Mapping the perceptual magnet effect for speech using signal detection theory and multidimensional scaling

Paul Iverson and Patricia K. Kuhl

Department Speech HearingSciences Virginia of and and Merrill B!oedei HearingResearch Center, University Washington, of Seattle,Washington 98195

(Received September 23 1993;revised July1994;accepted July 1994) 26 27

Recentexperiments have demonstrated the categorygoodness speechsounds that of strongly influences perception bothadults infants in and [Kuhl,Percept. Psychophys. 93-107 (1991); 50,

Kuhl et al., Science 255, 606-608 (1992)].Stimuli judgedas exceptionally instances good of phonetic categories (prototypes) makeneighboring tokens thevowelspace in seemmoresimilar,
exhibitinga perceptual magneteffect.Three experiments furtherexamined perceptual the magnet

effectin adults. Experiment collected 1 goodness identification and judgments 13 variants the for of vowel/i/. Experiment usedsignaldetection 2 theoryto assess discrimination thesetokens the of

usinga bias-free measure (d'). Experiment employed 3 multidimensional scaling (MDS) to

geometrically modelthe distortion the perceptual of spacedue to the magneteffect. The results demonstrated strong a relationship between category goodness discrimination. and Vowel tokens receiving highgoodness ratings experiment were morediffficult discriminate experiment in 1 to in 2 andweremoretightlyclustered the MDS solutions experiment Thesefindings in of 3. support the

existence a perceptual of magneteffect,and may help explainsomeaspects first language of learning infants in andsecond language learning adults. in
PACS numbers: 43.71.An, 43.71.Es

One of thechallenges psychological of science to unis derstand how categories mentallyrepresented are (Estes, 1993). Recently, the categorization representation and of phonetic information havereceived greatdealof attention a as new experiments uncover perceptual effects related exto ceptionally goodexemplars phonetic of categories (prototypes)(Miller andVolaitis,1989;VolaitisandMiller, 1992; Kuhl, 1991,1992, 1993a, Kuhl et al., 1992).In thepsyb; chological literature categorization, on prototypes a cen~ play tral role (Rosch, 1973;Posner Keele,1968).Peoples' and abilities readilyidentify, to classify, remember categoand a ry's bestinstances well documented are (Garner,1974;Goldman and Homa, 1977; Mervis and Rosch, 1981; Rosch,

tual magneteffect;P was moredifficultto discriminate from its variants thanNP was from its variants (GrieserandKuhl, 1989; Kuhl, 1991; Kuhl et el., 1992). In studies usingidenticalprocedures, Rhesus monkeys notexhibitthepercepdid

tualmagnet effect(Kuhl,1991). Additionally, Kuhl et el. (1992) demonstrated the that

magneteffectis influenced exposure language by to early in
life. American and Swedish 6-month-old infants were tested

with the AmericanEnglish/i/ prototype usedin the Kuhl (1991)study witha Swedish and front-rounded/y/prototype.
American infants had reduced discrimination for variants of

the American English/i/, and Swedishinfantshad reduced discrimination variantsof the Swedish/y/. The results for

1975,1977).Studies theperception prototypes thus on of are promising examining organization phonetic for the of categories.

demonstrated bothgroups infants that of exhibited magthe neteffectfor theirnative-language vowel sound; bothgroups of infantstreatedthe treign-language vowel like a nonprototype.

Experiments Kuhi and her colleagues by (1991; Kuhl et al., 1992)havedemonstrated thecategory that goodness
of speech sounds stronglyinfluences perception. Listeners exhibitrelatively poordiscrimination the regionof protoin typicexemplars phonetic of categories. (1991)syntheKuhl sized many exemplars the vowel /i/, as in the word of "peep,"andhadadultAmerican subjects theperceived rate

This previous work reveals four pointsabouttheperceptual magneteffect. The restiltsdemonstrate that the magnet

effectis present 6-month-old in infants, magnet the effectis sensitive earlylinguistic to experience, monkeys tested with the sametechnique to provide fail evidence a perceptual of magneteffect,and the magneteffectis associated with regoodness eachvowelon a scale of from 1 ("poor") to 7 duced discrimination sensitivit}' around phonetic a prototype. ("excellent"). Subjects consistently highest gave goodness Thissuggests theperceptual that space underlying phonetic a ratings tokens a particular to in regionof the vowel space. category distorted is such thattheperceptual distance around On the basisof thesegoodness ratings,an excellentexema prototype reduced. is plar,theprototype anda poorexemplar, nonproto(P), the The goal of the threeexperiments reported herewas to type(NP), were selected. Thirty-twovariants P and NP of map the perceptual magneteffectwith finer detail than had (Fig. 1) wcrc synthesized manipulating l'irstand sec- previousstudies.Specifically,we directly assessed imby the two ond formants the stimuliwhile holdingthe third, fourth, plications the magneteffect:(a) That the area arounda of of and fifth formants constant. discrimination In experiments, phonetic prototype associated reduced is with sensitivity, and American adults 6-month-old and infants exhibited percep- (b) thatthe perceptual a space underlying prototype disa is
553 J. Acoust.Soc. Am. 97 (1), January 1995 0001-4966/95/97(1)/553/10/$6.00 1995 Acoustical Societyof America 553

1900

o
1800-

Englishspeakers with normalhearing, andfive subjects had sometrainingin phonetics. Subjects received course credit for participating this half-hourexperiment. in
2. Apparatus

1700-

OOO

00.'
O <'I
400

1600 -

The stimuli were presented a Data Translation by DT2821 digital audioboardcontrolled an NEC 386 miby crocomputer. vowelswere playedto subjects The usingthe fight-earspeaker a pair of Telephonics of TDH-39P headphones while subjects in a sound-treated sat booth.Subjects' responses entered recorded were and using computer the that controlled presentation stimuli. the of
3. Stimuli

1500
200

i
300

I
500
600

The stimuliwere 13/i/tokens from the originalsetused

F1 (mels)
FIG. 1. The Kuhl(1991)prototype/i/(P) its32 variants and (open circles) andthenonprototype/i/(NP) its 32 variants and (filledcircles). Adultand

by Kuhl(1991)(highlighted Fig. 1). Thetokens in included the Kuhl (1991) P andNP, andall tokens on a single fell

vectorthrough acoustic the space. The five-formanttokenswere synthesized using Klatt's (1980)cascade-parallel speech synthesizer an NEC 386 on infant listeners were worseat discriminating from its variantsthan they P microcomputer. valuesof the first two formants The varied were at discriminating from its variants. NP The shaded areahighlights the as displayed Fig. 1, and the third throughfifth formants in setof 13 stimuliusedin thepresent experiments. were the samefor all stimuli.The frequencies F1 andF2 of were set so that the tokensfell on a single vector with a torted. these For experiments, tokens 13 (highlighted Fig. in (Stevens al., 1937) between et neighboring 1) were selected from the set employed Kuhl (1991). 30-mel distance by stimuli. Fant(1973)hasargued thereelscaleis approthat Experiment1 assessed perceivedgoodness and phonetic difference limensfor the identification these for tokens. Experiment employed dis- priate for vowel stimuli because 2 a firstthree formants (reported Flanagan, by 1957)aresimilar crimination taskandapplied signaldetection theoryto meain to suresensitivity using bias-free a measure (GreenandSwets, when measured mels, and the mel scalecorresponds excitation patterns the basilarmembrane. reel scaleis on The 1966; Macmillan et al., 1977; Macmillan and Creelman, and at 1991). Finally, experiment employedmultidimensional linearat low frequencies logarithmic highfrequencies. 3 The frequencyof F1 varied from 197 to 429 Hz, F2 scaling (MDS) to modelreaction timesin a discrimination task(a measure similarity) of andmapthe distortion the varied from 1925 to 2489 Hz, and the third throughfifth of formantswere 3010, 3300, and 3850 Hz, respectively all for perceptual space dueto the magnet effect.
tokens. The bandwidths of the five formants were 53, 77,
all tokens rose from 112 to 130 Hz over the first 100 ms and I. EXPERIMENT 1

111,175,and281 Hz, respectively all tokens. F0 for for The

Thisexperiment examined category the goodness the of tokens usedin all threeexperiments. Subjects ratedthegoodness the tokens a numerical of on scale,as in previous studies (Grieser Kuhl, 1989;Kuhl, 1991).Additionally, and subjectsidentified eachtoken as/i/(as in theword"he") or/el (as in the word "hay"). In Kuhl (1991) subjects not did identifythe phonetic category the tokens. of Earlierexperiments had indicated that all stimuli were considered mem-

dropped 92 Hz overtheremaining to portion eachvowel. of Eachvowelwas435 ms long.The stimuliwereequalized in intensity, played subjects a comfortable and to at level.Careful listeningafter the intensityequalization demonstrated that the vowelswere equallyloud.
4. Procedure

bersof the/i/category, but subsequent testshave suggested On eachtrial, subjects identifiedand ratedthe goodness that subjects may not categorize of the stimulias/i/. The all of a singletoken.For the identification task,subjects judged goalsof this experiment were to collectidentification judgwhether the token sounded like the vowel in the word "he" ments,isolatethelocation thevowel space in associated with (lid or the vowel in the word "hay" (/el). Thesetwo rethe highest goodness ratings, and measure accuracy the of sponse categories were usedbecause subjects a pilot exin this locationestimate. Theseresults were usedfor compari- periment with a largenumber response of categories selected sonwith the results experiments and 3. of 2 either/i/or/el on 94% of the trials.After making their identificationjudgments,subjects were askedto rate how good A. Method an examplethe tokenwas of that categoryon a scalefrom 1 1. Subjects ("bad") to 7 ("good"). Subjects ratedhow well the vowel Ten adult membersof the University of Washington community participated this experiment. were native in All
554 d. Acoust. Soc.Am.,Vol.97, No. 1, January 1995

represented the/i/categoryif theyhadmadean/i/identification,and how well the vowel represented the/e/category

P. Iverson P. K. Kuhl:Perceptual and magnet effect speech 554 for

1900

6.0 Average Goodness

1800

I- 6.1 1.0I 6.1

'9 :10,5'65..,P Kuhl ('99')

1700
5.1

.98 0_ 3.7 Kuhl NP (1991)

this difference. First,the overallpementage of/i/identificationsvariedwith subject experiment it is possible in 1; that the groupof subjects Kuhl (1901) happened include in to moresubjects who identifyall of thesetokens as/i/. Second, identification responses couldvarywith thephonetic training of thelisteners; Kuhl's(1991)subjects hadsome all phonetic training.Finally, it is possible that identification responses areinfluenced thestimulus Previous by set. research sughas gested that the identification vowelsnear boundaries of can

'91.83' . 3'23.4
.55 O
1600

be influenced..context etel., 1962;Eimas, by (Fry 1963;

Stevens Ohman, and 1969;Nearey, 1989),so the restricted rangeof stimuliin thissetmay haveinfluenced location the
of the/i-e/boundary.

3.2
O 3.2

.41

Poffionof/' Identifications.28 O 2.7 .29 0

.21

1500

The goodness resultsof experiment roughlycorre1 sponded thoseof Kuhl (1991); stimulinear the Kuhl to (1991) P received consistently highergoodness ratings than
600

200

300

400

500

F1 (mels)
FIG. 2. Average goodness ratings identification and judgments the tofor kensin experiment Filledcirclesindicate 1. greater than50%/i/identifications;opencirclesindicategreaterthan 50% /ed identifications. Larger circles indicate highgoodness ratings; smaller circles indicate goodness low ratings. The displayed goodness ratings the/i/tokens arebased for only on trialswherethetokens wereidentified as/i/, andthegoodness ratings the for
/e/tokens are based only on trialswherethe tokens were identifiedas/e/.

stimuli near the Kuhl (1991) NP. However,the beststimulus location experiment was 75 melsto theleft of the Kuhl for 1 (1991) P.To assess accuracy thislocation the of estimate, the

if they hadmadean/e/identification.Subjects were allowed to hear each token as many times as they neededto make theirjudgments.

Eachsubject completed practice a blockof 13 trialswith eachof the 13 tokenspresented oncein randomorder.After the practice,subjects completed experimental an session of

10 trials blocks the13tokens) theorder trials (8 of with of

randomized within each block.

B. Results

and discussion

Figure2 displays averageidentification goodthe and ness ratings. Nine tokens wereidentified as/i/("he") greater than50% of thetime,andthefourtokens therightendof on thestimulus series weremore oftenidentified as/e/("hay"). To assess variability theidentification the of ratings, perthe centage of/i/ identifications calculated was separately for eachblock of trials for each subject. Thesemeasures were analyzed usingan ANOVA with blockand subject indeas pendent factors.There was a significant effect of subject, F(9,63)=37.568, p<0.001, indicating subjects that differed in theiroverallpercentage of/i/identifications. The percentage of/i/judgments for differentsubjects rangedfrom 47% to 100%,andtheaverage 73%. Therewasalsoa signifiwas canteffect block, of F(7,63)=2.627,p<0.05; thefrequency of/i/identificationsroseby about10% from the startto the end of the experiment. Identification responses were influenced bothby subject differences presentation and order. it is surprisingthat some of the tokensin this set receivedlessthan50%/i/identificationsconsidering all of that the subjects Kuhl (1991) informallyreported in that they heardall of these tokens as/i/. Threefactors mightexplain
555 J. Acoust. Soc.Am.,Vol.97, No. 1, January1995

locationof the prototype was estimated eachblock of for stimulifor eachsubject. The prototype location was defined as the location the tokenwith the highest of goodness rating, or as the locationbetweentokenswhen multipletokensreceivedthe samehighest rating.An ANOVA was run on these prototype location estimates blockandsubject indewith as pendent factors. There was no significant effectof subject, F{9,63)=0.706, p>0.05, indicating that all subjects a had similarprototype location. Additionally, therewas no significantinfluence block,F{7,63)=0.971, p>0.05, indicating of thattheprototype location notvary systematically (lid across the eightblocksof trials.In contrast identification to judgments,the estimate the prototype of locationwas consistent across subjects and trials. To furthermeasure accuracy the prototype the of locationestimates individual for subjects, standard the error(SE) of the location estimate eachsubject for wascalculated using the estimatefor each block of trials. The averageSE for individual subjects= reels,sotheprototype 10.9 estimate for theaverage subject _+25.8 was mels,t(7)=2.365, p<0.05, of the trueprototype. Considering the tokens that were 30 mels apartandthattheperceptual difference between neighboring tokens was small,the prototype location estimates appear to be quitereliable.The goodaccuracy the prototype of location estimate suggests the differences that betweenthe prototype locations Kuhl(1991)andexperimentmaynotbe of 1 due to randomsubject differences. appears It that subjects consistently judgethatcertain stimuliarethebestexemplars, but the location the beststimulimaybe influenced the of by
stimulus set. II. EXPERIMENT 2

This experiment was designed analysiswithin the for frameworkof signaldetection theory(Green and Swets, 1966)asextended thesame-different to discrimination paradigm commonlyusedin speech perception research (Macmillan and Creelman,1991). In this experiment, subjects heard two stimulion eachtrial andjudged whether theywere sameor different.A comparison the percentage hits of of ("different"responses whenthe stimuliweredifferent) and
P. Iverson and P. K. Kuhl:Perceptual magnet effectfor speech 555

falsealarms("different"responses whenthe stimuliwere thesame) allowed orthogonal for measurement thesensiof tivity (d') andresponse for each bias pairof tokens (Macmillan and Creelman,1991).

3. Stimuli

In Kuhl's(1991)tests themagnet of effect, go/no-go a

The tokens were 11 of thoseusedin experiment All 1. butthetokens eachendof theexperiment stimulus at 1 vector were usedin thisexperiment.

psychophysical techniquewas selected so that adults, 4. Procedure 6-month-oldinfants,and Rhesusmonkeyscould be tested On eachtrial, subjects heardtwo stimuliwith a 250-ms with only minor adjustments procedures. to With this techinitiated trial by pressing response and a a key, nique,subjects monitored constantly a repeating background ISI. Subjects to the stimulus a change thesound. tests all three for in In on popu- theycontinued holddownthe key during presentation of stimuli.Subjects wereinstructed lift the response to key lations, there were 50% test trials and 50% control trials. On the test trials the stimulus was changed duringa 4.5-s observa- whentheythought stimuliwere different.If theythought the stimuliwere the same,they continued pressing key the tion intervaland subjects were rewarded detecting for the signaled thatthe trial was over (2 s after change (adults infants and with a visual stimulus; monkeys until the computer the startof the second token). with applesauce). control trials the stimuluswas not On Subjects completed experimental 2 blocksof trials. In changed subjects and weremonitored assess probabilto the one block,subjects hearda random ordering trialscomof ity of falsepositive responses. procedure This measured the of pairedwith the tokens four outcomes discrimination of experiments (hits, correct posed the Kuhl (1991) P stimulus on rejections, misses, falsealarms) allowed and and calculation 30, 60, and 90 reelsaway in bothdirections the stimulus series. another In block,subjects heard random a ordering of of an overallpercentage correctmeasure basedboth on test trialscomposed the Kuhl (1991) NP stimulus of paired with andcontrol trials(hits+correct rejections/2). However, the thetokens 60, and90 melsawayin bothdirections the 30, on decision criteriaof this technique not been studiedsyshas stimulus series. Half of the subjects completed P block the tematically, makingit difficultto reliablyestimate sensitivity the and response bias within the context of signal detection first, and half completed NP block first. There were 120 sametrials and 120 differenttrials in theory. eachblock.The P or NP stimulus (depending the block) on The presentexperiment was designed evaluatethe to was presented 60 same trials and each of the other six on results Kuhl (1991) using bias-free of a discrimination meaon sure, and to further test the relationship betweengoodness stimuli were presented ten same trials. There were 20 differenttrialsfor eachof the six pairsof stimuli.On half of and discrimination. separate In blocksof trials, listeners disthe different trials,the P or NP stimulus (depending the on criminated tokensfrom the Kuhl (1991) P and NP. A comblock)waspresented in the pair;on the othertrialsit first parison theP andNP blocks of paralleled Kuhl's(1991)test second. of the magneteffect.However,experiment demonstrated was presented I Before the experimental trials, subjectscompleteda that the NP stimulus near a category is boundary these for short practice session. The trials were the same as in the tokens,so a comparison the P and NP blockswould not of experimental blocks,exceptthat subjects receivedfeedback examine whether perceptual the space distorted is withinthe after eachtrial. Each subjectheard12 controltrials and 12 /i/ category. To more effectivelyexamine discrimination in within the category, experiment compared 2 discrimination changetrials presented a randomorder.Half of the subjectsheardthe P stimulus the practice for block,andhalf of for tokens the left of P andto the rightof P. Experiment to 1 the subjects heardthe NP stimulus the practice for block. demonstrated tokensimmediately the left of P were that to betterexemplars thanthose the right,suggesting disto that criminationshouldbe worseto the left even thoughtokens B. Results and discussion on both sidesof P are within the/i/category. Measures d' (Kaplanet al., 1978; Macmillanand of
A. Method

Creelman, 1991) were calculatedfor each interval for each

1. Subjects

Elevenmembers the Universityof Washington of community participated this experiment. in One subjectwas dropped from the subsequent analysis because performed he
at chance. All subjects were native English speakers with

normalhearing, andnonehadtrainingin phonetics. Subjects receivedcourse creditfor participating this half-hourexin periment.
2. Apparatus

subject; average scores displayed Fig. 3 and the d' are in Table I. These d' measures were analyzedusingpaired t-tests. Subjectswere significantly worse, t(9)=-3.07, p<0.05, at discriminating stimulifrom P (meand'=2.75) than fromNP (mean =3.46).Thisreplicates basic d' the finding of Kuhl (1901)using a bias-freemeasure. and further verifiesthat subjects havegreatersensitivity acoustic to differences near the category boundary (NP) than within the vowelcategory Additionally, (P). discrimination signifiwas cantlylower,t(9)=-2.96, p<0.05, to the left of P (mean d' =2.27) thanto therightof P (mean =3.22). Experiment d'
1 had indicated that all of these stimuli were identified as/i/

A PDP 11/73 computercontrolledthe presentation of stimuliandrecorded subjects' responses. in experiment As 1, the stimuli were played to subjectsusing the right-ear

on at least 83% of the trials, but tokens to the left of P

received higher goodness ratings thanthose thefight.This to confirmsthat categorygoodness influences discrimination

speaker a pair of Telephonics of TDH-39Pheadphones.

556 d. Acoust. Soc.Am., Vol.97, No. 1, January1995

within category. the There wasnosignificant difference, t(9)

P. Iverson and P. K. Kuhl:Perceptual magneteffectfor speech 556

numerical scales, and reaction-time measuresin discrimina-

,
'
._

[]
3-

Righ!

tiontasks (longer for moresimilar RTs vowels). MDS is used to assign eachvowelto a pointin a geometric space that so distances the space in correspond perceived to similarity; vowelsplaced closein MDS solutions moresimilarthan are vowelsfar apart.Mappingvowel similarityto a geometric
spacerevealsrelationships amongthe vowelsthat would not be readilyapparent from raw similaritymeasures.

:3

2-

NP

F[G. 3. Average scores experiment Error barsindicate se. d' for 2. +--1 Subjects wereworseat discriminaling stimulifrom P thanfrom NR Addilionally,subjects were worseat discriminating stimulito the left of P than they were at discriminating stimulito the right of P, coinciding with the goodness judgments experiment No significant of 1. differences werefound for stimulito the left and right of NP.

=- 1.67, p :>0.05, betweendiscrimination the left of NP to (mean d'=3.68) andto the rightof NP (mean =3.24). d' Althoughtheseresults agreewith the main findings of Kuhl (1991), Grieserand Kuhl (1989) and Kuhl (1991) additionallyfounddiscrimination differences the tokenson for the stimulus vectorbetween and NP. Infants(though P not adults) wereworseat discriminating these"shared vector" tokensfrom P than from NP. In the presentstudy,the discrimination stimuli therightof P (mean =3.22) was of to d'
worse than the discrimination of stimuli to the left of NP

Most previous experiments haveemployed vowelsfrom differentphonetic categories, they havedemonstrated and a high correspondence betweenacoustic differences and distances MDS solutions in (Polset al., 1969;Shepard, 1972; Terbeek,1977; Fox, 1982, ].983, 1985). Dimensions MDS in spaces havecorresponded closelyto acoustic quite measurementsof vowels (F1, F2, and F3) so that MDS solutions tendto matchtraditional acoustic mapsof vowel inventories. Additionally, Kewley-Port Atal (1989)demonstrated and that subphonemic differencesamong vowels are effectively mapped usingMDS. Acoustic differences amongstimuliof the samephonetic category were represented MDS soluin tionsas well as acoustic differences amongstimuli of different phonetic categories. The experiment reported herealsoexamined similarthe ity of vowelsfrom the samephonetic category. Experiment 2 andprevious studies (Kuhl, 1991;Kuhlet al., 1992)hadsuggestedthat good stimuli (prototypes) make neighboring stimuliseemmore similar,effectivelyshrinking percepthe tual space underlying prototypes. maingoal of thisexThe perimenl wasto map thisdistortion the perceptual of space in finerdetailthanin previous studies. experiment The used MDS to modelsubjects' reaction timeswhendiscriminating

pairs vowel of tokens in theprevious .experiments. used two

cationtasks.Additionally,this experiment varied ISl in an initial attemptto evaluate.heinfluence memoryon the of magneteffect. ModelingRTsallowsfor interesting comparisons the to

has (mean =3.68), butthisdifference approached d' only signifi- A relatedtechnique beeneffectivelyusedby Nosofsky distortions similarity classifiof in cance, t(9)=- 1.79,p =0.11.Thedistortion theperceptual (1984,1986)to examine of
spacebetweenP and NP may be less reliable for adult listeners than for infanis.

III. EXPERIMENT

Experiment 3

employed multidimensional scaling

accuracy measure experiment Pisoni Tash(1974) of 2. and

foundthatwithin-category acoustic differences influence RTs more than discrimination accuracy. When subjects failed to detecta difference betweenacoustically differenttokensof

(Shepard 1962a, to mapthecorrespondence b) between discrimination and goodness with finer detail. MDS hasbeen effective modeling perceptual at the similarity vowelsin of previous experiments (Polset al., 1969; Singhand Woods, 1971;Shepard, 1972;Terbeek,1977;Fox, 1982, 1983, 1985; Kewley-Portand Atal, 1989). The perceptual similarity of vowel pairscanbe assessed usinga varietyof psychological measures includingconfusions identification in (more frequentconfusions similarvowels), for similarity ratings on

the samephonetic category (/ba/ or /pa/), they still took

longerto respond than the)' had on trials with identicaltokens. This suggests that Rl are more sensitiveto acoustic differences thanarepercentage correct measures, it is posso siblethatan assessment the perceptual of magnet effectus-

ing RTsmaydifferfromoneusing discrimination accuracy. The MDS designalso differs from experiment2 and previous studies (Kuhl, 1991; Kuhl et al., 1992) because TABLE I. Average perceptual distance for eachinterval experiment (d') in eachtokenis presenled samenumber timesthroughout the of 2. the experiment subjects and hearall possible pairsof tokens. lnlervallength Previous investigations the perceptual of magneteffectpreInterval location
Left of P

30 mels
1.32

60 reels
.lg

90 mels
3.32

sentedP and NP more frequentlythan their variants,and the

P andNP trialswerepresented separate in blocks. Frequently

presented tokens can distort perception through adaptation

Right of P
Left of NP

1.47
2.30

3.81
4.09

4.39
4.66

Right of NP

2.27

3.64

4.59

(Miller et al., 1983;Samuel,1982),but the MDS design examines distortion theperceptual the of space the absence in of presentation frequency differences.
P. Iverson and P. K. Kuhl:Perceptual magnet effectfor speech 557

557

J. Acoust. Soc.Am.,Vol.97, No. 1, January1995

A. Method

1. Subjects

average wasr=0.55 (df=232), andeachwassignificant at the p<0.001 level. Thus reaction timeswere highly consistent amongsubjects. The log RTswere averaged across subjects form three to

Eighteen adultmembers the Universityof Washingof ton community participated thisexperiment. werenain All tive Englishspeakers with normal hearing,and none had training phonetics. in Subjects received course credit parfor ticipating this 1-h experiment. in
2. Stimuli

The stimuliwere the sameas in experiment 1.

3. Apparatus

The apparatus the sameas in experiment was 2.

4. Procedure

triangular matrices (one for eachISI), and thesematrices wereanalyzed separately using Kruskal the (1964a,b) MDS algorithm implemented the SYSTAT computer by program (Wilkinson,1989). The duration the trial (2000 ms) was of used as the reactiontime on trials when subjects failed to detecta differencebetweentokens.This was necessary to ensure thatthe average RTsfor the mostsimilartokens were not based only on the responses subjects of who were most sensitive acoustic to differences. Preliminaryanalyses demonstrated the pattern results that of wassimilarwhena 2000 ms RT was not usedfor thesetrials,but analyses usingthis
correctionaccounted more variance.The MDS analyses for
used Kruskal's stressformula 1, a EuclidJan distance metric,

Subjects heardall possible pairs of the 13 tokensat 3

different ISis (25,250, and2500ms)andjudged whether the tokens eachpair were the sameor different. in experiin As ment2, listeners initiateda trial by pressing response a key, and they continued pressthe key duringthe presentation to of stimuli. If they thoughtthe tokenswere different,they immediately stopped pressing key. If they thoughtthe the tokenswere the same,they continued pressthe key until to the computer signaled the trial wasover(2 s afterthe that onsetof the secondtoken). Their response each trial for
(same or different) and RT (on trials with different re-

and a linear regression function.This placedthe tokensin a one-dimensional spacewhere the distances betweentokens were fit to a linearfunctionof the log RTs.A linear function
was used instead of a more traditional monotonic function to

avoid degenerate solutions (artificiallystrongclustering caused somenonlinear by distance functions), because and
preliminaryanalyses indicated that therewas a stronglinear relationship between acoustic distance log RT. The MDS and solutionsmodeled the responses with a stressof 0.298

(R2=0.724) 25msISI, a stress 0.242 for of (R2=0.812) for 250msISI, anda stress 0.147(R2=0.937) 2500ms of for
ISI. Figure4 displays MDS solutions. the The acoustic locationsof stimuli on the singlevector roughly correspondedto their locations in the onedimensional MDS solutions, the perceptual and magneteffect was apparent all threeISis. The good/i/tokens were at clustered more tightly than the poor /i/ tokens,supporting boththefindings Kuhl (1991) andexperiment The proof 2. totypeactedlike a perceptual magnet drawingtokens by toward the prototype the perceptual in space. Additionally, tokens most often identified as /e/ in experiment1 were clustered more tightly than the poor/i/tokens, although the clustering was not as tight as for the good /i/ tokens.This suggests tokens the right end of the stimulus that on series

sponses) wererecorded.
The trials were blockedby ISI, with the orderof blocks counterbalanced between subjects.In each experimental block,subjects heard52 sametrialsand 156 different trialsin
a random order. The 52 same trials consisted of 4 trials for

each of the 13 tokens. The 156 different trials consisted of

eachpossible pair of the 13 tokens. Before the experimental trials, subjects completeda shortpracticesession. The trials were the sameas in the experimental session exceptthat subjects receivedfeedback
after each trial. There were ten same trials and 20 different

trialschosen randomly from the trialsusedin the experimental session. Eachsubject heardoneISI for the entirepractice session, with the ISI counterbalanced between subjects.
B. Results and discussion

may havebeen approaching location vowel space a in for

good/e/tokens, even thoughnone of the tokensin the ex-

perimentwere excellentexemplars that category. of The

MDS solutions were similarfor all threeISis, althoughthere

to stronger clustering thelongest at ISI Eachsubject's responses put intothe form of three appears be somewhat were triangular matrices matrix each (one for ISI). Eachtriangular (2500 ms) for the good/i/tokensandthe/e/tokens. An analysis covariance of furthersupported percepthe matrixwas a list of the log RT for the discrimination each of
pair of tokens averagedacrosspresentationorder. Responses

tual magneteffect. The three triangularmatricesof reaction

to sametrials were not considered the analyses in (subjects false-alarmed 31% of thesetrials).Subjects on correctlydetected that the stimuli were different on 77% of the trials.

timeswere the dependent variable,with pairsthat had a token most often identifiedas /e/ in experiment1 excluded from this analysis. The midpointon the stimulus seriesfor

The average percentage errors different of on trialswas significantly correlated with the average RTsfor the 25 ms ISI trials, r=-0.678 (df--76), p<0.001, the 250 ms ISI trials, r=-0.767 (dr=76), p<0.001, and the 2500 ms ISI trials, r=-0.784, (dr=76)p<0.001. Intersubject correlations examinedthe consistency reaction of timesamongsubjects for all three matrices.Of the 153 intersubject correlations, the
558 J. Acoust. Soc.Am.,Vol.97, No. 1, January1995

eachpair of stimuliwas calculated, the distance and (in mels)fromthismidpoint thebeststimulus experiment to in 1
was an independent continuous variable.In addition,ISI was codedas a three-level(25, 250, and 2500 ms) categorical

variable, and the distance between eachpair of stimuli(in

mels) was a continuous variable.The solutionaccounted for

a substantial portion variance, of R2=0.801. There a was

P. Iverson and P. K. Kuhl:Perceptual magneteffectfor speech 558

AcousticSpacingof Tokens

Best/'d Tokens

Good/' Tokens

Poor/i/Tokens

/e/Tokens

Perceptual Spacing of Tokens (One Dimensional MDS Solutions)

25 ms ISI
0

-aI
2

MDSdistance (Exp.3)
I
7

I
3

I
4

I
5 Kuhl

I
6

I
8

I
9 Kuhl

I'
10

I
11

I
12 13

250 ms ISI

(1991)
P

(1991)
NP

Stimuli on Vector

OD---O-O-OO

2500 ms ISI

O
FIG. 4. Acoustic perceptual and spacing tokens experimenl The best of in 3.

FIG. 5. Perceptual distance between adjacent tokens experiments and3; in 2 datapointsare plottedmidwaybetween tokens. The distances between tokens experimenl arein d'. The MDS dislances experiment arefrom in 2 of 3 the250 ISI condition, havebeenscaled thisgraphso thaithe mean and for and SD of the distances matchthoseof experiment The results these 2. of experiments quitesimilar;bothdemonstrate are relativelypoor discrimination nearthebest/i/tokensandrelatively gooddiscrimination theworst for
/i/tokens.

(Macmillanand Creelman, 1991). For example, subtracting

the d' value for the 30 reel interval to the left of P from the
value for the 60 mel interval to the left of P estimates the

/i/tokens(asrated experiment areblack(average in 1) goodness=6.1), the good/i/ tokens (average goodness >5.3) are dark gray,and the poor/i/ tokens (average goodness <5.3) arelighlgray. untilled The circles represent the tokens thatreceived morethan50%/c/identifications experiment in 1.
Horizontal positions tokensin the perceptual of graphs correspond values to in the one-dimensional MDS solutions, verticaldisplacemcnl but was sometimesnecessary preventoverlapof dots that were closein the MDS to solutions. Although tokens the equallydividedthe acoustic space, perthe ceptual space was distorted. Perceptual space was shrunkin the regionof bestinstances of/i/and stretched theregion thepoorest in of instances. This
occurredat all three interstimulusintervals (ISI).

significant influence acoustic of distance from the midpoint of eachpair to the beststimulus location, F(1,101)= 19.46. p<0.001. This furtherdemonstrates tokensacoustically that proximate the beststimulus to were perceptually clustered. There was alsoa significant main effectof the acoustic distance between tokens, F(1,101)=218.25, p<0.001, strongly supporting relationship a betweenRTs and acoustic differences. Additionally, therewas a significant influence ISI, of F(2,101)=22.55, <0.001, demonstrating subjects p that were slowerwith the 2500 ms ISI (average RT=2.984) than log they were with the 250 ms ISI (average RT=2.903) or log the25 msISI (average RT=2.841).Therewasnosignifilog cantinteraction between anddistance ISI from theprototype, F(2,101)=0.81, p>0.05. The perceptual distancebetweenadjacenttokenswas calculated from the results experiments and3 to allow of 2
for a more direct comparisonof the two experiments.The

perceptual distance separating 30- and 60-mel tokens. the Unfortunately, 90-mel intervalsfor both the P and NP the blocksapproached ceiling in discrimination a performance, so a calculation usingtheseintervals would underestimate theperceptual distance between adjacent tokens. a result, As the estimates perceptual of distance were based only on the 30- and 60-mel intervalsfrom experiment The distance 2. between tokensin experiment was obtained findingthe 3 by distance between adjacent tokensin the I-dimensional solutionfor the250 ms ISI trials(theISI used experiment in 2). The results displayed Fig. 5 with the MDS distances are in
scaled to match the mean and standard deviation of the ex-

periment results. 2 The results fromexperiments and3 weresignificantly 2 correlated,=0.720 (d/=6), p<0.05, demonstrating the r that perceptual distance estimates the two experiments for were similar.Althoughthis comparison indicates that the overall patterns results of wererelated, absolute the magnitude the of perceptual distances eachexperiment in cannotbe directly compared. The MDS technique doesnot providean absolute measure perceptual of distance because MDS solutions are
normalized based on the distribution of tokens. Thus it can-

not be determined whetherthe magnitude the distortion of

due to the magneteffect was the same in both experiments.

perceptual distance between adjacent tokens experiment in 2

canbe obtained subtraction by because measured d' perceptual distance a single dimension this stimulusset on for
559 J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 97, No. 1, January1995

However,the results suggest the relativeperceptual that distortionalong the stimulusserieswas measured similarly by the two experimental techniques.
P. Iversonand P. K. Kuhl:Perceptualmagneteffectfor speech 559

IV. GENERAL

DISCUSSION

and far ansupport Kuhl's(1991) findingof a perceptual for magnet tualanchors poordiscrimination fromperceptual
effectfor the bestinstances phonetic of categories. Experiment 1 demonstrated all vowelsare not perceived be that to equallygoodexemplars theirphonetic of category. Subjects consistently judged that certaintokenswere best exemplars. Experiment extended 2 Kuhl's(1991)tests showing by that subjects have reduced sensitivity near prototypic stimuliindependent response of bias.Subjects worsediscriminahad tion within the /i/ categorythan at the boundary, and discrimination within the category was worst for the best exemplars. Experiment usedmultidimensional 3 scalingto mapthedistortion theperceptual of space theregion the in of prototype. Perceptual distances appeared be shrunk the to in region where the best instances occur,and stretched the in region where the worst instances occur.The resultsdemonstratea perceptual magneteffect.Speech perception not is equivalent within phonetic categories (Grieserand Kuhl, 1989;Kuhl, 1991)andthebestinstances thecategory of are associated reduced with discrimination perceptual and clustering. The results alsosuggest the perceptual that magneteffectmaybe influenced experimental by context. location The of the beststimuliand highest perceptual clustering these in experiments was at a more extreme location in the vowel space thanfor Kuhl (1991). It is uncertain exactlywhat influenced this difference prototype in locations. Althoughthe locationof the beststimulus seems determined long-term by exposure language to (Kuhlet al., 1992),it mayalsobe influenced the experimental by designor by the setof stimuli usedin particular experiments. Having established perceptual the magneteffect at an empiricallevel, it is usefulto relateit to previous findings in speech perception. perceptual The magnet effectcanbe distinguished from the well-known finding that there is relativelygooddiscrimination vowelsat phonetic for boundaries
chors,becausethe distanceestimatesbecomemore variable

The threeexperiments reported hereprovideadditional

lus instead encoding of every acoustic detail of eachtoken. This strategy leadsto increased discrimination near percep-

asdistances increase. Macmillan al. (1988)have et proposed thatlisteners vowelperception in experiments havepermay ceptualanchorslocatedat phoneticboundaries since they tend to coincidewith peaksin discrimination. The predictionsmadeby thistheoryfor the/i/category are isomorphic with thoseof the perceptual magneteffectbecause catthe egory'sbest instances locatedfar from the boundaryreare gion. Thus both theoriespredictthat discrimination should be low near the best instances the vowel categoryand of should increase towardvowel boundaries. Perceptual magnetsand perceptual anchors may be similarconstructs. The presentresultssuggest that the perceptual magnet effectmay be insensitive experimental to manipulations that influence encoding tokens memory. the of in Differences in ISI didnotreliably influence magnet the effectin experiment 3, and the patternof resultsin experiments and 3 were 2 similareventhough MDS taskemployed muchwider the a rangeof stimulus pairs.However,the parallels Macmillan to et al.'s (1988) findings suggest the perceptual that magnet effect may be diminishedin taskswhere a much narrower rangeof stimuli is employed.For example,when subjects onlycompare tokens two withineach block(a fixeddiscriminationtask),the peaksin discrimination the boundaries at

tend diminish least vowels). to (at for Thisfinding Macled millanet al. (1988)to conclude thepeaks discriminathat in

tion seenin categorical perception studies usingvowelsare not basedon sensory factors.It remains futureexperifor mentsto determine whetherthe perceptual magnet effectis diminished when fixed discrimination procedures used. are Kuhl (1992, 1993a,b) hasincorporated perceptual the magnet effectintothenativelanguage magnet (NLM) model of speech perception. The implications the model extend of both to infantslearningtheir first language and to adults a language. Regarding infants, previous reand poor discrimination vowel within categorie.s., asshown in learning second that magneteffectis influstudies categorical of perception (Stevens Ohman, and 1969; sultsdemonstrate the perceptual to in Pisoni, 1973, 1975;Reppet al., 1979).The perceptual mag- encedby exposure a particularlanguage early infancy (Kuhlet al., 1992).Thissuggests theperceptual that magnet net effectandcategorical perception similarlymarkedby are infants'perception language of prior to the discrimination peaksat identification boundaries. However, effectstructures acquisition word meaning. of The shrinking stretching and of categoricalperceptionpredictsthat the discrimination of the underlying perceptual spacecouldfacilitatethe acquisiidenticallylabeledstimuli shouldbe equallypoor, and the tion of wordsfrom a particular language: Perceptual shrinkperceptual magneteffect predictsthat the discrimination of identicallylabeledstimulishouldbe influenced category ing aroundthe prototypewould effectivelyreduceinfants' by goodness. resultsfit the latter prediction: The Discrimination sensitivities the acoustic to differences that werenot phoneis worst for goodexemplars and bestfor poor exemplars, micallyrelevant, perceptual and stretching around nonprotoeven for tokensthat are consistentlyidentified as membersof

a singlecategory. It is also of theoretical interestto relate the perceptual magneteffectto the data and theorizing Macmillanet al. of

typeswould highlightthe differences that were phonemically relevant.This would occurprior to the time that the child's understanding phonological of contrast develops and could

(1988).Theseauthors haveextended intensity the discriminationmodelof Durlachand Braida(1969) to suggest that listeners mayuseperceptual anchors (stimulithatareeasyto label consistently) discriminating for speech stimuli.When there is a substantial degreeof stimulus variability,the authorsarguethat listeners may storean estimate how disof tant eachtokenis from a particular easy-to-remember stimu560 J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 97, No. 1, January1995

assist the development a language-specific in of phonology. The implicationfor adults' perceptionof speechis equallystrong,andfrom the perspective second-language of
learning, less helpful. The NLM model predictsthat the restructuringof perceptualspacethat assists infants in the ac-

quisitionof phonologycan adverselyaffect adults' subsequentability to perceive foreign-language distinctions. Adult listeners have demonstrated difficulty in perceiving a some
P. Iversonand P. K. Kuhl:Perceptualmagneteffectfor speech 560

C. developmental changes non-native in of the phonetic contrasts that are not usedin their native Best, T (1993)."Language-specific speech perception:window earlyphonological A on development,"Dein language; caseof Japanese the listeners' difficultywith the velopmental neurocognition: Speech and Face Processing the First in English/r-l/contrast been has well documented (Goto,19711 Yearo[Li[e, edited B. de Boysson-Bardies,de Schonen, Jusczyk, by S. P. Logan al., 19911 et Miyawaki at., 19751 et Strange Dittand P. MacNeilage, J. Morton and (Kluwer Academic, Boston), 289-304. pp. magnet effectfi}r mann,1984).NLM argues exposure a primarylan- Davis,K., andKuhl,P. K. 1994)."Testsof theperceptual that to American English/k/and/g/." Acoust. Am. 95, 2976(Pt.2). ]. Soc. guagedistorts underlying the perceptual space reducing by Durlach, I., andBraids,L. D. (1969). "Intensity N. perception. PrelimiI. sensitivity nearphonetic prototypes, that these and percepnarytheory inlcnsity of resolution," Acoust. J. Soc.Am. 46, 372-383. tual effects can be difficult to alter (Kuhl and Iverson, in Eimas,P. D. (1963). "The relationbetweenidentification discrimination and alongspeech non-speech and continua," Long.Speech 206-217. 6, press). The modelpredicts that adultslearninga second lancategories, psychological and science," guage wouldfind it difficultto perceive phonetic a contrast Estes,W. K. (1993). "Concepts. Psychol. Sci. 4, 143-]53. from a new languagewhen the soundsare proximateto a Font, (1973). G. Speech Sounds Features and (MIT, Cambridge, MA). native-language prototype Best,1993,for a related (see arFinhagan, L. (1957)."Estimates themaximum J. of precision necessary an quantizing certain"dimensions" vowel sounds," Acoust.Soc.Am. of J. gumen0. Phonetic prototypes Japanese of listeners thus may 29, 533-534. interfere with their perception the English/r-i/contrast. of Fox,R. A. 11982). "Individual variation theperception vowels: in of ImpliAlthoughthe datapresented heresupport existence the cations a perception-production Phonetics t-22. for link," 39, of the perceptual magneteffect, they do not go furtherto Fox, R. A_(1983). "Perceptual structure monophthongs diphthongs of and in English," Long.Speech 21-60. 26, revealthe underlying category representation is hypoththat Fox,R. A. (1985)."Auditory contrast speaker and quality variation vowel in esizedas the causeof this effect (Kuhl, 1992, 1993a,b). In perception." Acoust. J. Soc.Am. 77. 1552-1559. theliterature cognitive on categories, models category Fry, D. B., Abramson, S., Eimas,P. D., andLiberman, two of A. A.M. (1962). representation currently are being compared (Estes, 1993).In "The identification discrimination synthetic and of vowels,"Long.Speech 5, 171-189. one case, the categoryrepresentation thoughtto be an is Gamer, W. R. (1974). The Processing Informationand Structure o[ abstract statistical summary all theexemplars person of a has IEribaum, Potomac, MD). experienced; theother,category in representation consists of Goldman, and Homo,D. 11977}."Integratireand metricproperties D., of individual instances the categorystoredin memory.Efof abstracted information a functionof category as discriminability, instance variabilily, experience," F. Psychol.: and J. xp. Hum.Learn.Mem. 3, 375fectsof typicalitycan be explained eithertype of repreby 385. sentation (Estes,19931Medin and Barsalou, 1987), and this Goto, H. t1971). "Auditoryperception normalJapanese by adultsof the is true for the magneteffect as well. Concerning speech, sounds and "r"," Neuropsychologia 317-323. "l" 9, therefore, do not takea position to whetherphonetic Green,D. M., and Swets,1. A. (1966). SignalDetectionTheoryand Psywe as chophysics (Wiley,New York). category information storedin termsof an abstract is sumGrieser,D., and Kuhl, P. K. (1989). "Categorization speech infants: of by mary or as individual instances. perceptual The magnet ef-

fect, as testedthus far, does not distinguishthe two alternatives in this debate (see Kuhl, 1993a,b for further

discussion). alsonote that the humanperceptual We system

may haveaccess both typesof information to (see,e.g., Knowlton Squire,1993). and

The threestudies described herestrongly support Kuhl's

Support speech-sound for prototypes," Der. Psychol. 577-588. :Z5, Iverson, andKuhl,P. K. (1994). "Tests theperceptual P., of magnet effect for American English/r/and/I/,"J.Acoust. Soc.Am. 95, 2976(Pt.2). Kaplan, L., Macmillan, A., andCreelman, D. (1978)."Tables d' H. N. C. of for variable-standard discrimination paradigms," Behar.Res.Methods Instrum. 10, 796-813.

Kewley-Port, andAtaL B. S. (1989). "Perceptual D., differences between vowelslocatedin a limited phonetic space,"J. Acoust.Soc. Am. 85,
1726-1740.

(1991)perceptual magnet effectfor the prototypes phoof neticcategories. present The results extendKuhl's findings by measuring magnet the effectusinga bias-free estimate of
sensitivityand geometrically modelingthe effect usingmultidimensional scaling. The experiments suggest the best that instances vowel categories associated of are with decreased sensitivity a warpingof the perceptual and spaceunderlying the category. Furtherstudyis needed examinethe role of to

Klatt, D. H. (1980). "Softwarefor a cascade/parallel formant synthesizer,"

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 67, 971-995.

Knowlion, B. J., and Squire, L. R. (1993). "The learningof categories: Parallelbrainsystems item memory for andcolegory knowledge," Science
262, 1747-1749.

experimental context thiseffectandextend on these findings to additional phonetic categories. Towardthat end, two new studies our laboratory in providepreliminary evidence that the perceptual magneteffectwill alsocharacterize perthe ception consonant of stimuli(Iverson Kuhl, 19941 and Davis
and Kuhl, 1994).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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