Functionalist Discourse The functionalist Discourse refers to the framework that is oriented towards consensus and dualism.

The dualistic nature of this Discourse is revealed by the notion that management training needs can be determined and expressed in a quasi-scientific manner. This may be via graded training objectives and competency classifications. It is proposed that subsequent training/learning can be guided by well-defined personal development plans, assessment criteria and performance ratings. Then, the consensual nature of the functionalist Discourse arises from the fact that such aspirations and definitions of knowledge-gain, skills-acquisition and attitude-shift are deemed to be mutually beneficial for employer and employee alike. It also follows that quantifiable degrees of success (or failure) should be measured in an equally objective manner (Definition ch3, p54). It is like a tool to enhance skills in order to decrease the performance gaps and create more capability for the future including innovation, knowledge activities, creativity and learning. The value will link between activities and outcomes with the intent of creating a coherent, robust the model of management development. In this manner, leadership is considered an emergent property of social systems and emerges with the process of creating shared meaning, both in terms of sense-making and in terms of value-added (Day, 2001). Theory Great person: traits, how leaders can inspire others through their own characteristic and make a great impact on others opinion. For example, Aung San Suu Kyi brings democracy to military-ruled Burma. She also said that democratization process here is not irreversible. Competence: combination of knowledge, ideas, practical skills and good attitude which brings success ex. knowledge sharing, welcome new ideas, help to shape culture. Contingency: different management style to different situations. From structuring, coaching, delegation and empowerment according to the degree of relationship and task Transactional: how can we measure a leader? We can use appraisal system, 360 feedback, assessment center and coaching. Overall, its a good approach to define leadership. However, the problem is that there are many forms of assessments. People wonder how the mechanism work when it link performance to leadership development. Moreover, a potential problem is that these very virtues may lead to a somewhat instrumental approach to the training and development of their management team. Paradoxically, a strategic intervention designed to enhance enterprise and responsiveness to customers could lead to goal-bound rigidity and satisficing (accept an available option) behaviours (ch3,

p60). Interpretive discourse This Discourse can be considered as emphasizing duality in the sense that organizations are regarded as systems of distributed cognition in which the challenge is to coordinate actions among multiple and potentially conflicting views expressed by individuals who are interested in developing and maintaining their autonomy as well as their unique, personal identities Constructivist Discourse sees knowledge/competency as less of an objective commodity and more a fluid consequence, naturally arising from, contributing to and being shaped by social practices. It is just like a drama or a performance. People have to participate and enjoy in it. They will learn things beyond or outside the process or activities and accumulate their own experiences through these activities. It is about personal learning and self-development. People gain the insight into what might actually be going on from their perspective. People might ask themselves about how they take personally and what they learn right now. Moreover, people are supposed to have their own ideas and their view may differ widely. This approach allows people to responding and reflecting by attending to the feelings, intuition and meanings. It also argued that management development will be invested with different meanings by different organizational stakeholders who may have confliction. Theory Transformational: LD aimed at loyalty and commitment within teams, and linking personal success to company success. Managers dont have to worry about the performance of employees because they have autonomy and discretion on their jobs. Control is achieved via peer and self surveillance, rather than hierarchical power. Ex. knowledge workers: give them a broad direction, let them free. But maybe end up transactional approaches. Emotional intelligence: Become more self aware and express your own ideas. And read others emotions and influence their ideas while managing conflict. Leader as therapist: Leaders encourage workers to self-actualize through work, so that people come to work for themselves (N. Rose). This discourse focuses on therapeutic culture which engages in teams and individuals to increase motivation, commitment and output. Thus, this discourse is very popular in education and the public and voluntary sector, and other people focused organizations. However, it is questioned how much autonomy individual has and how realistic people can reach the higher expectation.

 Distributed leadership It is a group activity that works with relationship rather than individual action. Further, leadership is kind of process rather than someone being a leader. Leadership comes from anywhere and anybody because its functions can be shared and situated in different people. However, its an in-group oriented. Therefore the capabilities are not understood and the decision-making process might slow down with the involvement of many people. Servant leadership It is about how you know leadership and how you lead until you know who you are. A servant leader is committed and invites, rather than demands, commitment from others. For example, Bolden and Kirk 2009 1. Anyone can be a leader at any level: mother, father, even if they do not realise it. 2. Leadership begins with self-awareness: You have to know yourself and understand your capacities of leadership. Its just the question of getting to know what kind of tools you can use at what time in order to be a leader. 3. Leadership is relational: if you dont think that you are a leader, you can go back to the community to ask them, what they want you to do for them, not what you want to do for them. 4. Leadership is for the service of the community: the role is to make the positive changes to my community. Leader as sense-maker Cannot predict the future, expectations are guided by experiences. However, this discourse too much focuses on this moment rather than knowing the future targets. People dont know when leadership start and end. Moreover, it emphasizes too much on individual. Dialogic discourse Dialogic Discourse views the scientific as just one form of knowledge among a multitude of viable alternatives. It views any attempt to produce or privilege such truths (even socially constructed ones, as in the constructivist Discourse) as hegemonic, inherently open to challenge and ripe for deconstruction. (ch5, p103) It is about how people see themselves, develop themselves and shape themselves. People can present themselves in a different ways without changing them but adopt some ideas. In applying this to management development the converse is often the case, where the feminine all too often becomes subordinated to the masculine, obliging women to metaphorically dress up as men as a condition of participation. Ex. female adopt some male behavior in order to survive in the workplace. Put on the masks.

Moreover, leadership required constant negotiation, reconfigured and not taken for granted. Seeing the dialogic uniquely in terms of discipline renders it too negative, pessimistic and restrictive in our view. The metaphor of carnival reminds us of the often playful mood of the dialogic but also of the way in which this Discourse regards identity as multiple, shifting and negotiated. ( P104) Theory Constitutive: co-construct, the legitimate to do things differently. Identity work: 1. Ford, 2006: Leadership discourse becomes part of managerial workplace identities which increases the interest in effective leadership as the means to secure employee commitment and enhance organizational performance. It demonstrates that better leadership delivers efficiency and effectiveness through organizational performance assessment frameworks and targets. 2. Sveningsson and Larsson, 2006: leadership ideas could be seen as a kind of fantasy related to identity work rather than actual practice. This fantasy is about its various sources and the fantasy construction to management education and cultural change. Foucauldian social: Confession-spend some days to do the self-disclosure Examination-assessment centre, self developed plan Discipline- profession (training) and regulation (easy to measure performance and their competencies Deconstructionist : talk about leader-follower, men-women, like-dislike about the same person Critical discourse The critical Discourse is dis-sensual in the sense that it considers conflict and power struggle to be natural facets of the social order. Any appearance of ordered harmony is considered to be the hegemonically stabilized outcome of power. The critical researcher will see his/her role as being that of exposing the taken-for-granted processes by which the status quo has come to be accepted as the natural order. The aim is to show how such status quo produces exploitation, imbalances of power, distorted communication and false consciousness, all of which prevent people from genuinely understanding, let alone acting upon, their own real interests(ch6,p130). It is about power struggle, power relationship within the organization. The role of leadership is to de-fuse resistance and resist subordination. It aims to free people from pressure. Management development provides a means of maintaining order, predictability and control. This concerned about knowledge and power which are usually tied closely to the decision-making of the organization. Power structures remain a potent means for regulating

employees and preserving the status quo. (Trehan, 2007 ) 1) To find ways of exploring the nature of authority, the exercise of authority and power, the relationship of organizations to their social, political, and economic environment. 2) Leadership development means not just exploring assumptions of power and control but actively engaging in an examination of political and cultural processes affecting the development process. Theory Systems theory (Senge) Holistic (human, social, ecological) Ethical, efficient and effective leadership Critical leadership theory Power and ideology Historical, cultural, political context Labour Process theory Exact surplus value from workers to benefit owners or agents Commitment to systemic praxis and emancipation (all from PPT) Overall, this discourse is transparent, democratic and equitable.

1.4 The significance of different discourses (1) Functionalist Discourse refers to studies oriented towards consensus and dualism, which are positivist studies aimed at productivity and efficiency. It sees managers and leaders can lead to improve individual skills and enhance organizational capability. With its objectivist and quantitative methodologies, it is the best choice for addressing economic and financial concerns. The metaphor of this discourse can be seen as a tool-kit, to deal with complex and subtle problems. Assumptions: LD can address performance gaps, which results from a lack of fit between organizational structure and its environment. Related theories: p54-56 Institutional theory: the emergence of a new knowledge-based economy requires the improvement of training and leadership development. Open systems theory: treat skills and abilities as inputs, employee behaviors as throughput and employee satisfaction and performance as outputs. Contingency theory: organizations are responsible for contextual factors, such as competitive behavior, shifting technologies and the external labor market.

Human resource theory: according to best practice perspective, HRM systems should lead superior performance regardless of the circumstances of the organization. Also, HRM system should align with competitive strategy.\ Resource-based view: Kmoche and Mueller (1995) stated the need of retaining high performers and make full use of their knowledge, skills and abilities. Related research: It generates a large number of empirical research (mainly in the USA), more than the other discourses combined. (2) Constructivist Discourse is also consensus-oriented, but under the dimension of duality. This discourse sees knowledge and competency as a more fluid consequence rather than objective commodity. It arises from, contribute to and be shaped by social practices, which can help different stakeholders see the multiple interpretations of LD. The metaphor of this discourse is drama, although it can be rehearsed, the emotional and cognitive impact is not completely predictable. Assumptions: Organisations are opportunity-spaces for development and being coherence and mutuality. Training and development arise from shared processes of observation, personal accounts and story-telling will be significant for the cultural status. Related theories Actor-network theory: The need for LD is not indisputable, actors need to be aligned with the interests of potential allies. LD is viewed as skills of rhetoric, using conversation, argument, negotiation, persuasion and justification to create heterogeneity of alliances (Gold and Smith, 2003) Role behavior theories: it can be seen as an informal process that employees seek to meet or influenced by the expectations of role partners within or outside the organization. Learning theory: It arises from psychological concerns of individual needs, feelings, predispositions, skills and capacity for learning, which implies the wealth of on-the-job coaching and unstructured personal development. Social construction theory, which is consist of institutional theory, symbolic interactionism and sense-making. LD has to be a mutual behavioral change between individuals and organizations, which is a process beyond manageable. Bolman and Deal (1997) also suggest LD should link to an unfolding drama, providing reassurance, fostering belief in the organizations purposes and cultivating faith.

Related Research mainly focuses on the culture significance of LD, also the experience and outcomes of different participants to assess the meaning they invest in LD activities. (3) Dialogic Discourse is duality and dissensus oriented. It is the construction of managerial identity, which focus on the ongoing achievements of human interaction. Metaphor: Schultze and stabell (2004): discipline Alvesson and Deetz (2000): carnival Calas and Smircich (1990): reproduction Jackson and Carter (1998): dressage Assumptions: It is an ongoing social processes, which is opposed to ontologically verifiable properties. Management is not an inevitable or natural concept, which needs to be performed or accomplished. Meanwhile, it is inevitably a political activity, based on the constrctuon of knowledge and competency. Related theories Foucauldian social theory: On one hand, knowledge is not waiting to be discovered, but always to be socially constructed. Regimes of knowledge and their corresponding social practices need to be produced (Mama, 1995) On the other hand, knowledge is disciplinary. As social subjects, we are both (re)-producers of discourse and (re)produced by discourse. Related Research involves the area of genealogical/historical analyses of management; the contemporary production of managerial subjectivity via LD and deconstructionist analyses of management texts. (4) Critical Discourse is oriented by dualism and dissensus. It provides criteria for assessing benefit in terms of individual, organisation and nation state. Metaphor: Schultze and Stabell (2004): power---not only the knowledge of power, but also the rational power rooted in discursive practice. Ackers and Preston (1997): religious conversion---LD can invoke and exploit the emotions. Johnson and Duberly (2000) It provides penetrating insight of dynamics of power and domination by drawing on critical theory. Related theories

Critical theory: It is useful for critical informed analyses of management development in terms of dialectical reason, ideology, hegemony, false consciousness and commodification. Habermasian critical theory is of communicative action. The ideal speech situation exists based on knowledge and self-reflection. Labour process theory shows an important role in treatment of LD, but it has also been characterised by schism and fragmentation. Related research Research of Power, control, resistance and acquiescence aims at exploring LD can support or disrupt power and control. Ideology critique: to critique the micro-practices of development within organisations and macro-type critique at the institutional level. Critical management pedagogy: Specific forms of critical learning are exit. Also, single critical form of learning among practising management is attempted to be instigated.