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COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EMPHASIS OF INSULATION COORDINATION STUDIES FOR HVAC LINES AND FOR HVDC LINES AS PART OF THE MASTERS ENGINEERING DEGREE (POWER ENGINEERING).
Abstract
High Voltage Direct Current, despite being invented first, was always the second choice to Alternating Current (AC) mainly due to voltage control through transformers and the improvement of induction motors during the 20th Century, this led to the appeal and common use of AC transmission. The use of HVDC transmission has been found to be more efficient, environmentally friendly, and economically attractive for power transmission over great distances. Inductive and capacitive parameters do not limit the transmission capacity or the maximum length of a DC overhead line or cable. The conductor cross section is fully utilized because there is no skin effect. The use of DC requires more specialized equipment compared to AC. This report mainly focuses on the comparison of HVDC transmission to HVAC transmission regarding the above mentioned factors.
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Content
Abstract...2 Content.3 Introduction to HVDC Transmission.4 Principle of transmission for HVDC compared to HVAC......5 2.1 HVDC typical configuration..5 2.1.1 Thyristor valves (in the rectifier and inverter)..5 2.1.2 Converter Transformers..6 2.1.3 AC filters and Capacitor banks.6 2.1.4 DC filters..6 2.1.5 Transmission medium (DC line)..6 Surge performance on HVDC transmission lines.7 3.1 Switching surges7 3.2 Lightning surges8 3.3 FOW (fast front of wave)...8 Equipment used in HVDC transmission lines compared to HVAC....9 4.1 Lattice Towers ROW..9 4.2 Insulators.11 4.2.1 Dielectric resistivity of DC insulators compared to AC insulators.11 4.2.2 Dielectric Material Selection......11 4.2.3 Ion Migration..12 4.2.4 Attraction of Airborne particles due to unidirectional current.....13 4.3 Surge Arrestors...14 Environmental Characteristics of HVDC lines compared to HVAC lines......15 5.1 Effect of electric fields.15 5.2 Effect of magnetic fields.15 5.3 Radio Interference.16 5.4 Audible Noise.16 5.5 Land use change for transmission line and substations.....16 5.6 Visual Impact..16 Conclusion.17 References...18
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Cost (million dollars) vs. distance (miles) As seen on the graph, the initial cost of a HVDC system is higher, but as the distance increases it balances off and eventually becomes a more economic solution. DC converter stations at either end of the line are obviously more expensive than the terminating stations of an AC line. In this report a more detailed study and comparison is done explaining how cost is saved when opting for HVDC. Another important factor is the synchronizing of neighboring networks. Japans electrical grid is split into two, basically a 50Hz network and a 60Hz network. Interconnecting of these networks is physically impossible via HVAC. However, with the use of a DC converter station in each network, it is possible to connect the two networks by interconnecting a dc link between them. Research into HVDC by leading electrical R&D companies shows us the potential that HVDC has in the future. ABB is currently undergoing major HVDC projects in India and China. The graph below shows us the progress HVDC has made over the decades compared to HVAC.
40000 30000 20000 10000 0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 HVAC HVDC
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The above configuration has three sections, namely, the transmitting converter station (left), the transmission medium (DC line), and the receiving converter station (right). The converter stations at each end are replicas of each other and therefore use similar equipment. The main equipment used are: 2.1.1 Thyristor valves (in the rectifier and inverter) The thyristor is a controllable semiconductor that has the ability to carry very high currents (4000A) and is also able to block very high voltages (10kV). They are responsible for the conversion process. Thyristor valves contain a number of thyristors in series, operating at very high voltages (several hundreds of kV). Thyristor valves are constructed differently depending on the manufacturer. A common assembly used is a twelve-pulse group with three quadruple valves. The communication of the control equipment (control system) and the thyristor valve is generally done through fibre optics. A picture can be seen on the next page.
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Converter Transformer
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The absence of sinusoidal current zero in a DC system makes it much more difficult for distinguishing arcs. The use of auxiliary circuits together with the breaker is the most common solution. A typical circuit diagram is shown above. The auxiliary circuit basically consists of either a passive or active circuit depending on the DC range. For an active the capacitor C is pre-charged prior to the current switching, and the circuit breaker is inserted between the capacitor and inductor. After the contacts in the circuit breaker are separated, an arc voltage is established inside the circuit breaker arc-quenching chamber. The arc voltage increases with the travel of moving contact and, starts a current oscillation if a parallel capacitor is fast used such as the HVDC circuit breaker with an auxiliary circuit. This oscillation current can lead to, depending on the arc chamber design and capacitance in parallel, an instable arc with oscillation current zeros or a stable arc without oscillation current zeros. For the circuit breaker design without oscillation current zeros an active auxiliary circuit has to be employed to create current zero crossing for breaker current extinguishing. In spite of different type of
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On the AC side, the switchyard shielding limits the direct strikes to less than 20kA. They are not very significant in the DC system (valve hall), as shielding by the converter transformer is done. The calculation of striking distance, attractive radius, shielding failure exposure width and shielding failure rate is similar to that of HVAC. Lightning may cause flashovers from either direct strokes or induced voltages from nearby strokes (indirect strokes). Direct strokes are a major concern for transmission lines whereas indirect strokes are more a threat on the distribution side. Protection from direct lightning is difficult due to voltages reaching the order of megavolts when the insulation is only capable of handling 100-500kV. Direct strike protection is possible by using shield wire with excellent insulation levels and the tight use of surge arrestors. A surge arrestor on the transmission side will have to be kept nearly on each pole. On a HVDC transmission line, once a surge occurs, the DC fault protection detects the fault on the transmission line and protects the equipment. The protection circuits enable the rectifier to act as an inverter which discharges the line effectively. After some 80 - 100 ms, the line is charged again by the rectifier. If the fault was intermittent, due to e.g. a lightning strike, then normally the line can support the voltage and the power transmission continues. Full power is then resorted in about 200 ms after the fault. But if the fault was due to contaminated line insulators, there is a risk that re-charging of the line results in a second fault. Many HVDC transmissions are designed such that after a number of failed restart attempts, the following attempts are made with reduced voltage (80 %).
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Two types of Tower structures exist namely: Guyed Towers: These towers have a lower visual impact. Is a cheaper solution in terms of the weight and fabrication cost. It requires a larger space to mount, and hence is exposed to vandalism. Self-supporting Towers: Which have a more consolidated design and technology. These towers are suitable for all environmental conditions. Pictures of these types of towers are shown on the next page:
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Self-supporting Tower
Guyed Tower
Insulators: insulating the conductors from the structure. Conductor wires: on either side of the tower. Shield wires: located at the top, just above the conductor wires. Neutral wire: located at the center, in between the two conductors.
The figure above shows the arrangement of the self-supporting tower. These towers are normally spanned 1200 feet (635 meters) apart. Depending on the required transmitting power, the number of conductors per set will vary.
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Insulation coordination of HVDC lines compared to HVAC lines 2012 4.2 Insulators
HVDC requires special care in insulation selection, the main areas of interest when selecting insulators are the materials being used and the specific stress conditions on the dielectric. Common Insulator materials used: porcelain (ceramic) insulators, glass insulators and composite insulators. 4.2.1 Dielectric resistivity of DC insulators compared to AC insulators Major suppliers for DC insulators significantly increase the electric resistance of the dielectric materials to provide more efficient insulators for DC transmission, due to the continuous transverse current crossing the body of the dielectric, this can generate high temperature and hence decreases the resistivity. If this continues it can lead to the puncturing or shattering through an avalanche phenomenon (which is worse for warmer countries). The unidirectional current going through the body of the dielectric can also generate some depletion of the atomic structure of the material, reducing the electrical and electromechanical properties of the dielectric. Hence in the case of glass insulators, the resistivity of DC glass insulators are around 100 times greater than that of AC glass insulators at normal conditions. Below shows a graph of the resistance vs. temperature of a typical AC and DC toughened glass insulator.
100 10 AC 1 0.1 50 100 150 DC
Resistance (G) vs. Temperature (degrees Celsius) 4.2.2 Dielectric Material Selection Selection of the materials used for insulators is based on the insulators life expectancy, failure rate, detection rate, electrical performance etc. Porcelain/Ceramic Insulators These types of insulators are of strong anti-aging ability and abundant operating experience, the only problem being the difficulty to detect after failure. The IEC 61325 standard describes the minimum requirements for this insulator, including its characteristics, the conditions under which the specified values of these characteristics shall be verified, and its acceptance criteria.
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Pollution flashover voltage (kV) per unit length (1m) vs. salt density (mg/cm^2) @ altitude 1970m 4.2.3 Ion Migration Failure rate of the insulators due to ion migration on DC line is much higher than on AC line. This can be explained by the picture shown below:
Ions such as Na+ in the insulating body move to negative side under DC stress. The accumulation of ions at one side causes deterioration in electrical and mechanical performance. Hence dielectric material with excellent purity and homogeneity should be considered.
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Insulation coordination of HVDC lines compared to HVAC lines 2012 4.3 Surge Arrestors
Initially, DC surge arrestors were not available. The valves were protected by spark gaps connected across them. With the invention of MO surge arrestors for HVDC applications, spark gaps have been replaced. The invention of polymer housings for surge arrestors led to the wide selection of surge arrestors we have today in terms of mechanical properties, short circuit behavior and costs. There are basically four distinguished designs namely, porcelain design, polymer tube design, polymer cage design and polymer wrapped design. For HVDC applications we mainly focus on porcelain and polymer tube designs. The diagram below shows us the construction of the above mentioned surge arrestors.
The porcelain and polymer surge arrestors both consists of hollow core housing, MO elements, and a flange including the sealing and pressure relief system. The polymer tube design is different as it consists of a hollow core compound insulator which has a fibre reinforced plastic (FRP), with polymer shreds due to its excellent chemical and physical properties. This results in higher cantilever strength and headload. The mechanical properties may be varied by adjusting the thickness of the FRP wall or fibre angle, hence enabling the customer to have a quite specific design to the required environment. Thus these types of surge arrestors are preferred for extreme mechanical requirements as opposed to porcelain. Even after a lightning surge the mechanical strengths is at least 75% of its initial value. Hence the Polymer tube surge arrestor may be used as both an arrestor and post insulator. The main factors that govern the reliability and safety of surge arrestors are the sealing and pressure relief system. The sealing is designed to prevent the entering of moisture. The pressure relief mechanism releases pressure caused by arc heat that could destroy the surge arrestor if contained. Nowadays surge arrestor failure is quite rare as compared to the SiC surge arrestors, and is common to that of transformers and other instrument transformers. In most cases, the failure of MO surge arrestors is due to manufacturing or transportation defects.
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HVDC transmission got some advantages over HVAC regarding the above mentioned factors.
Results from a research lab in Canada, IREQ (Institut de Recherche d'Hydro-Qubec, Quebec, Canada) shows us that the same effects of HVAC transmission lines on humans are not present for HVDC transmission lines. These effects include the spark discharge from humans to bushes, grass and other vegetation. For AC transmission lines, the contrast of discharges can be 100 discharges per second at 50Hz. This phenomenon is of low scale for humans. When considering large machines with rubber tires (harvesters, automobiles etc.), for HVDC lines, the electrical resistance of the tires (about 10 ohm), is enough to prevent the accumulation of a dangerous charge. For HVAC overhead lines, inductive capacitance currents n large machines may be lethal.
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Insulation coordination of HVDC lines compared to HVAC lines 2012 5.3 Radio Interference
This phenomenon takes place due to the corona discharge around the conductors, which is generated at positive voltages. Hence for DC transmission lines, only the positive pole conductors cause radio interfere, whereas for AC transmission lines, all the three phases generate radio interference. Under rainy conditions, for AC transmission the radio interference increases by 10db, but for DC transmission it decreases. The radio interference level of a typical HVDC transmission line is 6 to 8 dB lower than that of the same HVAC transmission line, assuming equal capacity of the conductors.
800kV AC
800kV DC
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6.0 Conclusion
After investigations done on 800kV HVDC transmission, it is the most economical solution for the transmission of large amounts of power. Theoretically there should not be a problem for transmitting DC at even higher voltages. Research on 1000kV transmission lines are currently been done by leading R&D companies. Not only does HVDC transmission at 800kV compared to 800kV HVAC have a less capital costs for longer distances, the value of losses at 6400MW (1800km) is far less, which is shown on the graph below, Investment and value of losses vs. line losses (6400MW, 1800km, 1400 USD/kW)
4000 3500 3000 800kV AC 2500 2000 1500 1000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 600kV DC 800kV DC
MUSD vs. Percent line losses The 800kV HVDC transmission line will be able to provide a lot more power, hence the society will have exceptional requirements on reliability of the complete system.
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7.0 References
1. HVDC Transmission by Dennis A. Woodford, Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3T 3Y6, Canada 2. Insulation co-ordination of UHVDC transmission lines by Su Fei, College of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China 3. ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HVDC OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES by Prof. L. A. Koshcheev, St-Petersburg, High Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission Research Institute, Vladivostok, Russia 4. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission Systems Technology Review Paper by Roberto Rudervall, ABB power Systems, Sweden 5. Experience from First 800 kV HVDC Test Installation by Abhay Kumar, Dong Wu and Ralf Hartings, International Conference on Power Systems (ICPS 2007), Bangalore, India 6. Three Gorges - Changzhou HVDC : Ready to Bring Bulk Power to East by Abhay Kumar, Mats Lagerkvist, Mrten Eklund, Yuan QingYun , ABB Sweden 7. Power Transmission with HVDC at Voltages Above 600 kV by U strm, L. Weimers, V. Lescale and G. Asplund 8. The Xiangjiaba-Shanghai 800kV UHVDC project Status and special aspects by V. F. Lescale, U. strm, ABB AB, Sweden 9. Technical Feasibility and Research & Development Needs for 1000 kV and above HVDC System by Gunnar Flisberg, ABB, Sweden 10. Power Transmission with HVDC at 800 kV by D. Wu, ABB, Sweden 11. Bulk Power Transmission at 800 kV DC by Lars Weimers, ABB Power Technologies 12. Comparative Evaluation of HVDC and HVAC Transmission Systems by Kala Meah, Student Member, IEEE 13. Advantage of HVDC transmission at 800 kV by Gunnar Asplund, Urban strm, and Dong Wu, ABB Power Technologies 14. Outdoor Insulation Design for the Three Gorges-Changzhou 500 kV HVDC Project by Urban strm, Bengt Almgren and Dong Wu, ABB, Sweden 15. Measurement of Corona Characteristics and Electromagnetic Environment of +/- 800 kV HVDC Transmission Lines under High Altitude Condition by Zheng Zhang, Rong Zeng, and Zhanqing Yu, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Haidian District, Beijing 100084, China
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16. HARMONICS REDUCTION USING A CONTINOUSLY REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION IN HVDC LINKS by Karim Shaarbafi, Ph D. student of power electronic Eng. Seyyed Hossein Hosseini, Ali Aghagholzadeh, Electrical Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, University of Tabriz 17. Design and selection criteria for HVDC overhead transmission lines insulators by JM GEORGE, SEDIVER S.A. (France) 18. Impact of lightning on the reliability of future power systems by Prof. Mario Paolone, DESL Distributed Electrical Systems laboratory 19. High Voltage Surge Arresters for Protection of Series Compensation and HVDC Converter Stations by Kai Steinfeld, Reinhard Ghler, Daniel Pepper Siemens AG, Berlin 20. Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters in High-Voltage Transmission and Distribution Systems by Volker Hinrichsen, Siemens PTD, Berlin/Germany 21. A Synthetic Test Circuit for Current Switching Tests of HVDC Circuit Breakers by Baoliang Sheng, Senior Member, IEEE 22. Bulk power transmission at extra high voltages, a comparison between transmission lines for HVDC at voltages above 600 kV DC and 800 kV AC by Lars Weimers, ABB Power Technologies 23. HVDC Transmission by M. P. Bahrman, P.E., Member, IEEE
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