj ust f or var yi ng t emper at ur e at t he i nst r ument t er mi nal s.
El ect r o ni c i nst r ument s can al so compensat e f or t he var yi ng char act er i st i cs of t he
t her mocoupl e, and so i mpr ove t he pr eci si o n and accur acy of measur ement s.
The three principal Stresses in the Shell are
the Circumferential or Hoop Stress; the Longitudinal Stress; and
the Radial Stress.
If the Cylinder walls are thin and the ratio of the thickness to the Internal
diameter is less than about 1/20 then it can be assumed that the hoop and
longitudinal stresses are constant across the thickness. It may also be
assumed that the radial stress is small and can be neglected. In point of fact
it must have a value equal to the pressure on the inside surface and zero at
the outside surface. These assumptions are within the bounds of reasonable
accuracy.
The Stresses in the cylinder walls are:-

The Stresses in the hemispherical Ends are:-




Since the length of the Circumference = the diameter X a constant FOR
CYLINDER:



It should be noticed that this is the sum of the linear Strains in three
Principal directions. Similar reasoning for a Spherical Shell shows that:-



i.e. To increase the capacity it is only necessary to multiply the Volumetric
Strain by the original Volume.

Tool st eel r ef er s t o a var i et y of car bon and al l oy st eel s t hat ar e par t i cul ar l y wel l -
sui t ed t o be made i nt o t ool s. Thei r sui t abi l i t y comes f r om t hei r di st i nct i vehar dness,
r esi st ance t o abr asi on, t hei r abi l i t y t o hol d a cut t i ng edge, and/ or t hei r r esi st ance
t o def or mat i o n at el evat ed t emper at ur es (r ed-har dness). Tool st eel i s gener al l y
used i n a heat -t r eat ed st at e.
Wi t h a car bon cont ent bet ween 0.7% and 1. 5%, t ool st eel s ar e manuf act ur ed
under car ef ul l y cont r ol l ed condi t i ons t o pr o duce t he r equi r ed qual i t y.
Themanganese cont ent i s of t en kept l o w t o mi ni mi ze t he possi bi l i t y of cr acki ng
dur i ng wat er quenchi ng. However , pr oper heat t r eat i ng of t hese st eel s i s
i mpor t ant f or adequat e per f or mance, and t her e ar e many suppl i er s w ho pr ovi de
t ool i ng bl anks i nt ended f or oi l quenchi ng.
Impul se t ur bi nes change t he di r ect i o n of f l ow of a hi gh vel oci t y f l ui d or gas j et . The
r esul t i ng i mpul se spi ns t he t ur bi ne and l eaves t he f l ui d f l ow w i t h di mi ni shed
ki net i c ener gy. Ther e i s no pr essur e change of t he f l ui d o r gas i n t he t ur bi ne bl ades
(t he movi ng bl ades), as i n t he case of a st eam or gas t ur bi ne, al l t he pr essur e dr o p
t akes pl ace i n t he st at i o nar y bl ades (t he nozzl es). Bef or e r eachi ng t he t ur bi ne, t he
f l ui d' s pr essur e head i s changed t o vel oci t y head by accel er at i ng t he f l ui d wi t h
a nozzl e. Pel t on wheel s and de Laval t ur bi nes use t hi s pr ocess excl usi vel y. Impul se
t ur bi nes do not r equi r e a pr essur e casement ar o und t he r ot or si nce t he f l ui d j et i s
cr eat ed by t he nozzl e pr i or t o r eachi ng t he bl adi ng on t he r ot or . New t on' s second
l aw descr i bes t he t r ansf er of ener gy f or i mpul se t ur bi nes.
React i on t ur bi nes devel op t or que by r eact i ng t o t he gas or f l ui d' s pr essur e or mass.
The pr essur e of t he gas or f l ui d changes as i t passes t hr o ugh t he t ur bi ne r ot or
bl ades. A pr essur e casement i s needed t o cont ai n t he wor ki ng f l ui d as i t act s on
t he t ur bi ne st age(s) or t he t ur bi ne must be f ul l y i mmer sed i n t he f l ui d f l ow (such as
wi t h wi nd t ur bi nes). The casi ng co nt ai ns and di r ect s t he wor ki ng f l ui d and, f or
wat er t ur bi nes, mai nt ai ns t he suct i on i mpar t ed by t he dr af t t ube. Fr anci s
t ur bi nes and most st eam t ur bi nes use t hi s concept . For compr essi bl e wor ki ng
f l ui ds, mul t i pl e t ur bi ne st ages ar e usual l y used t o har ness t he expandi ng gas
ef f i ci ent l y. New t on' s t hi r d l awdescr i bes t he t r ansf er of ener gy f or r eact i o n
t ur bi nes.
Cr ossf l ow t ur bi nes ar e desi gned as an i mpul se machi ne, wi t h a nozzl e, but i n l o w
head appl i cat i ons mai nt ai n some ef f i ci ency t hr o ugh r eact i on, l i ke a t r adi t i onal
wat er w heel .
Wat er t ur bi nes
Pel t on t ur bi ne, a t ype of i mpul se wat er t ur bi ne.
Fr anci s t ur bi ne, a t ype of wi del y used wat er t ur bi ne.
Kapl an t ur bi ne, a var i at i on of t he Fr anci s Tur bi ne.
Tur go t ur bi ne, a mo di f i ed f or m of t he Pel t on w heel .
Cr oss-f l ow t ur bi ne, al so know n as Banki -M i chel l t ur bi ne, or Ossber ger
t ur bi ne.

si mpl e bendi ng t heor y equat i on

quivalent Bending Moment :
Now let us define the term the equivalent bending moment which acting
alone, will produce the same maximum principal stress or bending
stress.Let M
e
be the equivalent bending moment, then due to bending

Equivalent Torque :
At we here already proved that
1
and
2
for the combined bending and
twisting case are expressed by the relations:

where is defined as the equivalent torque, which acting alone would
produce the same maximum shear stress as produced by the pure torsion
Thus,

Vena cont ract a i s t he poi nt i n a f l ui d st r eam wher e t he di amet er of t he st r eam i s
t he l east , and f l ui d vel oci t y i s at i t s maxi mum, such as i n t he case of a st r eam
i ssui ng o ut of a nozzl e, (or i f i ce).
Coeff icient of cont ract ion:
It i s t he r at i o bet ween t he ar ea of t he j et at t he vena cont r act a t o t he ar ea of t he
or i f i ce.
C
c
= ar ea at vena cont r act a/ ar ea of or i f i ce
The t ypi cal val ue may be t aken as 0.64 f or a shar p or i f i ce (concent r i c w i t h t he f l o w
channel ). The smal l er t he val ue, t he mor e ef f ect t he vena cont r act a has.

A vort ex (pl ur al : vor t i ces) i s a spi nni ng, of t en t ur bul ent , f l ow of f l ui d.
Any spi r al mo t i on wi t h cl osed st r eaml i nes i s vor t ex f l ow. The mot i on of t he f l ui d
swi r l i ng r api dl y ar ound a cent er i s cal l ed a vor t ex. The speed and r at e of r o t at i on of
t he f l ui d i n a f r ee (i r r ot at i onal ) vor t ex ar e gr eat est at t he cent er , and decr ease
pr ogr essi vel y w i t h di st ance f r om t he cent er , w her eas t he speed of a f or ced
(r ot at i o nal ) vor t ex i s zer o at t he cent er and i ncr eases pr opor t i o nal t o t he di st ance
f r om t he cent er . Bot h t ypes of vor t i ces exhi bi t a pr essur e mi ni mum at t he cent er ,
t ho ugh t he pr essur e mi ni mum i n a f r ee vor t ex i s much l o wer .
Free (irrotational) vortex
When fluid is drawn down a plug-hole, one can observe the phenomenon of
a free vortex or line vortex. The tangential velocity v varies inversely as
the distance r from the center of rotation, so the angular momentum rv is
uniform everywhere throughout the flow; the vorticity is zero everywhere
(except for a singularity at the center-line) and the circulation about a
contour containing r = 0 has the same value everywhere.
[1]
The free
surface (if present) dips sharply (as r
2
) as the center line is approached.
The tangential velocity is given by:

where is the circulation and r is the radial distance from the center of
the vortex.
In non-technical terms, the fluid near the center of the vortex circulates
faster than the fluid far from the center. The speed along the circular path
of flow decreases as you move out from the center. At the same time the
inner streamlines have a shorter distance to travel to complete a ring. If
you were running a race on a circular track would you rather be on the
inside or outside, assuming the goal was to complete a circle? Imagine a
leaf floating in a free vortex. The leaf's tip points to the center and the
blade straddles multiple streamlines. The outer flow is slow in terms of
angle traversed and it exerts a backwards tug on the base of the leaf
while the faster inner flow pulls the tip forwards. The drag force opposes
rotation of the leaf as it moves around the circle.
Forced (rotational) vortex
In a forced vortex the fluid rotates as a solid body (there is no shear).
The motion can be realized by placing a dish of fluid on a turntable
rotating at radian/s; the fluid has vorticity of 2 everywhere, and the
free surface (if present) is a paraboloid.
The tangential velocity is given by:
[1]


where is the angular velocity and r is the radial distance from the center of
the vortex.


Hal sey pr emi um pl an:
Various modif icat ions of piece work have been developed , all
involving t he feat ures of a minimum t ask and of a premium for
performance beyond t hat point . These plans are called " premium
plans, " " progressive wage syst ems, " and " gain shar ing. " One of
t he first of t hese, Halsey' s premium plan, f ixes a st andard t ime f or
a j ob, and if t he worker falls short of, or merely at t ains t o, t hat
st andard he get s t he regular pay; but if he t akes less t han t he
st andard t ime he receives a f ixed premium per hour equal t o one
t hird of t he wage for t he t ime saved. For example, if t he st andard
t ime is 10 hours for a $3 j ob t he premium for speed is t en cent s
per hour, and t he worker would receive 20 cent s premium if he did
t he work in 8 hours ( $2. 40 + 20, t ot al $2. 60) , and 50 cent s
premium if he did it in 5 hour s ( $1. 50 + 50, t ot al $2. 00) . His
average wage per hour t hus r ises as his speed increases; it
becomes 32. 5 cent s per hour when t he j ob is done in 8 hours, and
40 cent s per hour when t he j ob is done in 5 hours. The reduct ion
of cost per j ob t o t he employer evident ly would be 40 cent s in t he
f irst case and $1 in t he second. This is Halsey' s plan, by which t he
wor ker get s one- t hird and t he employer t wo- t hirds of t he t ime
saved.
The idler pulley i s of t en t he poi nt t hat i s adj ust ed t o r epl ace a bel t . Pul l ey
r epl acement of t en i ncl udes r epl aci ng o ne or mor e bel t s. M echani cs t al k abo ut an
i dl er pul l ey t ensi o ner t hat hel ps pr o vi de t he r i ght l evel of t ensi on o n t he bel t .
Vehi cl e o wner s can of t en adj ust t he pul l ey wi t h a scr ew t o gai n or l ose t ensi o n. The
owner of t he vehi cl e can al so mo ve t he i dl er pul l ey t o r el ease t ensi o n so t hat t he
bel t can sl i p o ver t he pul l ey. They can t hen t ur n t he t ensi o ner t o r egai n t he cor r ect
l evel of t ensi o n t o keep t he bel t t i ght and ensur e cor r ect o per at i on.
W ien' s displacement law st at es t hat t he wavel engt h di st r i but i on of t her mal
r adi at i o n f r om a bl ack body at any t emper at ur e has essent i al l y t he same shape as
t he di st r i but i o n at any ot her t emper at ur e, except t hat each wavel engt h i s
di spl aced on t he gr aph. Apar t f r om an over al l T
3
mul t i pl i cat i ve f act or , t he
aver age t her mal ener gy i n each mo de wi t h f r equency onl y depends on t he
r at i o . Rest at ed i n t er ms of t he wavel engt h , t he di st r i but i o ns at
cor r espondi ng wavel engt hs ar e r el at ed, w her e cor r espondi ng wavel engt hs ar e at
l ocat i ons pr opor t i onal t o . Bl ackbody r adi at i on appr oxi mat es t o Wi en' s l aw at
hi gh f r equenci es.
Fr om t hi s gener al l aw , i t f ol l o ws t hat t her e i s an i nver se r el at i onshi p bet ween t he
wavel engt h of t he peak of t he emi ssi o n o f a bl ack body and i t st emper at ur e w hen
expr essed as a f unct i on of wavel engt h, and t hi s l ess power f ul consequence i s of t en
al so cal l ed Wi en' s di spl acement l aw i n many t ext books.

In t er ms of f r equency (i n her t z), Wi en' s di spl acement l aw becomes


BLADE RATIO

Bot h ends hi nged N=1 Eul er s cr i t i cal l oad
P=N

2
LI
I
2

One f i x ot her f r ee N=.25
One f i x ot her hi nge N=2
Bot h f i x N=4
One f i x t her r ol l er N=1

For Ki namet i c chai n, L=2/ 3(J+2)
For pump;
qD^ 3 q -- N
H D^ 2 HN^ 2
HP D^ 5 HP N^ 3
EXTERING FORCE = p A v
2

For pump ; f or t ur bi ne;
N
S
=
N
H
3
4
,
N
S
=
NP
H
S
4
,

Bel t pr obl em:
Power t r ansmi t t ed = (T1-T2)* v/ 75 N1/ N2 = d2 / d1
For shaf t compoundi ng; f or pi pe compoundi ng;
l / d
4
= const ant l / d
5
= const ant
Re = Iner t i al f or ce/ vi scous f or ce
Fr aude = Dynami c f or ce / wei ght
Weber = I ner t i al f or ce / sur f ace t ensi on
M ach = Iner t i al f or ce / el ast i c f or ce


For l amel l ar f l o w; f or t ur bul ent ;
o
x
=
5
R
c

o
x
=
0 .37
R
c
0.2

M ax shear st r ess f or ci r cul ar shaf t and r ect angul ar shaf t =
= 16T/ (d
3
) and = T/ (bt
2
)
Power scr ews;
Ef f i eci ency =
1-tunq
1+tunq
i f gr eat er t han hel i x angl e t hen sel f l ocki ng

Вам также может понравиться