Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
www.ashokkumar.110mb.com
Overview of Presentation
Introduction History of Wind Machines Wind Resource Assessment Wind Energy Technology
Horizontal Axis turbine Vertical Axis turbine
Electricity!
More efficient light bulbs are great, but what is the BEST way to conserve electricity and reduce our consumption of fossil fuels???
How much would it cost to run this 100 Watt bulb for a full day (24 hrs)? 100 Watts x 24 hours = 2400 Watt Hours (2400 Watt Hours = 2.4 Kilowatt Hours) 2.4 kWh x $0.08/kWh = $0.19
What about this 25 Watt CFL light bulb, which produces the same amount of light? 25 Watts x 24 hours = 600 Watt Hours (600 Watt Hours = 0.6 Kilowatt Hours)
TURN IT OFF!!! x $0.08/kWh = $0.05 0.6 kWh Be conscious of your energy choices!
Major factors that have accelerated the wind-power technology development are as follows:
high-strength fiber composites for constructing large low-cost blades. falling prices of the power electronics. variable-speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy. improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95 percent. economy of scale, as the turbines and plants are getting larger in size. accumulated field experience (the learning curve effect) improving the capacity factor.
Isolated-Grid
Turbines typically 10 to 200 kW Reduce generation costs in remote areas: wind-diesel hybrid system High or low penetration
Central-Grid
Turbines typically 200 kW to 2 MW Windfarms of multiple turbines
INTRODUCTION
Wind energy, the world's fastest growing energy source, is a clean and renewable source of energy that has been in use for centuries in Europe and more recently in the United States and other nations. And todays world wind is one of the cheapest and cleanest energy source.
Then in the early 1970s, oil shortages created an environment eager for alternative energy sources, paving the way for the re-entry of the electric windmill on the world landscape .
Wind energy
Wind energy is actually a converted form of solar energy. The suns radiation heats different part of the earth at different rates during the day and night, but also when different surfaces (e.g., water and land) absorb or reflect at different rates. This in turn causes portions of the atmosphere to warm differently. Hot airs rises, reducing the atmospheric pressure at the earths surface, and cooler air is drawn in to replace it. Air has a mass, and when it is in motion, it contains the kinetic from mass in motion. Some portion of that energy can be converted into other forms mechanical force or electricity that we can use to perform work.
What is Wind?
Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Since the earth's surface is made up of land, desert, water, and forest areas, the surface absorbs the sun's radiation differently. All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power), ultimately comes from the sun The earth receives 1.74 x 1017 watts of power (per hour) from the sun About 1% or 2% of this energy is converted to wind energy (which is about 50-100 times more than the energy converted to biomass by all plants on earth) Differential heating of the earths surface and atmosphere induces vertical and horizontal air currents that are affected by the earths rotation and contours of the land WIND. e.g.: Land Sea Breeze Cycle
Winds are influenced by the ground surface at altitudes up to 100 m. Wind is slowed by the surface roughness and obstacles. When dealing with wind energy, we are concerned with surface winds. A wind turbine obtains its power input by converting the force of the wind into a torque (turning force) acting on the rotor blades. The amount of energy which the wind transfers to the rotor depends on the density of the air, the rotor area, and the wind speed. The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its mass (or weight). The kinetic energy in the wind thus depends on the density of the air, i.e. its mass per unit of volume. In other words, the "heavier" the air, the more energy is received by the turbine. At 15 Celsius air weighs about 1.225 kg per cubic meter, but the density decreases slightly with increasing humidity.
A typical 600 kW wind turbine has a rotor diameter of 43-44 meters, i.e. a rotor area of some 1,500 square meters.
The rotor area determines how much energy a wind turbine is able to harvest from the wind. Since the rotor area increases with the square of the rotor diameter, a turbine which is twice as large will receive 22 = 2 x 2 = four times as much energy.
To be considered a good location for wind energy, an area needs to have average annual wind speeds of at least 12 miles per hour.
Global Winds
The global wind patterns are created by uneven heating and the spinning of the earth. The warm air rises near the equator, and the surface air moves in to replace the rising air - two major belts of the global wind patterns are created. The wind between the equator and about 30 north and south latitudes move east to west. These are called the trade winds because of their use in sailing ships for trades. Two features of the wind, its speed, and the direction, are used in describing and forecasting weather
Local Winds
Land Breezes and Sea Breezes
Land masses are heated by the sun more quickly than the sea in the daytime. The air rises, flows out to the sea, and creates a low pressure at ground level which attracts the cool air from the sea. This is called a sea breeze. At nightfall there is often a period of calm when land and sea temperatures are equal. At night the wind blows in the opposite direction. The land breeze at night generally has lower wind speeds, because the temperature difference between land and sea is smaller at night.
Early History
5000 BCE (before common era): Sailing ships on the Nile River were likely the first use of wind power Hammurabi, ruler of Babylonia, used wind power for irrigation Hero (Heron) created a wind-pumped organ Persians created a Vertical Axis WT (VAWT) in the mid 7th Century 1191 AD: The English used wind turbines 1270: Post-mill used in Holland 1439: Corn-grinding in Holland 1600: Tower mill with rotating top or cap 1750: Dutch mill imported to America 1850: American multiblade wind pump development; 6.5 million until 1930; was produced in Heller-Allen Co., Napoleon, Ohio 1890: Danish 23-meter diameter turbine produced electricity
Later History
1920: Early Twentieth Century saw wind-driven water-pumps commonly used in rural America, but the spread of electricity lines in 1930s (Rural Electrification Act) caused their decline 1925: Windcharger and Jacobs turbines popular for battery charging at 32V; 32V dc appliances common for gas generators 1940: 1250kW Rutland Vermont (Putnam) 53m system (center) 1957-1960: 200kW Danish Gedser mill (right) 1972: NASA/NSF wind turbine research 1979: 2MW NASA/DOE 61m diameter turbine in NC Now, many windfarms are in use worldwide
Lift-type turbines
VAWT, Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Darrieus
DRAG-TYPE TURBINES
Savonious
DRAG-TYPE TURBINES
Ref: www.ifb.uni-stuttgart.de/~doerner/edesignphil.html
The purpose of the rotor, of course, is to convert the linear motion of the wind into rotational energy that can be used to drive a generator. The same basic principle is used in a modern water turbine, where the flow of water is parallel to the rotational axis of the turbine blades.
1.8 m
Modern Turbines
75 m
Brakes
Mechanical Aerodynamic
DEVELOPMENT OF HAWT
SPEED
HEIGHT [M]
20
17
13
5 15
3 10 rpm
HAWT
Horisontal-Axis Wind Turbines
SMLA
HAWT
Main Components
Foundation Tower Nacelle Hub Turbine blades
HAWT Examples
Charles Brush (arc light) home turbine of 1888 (center) 17 m, 1:50 step-up to drive 500 rpm generator NASA Mod 0, 1, 2 turbines The Mod-0A at Clayton NM produced 200kW (below left)
VAWT
The only vertical axis turbine which has ever been manufactured commercially at any volume is the Darrieus machine, named after the French engineer Georges Darrieus who patented the design in 1931. (It was manufactured by the U.S. company FloWind which went bankrupt in 1997). The Darrieus machine is characterized by its C-shaped rotor blades which make it look a bit like an eggbeater. It is normally built with two or three blades.
VAWT (Vertical Axis Wind Turbines) have the rotor spinning around a vertical axis This Savonius rotor will instantly extract energy regardless of the wind direction The wind forces on the blades reverse each half-turn causing fatigue of the mountings The two-phase design with the two sections at right angles to each other starts more easily
Savonius
Giromill
Experimental Savonius
Ref: www.ifb.uni-stuttgart.de/~doerner/edesignphil.html
Advantages of VAWTs
1) You may place the generator, gearbox etc. on the ground, and you may not need a tower for the machine. 2) You do not need a yaw mechanism to turn the rotor against the wind.
Disadvantages of VAWTs
Wind speeds are very low close to ground level, so although you may save a tower, your wind speeds will be very low on the lower part of your rotor. The overall efficiency of the vertical axis machines is not impressive. The machine is not self-starting (e.g. a Darrieus machine will need a "push" before it starts. This is only a minor inconvenience for a grid
Large Systems
FPL Stateline and Vansycle Ridge Wind Farms in southeast WA and northeast Oregon Wasco OR shown; plowed fields for wheat underneath
If wind speed for a given location and at a given height is known, the V at any other height at the same location can be estimated.
V(at unknown ht) = V (at known ht) x (New ht/Ref ht)
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of motion
Air molecules have mass, and wind is moving air. Thus, wind has kinetic energy. Wind turbines convert the winds kinetic energy into mechanical kinetic energy (spinning the rotor). Mass = density * volume: m rV What is the kinetic energy of a 1m cube of air moving at 5 m/s in Colorado (r = 1 kg/m3)?
1 2 KE mv 2
Some of the winds kinetic energy is converted into mechanical kinetic energy, i.e., the rotation of the turbine rotor. Some of the winds kinetic energy remains in the wind (conservation of energy).
1 2 KE mv 2
KEwind
in
KEturbine KEwind
out
The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic energy per second. Therefore:
The volumetric flow rate is AV, the mass flow rate of the air in kilograms per second is AV, and the power is given by the following:
Power Extracted from the Wind The actual power extracted by the rotor blades is the difference between the upstream and the downstream wind powers
The mechanical power extracted by the rotor, which is driving the electrical generator, is therefore:
Cp is the fraction of the upstream wind power, which is captured by the rotor blades. The remaining power is discharged or wasted in the downstream wind. The factor Cp is called the power coefficient of the rotor or the rotor efficiency.
Betz Limit
All wind power cannot be captured by rotor or air would be completely still behind rotor and not allow more wind to pass through. Theoretical limit of rotor efficiency is 59% Most modern wind turbines are in the 35 45% range
Rotor Swept Area The output power of the wind turbine varies linearly with the rotor swept area. For the horizontal axis turbine, the rotor swept area is given by:
For the Darrieus vertical axis machine, determination of the swept area is complex, as it involves elliptical integrals.
Power Coefficient
Power coefficient Cp is a measure of the aerodynamic efficiency of the wind turbine
Protor Q C p aero 1 Pwind 2 rAv 3
Q = turbines aerodynamic torque W = rotor rotational speed Betz limit - theoretical maximum
16 C p Betz 0.5926 27
Air Density
The wind power varies linearly with the air density sweeping the blades. The air density varies with pressure and Temperature in accordance with the gas law:
0.200
Proportion of Time
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Wind Speed Bin (m/s) AWS = 5.0 m/s k = 2.0 PD = 146 watts/m^2 AWS = 5.0 m/s k = 3.0 PD 108 watts/m^2 AWS = 6.0 m/s k = 2.0 PD = 253 watts/m^2
The variation in wind speed are best described by the Weibull probability distribution function h with two parameters, the shape parameter k, and the scale parameter c. Effect of Height The wind shear at ground surface causes the wind speed increase with height in accordance with the expression
Energy Distribution
It is advantageous to design the wind power to operate at variable speeds in order to capture the maximum energy available during high wind periods.
The Drag Force is parallel to the direction of motion. We want to make this force small.
= High Stall!!
Airfoil
Just like the wings of an airplane, wind turbine blades use the airfoil shape to create lift and maximize efficiency.
Tip-Speed Ratio
R
Tip-speed ratio is the ratio of the speed of the rotating blade tip to the speed of the free stream wind. There is an optimum angle of attack which creates the highest lift to drag ratio. Because angle of attack is dependant on wind speed, there is an optimum tip speed ratio
R TSR = V
Rotor Solidity
Solidity is the ratio of total rotor planform area to total swept area a Solidity = 3a/A
Low solidity (0.10) = high speed, low torque High solidity (>0.80) = low speed, high torque
Tip-Speed Ratio
Ratio of the linear speed of the tip of the blade to the wind speed Linear speed of a rotating object is angular speed times distance from center of rotation
wR l v
What is the tip-speed ratio of a 20 m diameter rotor rotating at 6 rad/s in 10 m/s wind?
1990 1995
250 m2
2000
A= 12,000 m2
2010
Types
Horizontal axis Most common Controls or design turn rotor into wind Vertical axis Less common
SECTIONAL VIEW
Nacelle
56 tons
Tower
3 sections
A small turbine has a free-spinning assembly that the wind turns in azimuth by pushing on the tail
LARGE TURBINES: Able to deliver electricity at lower cost than smaller turbines, because foundation costs, planning costs, etc. are independent of size. Well-suited for offshore wind plants. In areas where it is difficult to find sites, one large turbine on a tall tower uses the wind extremely efficiently.
SMALL TURBINES: Local electrical grids may not be able to handle the large electrical output from a large turbine, so smaller turbines may be more suitable. High costs for foundations for large turbines may not be economical in some areas. Landscape considerations
Most common design is the three-bladed turbine. The most important reason is the stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least three blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic properties of the machine. A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a machine with a stiff structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost blade bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the lowermost blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
Wind Turbine
A wind system transforms the kinetic energy of wind to mechanical or electrical energy. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. Turbines catch the winds energy with their propeller-like blades. Usually two or three blades are mounted on a shaft to form a rotor. A blade acts much like an airplane wing.
SMALL GENERATORS: Require less force to turn than a larger ones, but give much lower power output. Less efficient i.e.. If you fit a large wind turbine rotor with a small generator it will be producing electricity during many hours of the year, but it will capture only a small part of the energy content of the wind at high wind speeds. LARGE GENERATORS: Very efficient at high wind speeds, but unable to turn at low wind speeds. i.e.. If the generator has larger coils, and/or a stronger internal magnet, it will require more force (mechanical) to start in motion.
Garden State Offshore Energy (GSOE) will employ a propietary deep water foundation technology which enables wind turbines to be located in deep waters far from shore. Thanks to these deep water foundations, the GSOE project will be located more than 16 miles offshore, making it virtually invisible from New Jersey's beaches. From the Music Pier in Ocean City, NJ - the location closest to GSOE project the wind turbines will be virtually invisible from shore.
Nacelle
Ref. www.windpower.org
Nacelle
Nacelle Design
Yaw system
Ref. www.windpower.org
Towers
Lattice tower Tubular steel towers, Guyed Pole Tower
Concrete tower
Tower designs
A typical 600 kW turbine costs about $450,000. Installation costs are typically $125,000. Therefore, the total costs will be about $575,000.
The average price for large, modern wind farms is around $1,000 per kilowatt electrical power installed.
Modern wind turbines are designed to work for some 120,000 hours of operation throughout their design lifetime of 20 years. ( 13.7 years non-stop)
Maintenance costs are about 1.5-2.0 percent of the original cost, per year.
ENVIRONMENT
Wind energy is considered a green power technology because it has only minor impacts on the environment. Wind energy plants produce no air pollutants or greenhouse gases. However, any means of energy production impacts the environment in some way, wind energy is no different .
Aesthetics and Visual Impacts Elements that influence visual impacts include the spacing, design, and uniformity of the turbines. Birds and Other living Resources Preconstruction surveys can indicate whether birds or other living resources are likely to be affected by wind turbines. Noise Like all mechanical systems, wind turbines produce some noise when they operate. In recent years, engineers have made design changes to reduce the noise from wind turbines. TV/Radio Interference In the past, older turbines with metal blades caused television interference in areas near the turbine. Interference from modern turbines is unlikely because many components formerly made of metal are now made from composites. Global Warming Wind energy can help fight global warming. Wind turbines produce no air emissions or greenhouse gases .
Bird Kill?
Carnage!
Construction
Operations/ Maintenance