CE220 Reader For 2009

REPORT UCB/SEMM
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING MECHANICS AND MATERIALS
CE 220 - STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
COURSE NOTES
by
FILIP C. FILIPPOU
FALL SEMESTER 2009
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA
Notation
General: Upper case letters for matrices and vectors refer to variables of the entire structure, e.g. collection of forces, displacements, etc. Lower case letters for matrices and vectors refer to element variables. A bold face font is used for matrices, a bold face italic font is used for vectors. An italic font is used for scalars. All variables refer to a global (structural) reference system under otherwise indicated General notation: Static variables
P p
applied forces at global degrees of freedom (dofs) element end forces basic element forces (independent element end forces) collection of all element basic forces for structural model section resultant force vector stress tensor global dof displacement vector element end node displacements Element deformations collection of all element deformations for structural model section deformations strain tensor static (equilibrium) matrix for structure kinematic (compatibility) matrix for structure structure flexibility matrix element flexibility matrix structure stiffness matrix element basic stiffness matrix
q
Q
s U u
Kinematic variables
v
V e
Matrices relating static and kinematic variables
A
F f
K
k
Page 1
Subscripts Subscripts are used to specialize the variables on the preceding page often denoting a subset or subarray of the original variable. They have the following meaning: Single subscript b c d e Interpretation Boolean refers to the incipient collapse state for scalars and vectors denotes constraint for arrays refers to restrained dofs elastic refers to strain based deformations refers to free dofs global hinge refers to statically determinate primary system refers to the particular solution of a system of equations; denotes plastic in arrays or when used as second subscript refers to rotation for arrays denotes resisting when used with force vectors denotes residual when used with deformations in CE221 collection of element matrices for structural model denotes unbalance when used with force vectors refers to force redundants
f g h i p r
s u x
Double subscript pl ce cp
Interpretation plastic capacity elastic at incipient collapse plastic at incipient collapse
Page 2
Variables with diacritical marks B p u force influence matrix of structure element end forces in local (element) reference system element end displacements in local reference system kinematic matrix of structure for constrained free dofs independent free dofs of structural model under constraints Scalar variables N M V axial force bending moment shear force coefficient of thermal expansion normal strain at reference axis of frame element rotation of element chord curvature load factor Other variables or symbols
Af
Uf
variation of (also denotes virtual) increment of global (structure) coordinates local (element) coordinates
X, Y, Z x, y, z
Page 3
Variables by section Statics or Equilibrium P

Pf
applied forces at global degrees of freedom (dofs) applied forces at free global dofs applied forces at restrained global dofs = support reactions equivalent nodal forces at free dofsdue to element loading element end forces in global (structure) reference system element end forces in local (element) reference system basic element forces (independent element end forces) collection of all element basic forces for structural model section resultant force vector stress tensor axial force bending moment shear force force transformation matrix from basic to local system force transformation matrix from local to global system force transformation matrix from basic to global system static (equilibrium) matrix for structure static (equilibrium) matrix for free dofs of structure static (equilibrium) matrix for restrained dofs of structure submatrix of Bf for primary basic forces submatrix of Bf for redundant basic forces force influence matrix of structure force influence matrix of primary structure under applied nodal forces force influence matrix of primary structure under redundant basic forces basic forces for particular solution of equilibrium equations
Pd = R
Pfw
p
p q
Q
N M V b
br bg B Bf Bd Bi Bx B
Bi
Bx
Qp
Page 4
Qi Qx
Qpl Pref
basic forces in primary structure redundant basic forces plastic capacities for basic forces; superscript + for positive, - for negative reference applied force vector load factor basic forces at incipient collapse basic forces at incipient collapse at elastic locations basic forces at incipient collapse at plastic hinge locations submatrix of Bf for elastic basic forces submatrix of Bf for plastic basic forces particular solution for elastic basic forces at incipient partial collapse force influence matrix of primary structure under redundant basic forces at incipient partial collapse Kinematics or Compatibility
Qc Qce
Qcp
Be Bp
Qpe
Bxe
U
Uf
displacements at global degrees of freedom (dofs) displacements at free global dofs displacements at restrained global dofs = imposed support displacements element end displacements in global (structure) reference system element end displacements in local (element) reference system element deformations collection of all element deformations for structural model section deformations strain tensor kinematic transformation matrix for extraction of rigid body modes from element end displacements in local reference system kinematic transformation matrix from global to local system kinematic transformation matrix from global to basic system
Ud
u
u v
V e
a
ar ag
Page 5
A Af Ad Vd
kinematic (compatibility) matrix relating the element deformations with the displacements at all dofs of the structure submatrix of A relating the element deformations with the displacements at the free dofs of structure submatrix of A relating the element deformations with the displacements at the restrained dofs of structure element deformations due to imposed displacements at restrained dofs coefficient of thermal expansion normal strain at reference axis of frame element rotation of element chord curvature strain dependent element deformations element deformations due to hinge (release) deformation collection of all strain dependent element deformations for structure collection of all hinge dependent element deformations for structure kinematic matrix relating unconstrained with constrained dofs independent free dofs of structural model under constraints kinematic matrix of structure for constrained free dofs subset of element deformations corresponding to basic forces of primary structure subset of element deformations corresponding to redundant basic forces subset of element deformations at elastic locations in the structure submatrix of Af corresponding to element deformations Vi submatrix of Af corresponding to element deformations Vx submatrix of Af corresponding to element deformations Ve kinematic matrix relating unconstrained dofs with single independent dof of the collapse mechanism kinematic (compatibility) matrix relating the element deformations with the single free independent dof of the collapse mechanism plastic work increment
v vh V Vh Ac
Uf
Af
Vi Vx Ve Ai Ax Ae Acp Afp
W p
Page 6
Force method
F f
E A I
structure flexibility matrix element flexibility matrix modulus of elasticity cross section area moment of inertia block diagonal matrix of all element flexibility matrices initial element deformations due to element loading collection of initial element deformations due to element loading distributed element load element length intermediate flexibility matrices of force method force influence matrix of structure under initial deformations Displacement method
Fs v0 V0
w L
Fix Fxi Fxx

BV
structure stiffness matrix element basic stiffness matrix block diagonal matrix of all element stiffness matrices initial or fixed element forces collection of initial or fixed end basic element basic forces applied forces at free global dofs initial nodal force vector
k
Ks
q0 Q0
Pf
P0
Page 7
CE220-Theory of Structures
Equilibrium
Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000
INTRODUCTION - STRUCTURAL MODELING
Objective: systematic description of structural model; ingredients; sign convention; structural variables; loading description
Page 8
Equilibrium
Introduction; structural model

The structural model is an idealization of the real structure. It consists of nodes in space connected by elements. While the structure is a continuum, the structural model is discrete. The analyst has make sure to represent the actual structure as accurately as warranted by the demands of the analysis, and then translate the results of the discrete structural model back to the actual structure for its design and detailing. We distinguish one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional elements in a structural model. The dimension refers to the number of variables for describing the element force-deformation properties. Thus, a truss element belongs in the one-dimensional element category, a plate element in the two dimensional element category, and a solid or brick element in the three-dimensional element category. Truss elements used in a 3d (three-dimensional) structural model are called 3d truss elements. In this course we limit ourselves to one-dimensional elements, whose properties depend on a single variable x. Moreover, we limit ourselves to illustrating the key concepts with straight, prismatic 2d truss and frame elements, but state these in general form, so as to allow the extension to any type of onedimensional element (e.g. a circular frame element). Limiting ourselves to straight, prismatic 2d elements means that the geometry of curvilinear structures needs to be approximated with as many elements as the accuracy of the results demands. We show two approximation examples below: one is a non-prismatic girder and the other a circular arch. structure structural model
Another example of the approximation involved in the idealization of the actual structure are the structural joints: members of frame structures intersect at joints of finite size. In a structural model the nodes are points in space. It is not entirely clear how to represent the joint region with one-dimensional elements. We will mention this point in the latter part of the course.
Page 9
Equilibrium
Structural model: Geometric description, degrees of freedom

The geometry of the structural model is described by the location of the nodes in an orthogonal right-handed coordinate system. We call this the global or structural coordinate system and identify its axes by upper case letters. If the global X and Y axis are in the plane of the paper or board, then the Z-axis points toward the viewer. A connectivity array is also required for the elements of the model indicating which nodes each element connects.
global coordinate system
In a discrete structural model the response of the model is completely described by structural variables associated with the nodes. These are of two kinds: generalized forces and generalized displacements. We use the word "generalized" to indicate forces, in the conventional sense, and moments. "Generalized" displacements refers to translations and rotations of a node. Since a node is a point in space, we can decompose its translation into 3 components along the global X, Y and Z-axes; we can also decompose the rotation into 3 components, i.e. a rotation about the X-axis, a rotation about the Y-axis, and a rotation about the Z-axis. Note, however, that the decomposition of the rotation into 3 components is only possible for very small (actually infinitesimal) rotations. In this course we limit ourselves to such very small rotations, but, moreover, plan to study mostly planar structures for which only the rotation about the Z-axis is relevant. With the right-handed coordinate system we use the right hand grip rule to define positive rotations: with the Z-axis pointing toward the viewer in the above figure a counter clockwise rotation (CCW) is positive, and a clockwise (CW) rotation is negative. This is also the consistent convention for moments: a moment acting CCW is positive, and a moment acting CW is negative. Each node of the structural model thus experiences, in general, a translation and a rotation: these are described by 3 components each. Each component is called a degree of freedom (dof) of the node. By decomposing the translation and rotation into components relative to the global coordinate system, we ensure that the degrees of freedom (dofs) are independent. Thus, each node of a 3d structural model has 6 degrees of freedom. In a 2d or planar structural model, there are only two translation components and one rotation in the plane for each node. Thus, each node has only 3 degrees of freedom in a planar structural model. We represent each node with a small black square in this course. This allows us to illustrate its rotation, which a point does not allow us to do. We depict translation dofs with a single arrowhead and rotation dofs with a double arrowhead. The same is true for forces and moments, respectively. In the plane the rotation dof is depicted the same way as the moment, as shown in the figure on the right. Node dofs may be restrained by devices. We depict such devices with special symbols. Nodes with at least one dof restrained are known as the supports of the structural model. In the following figure of typical node restraint (support) symbols the restrained dofs are shown in gray, and the free dofs are shown in black; to each restrained dof there corresponds a restraining force, which is commonly known as support reaction.
Page 10
Equilibrium
Structural model: Partition of global degrees of freedom

We collect the displacement values of all dofs of the structural model in a vector U. Vectors are understood in this course in the general sense as mathematical objects endowed with the operations of addition and multiplication by a scalar and not as geometric objects. Vectors are shown in bold, italic typeface in this course. We partition the degrees of freedom (dofs) of the structural model into two groups: the free dofs (subscript f), and the restrained dofs (subscript d). We reorder the entries of the displacement vector U, so that the free dofs appear in sequence as the first partition of the vector followed by the restrained dofs. In the structural model we achieve this by numbering the free dofs in sequence first followed by the restrained dofs. We show this in the following example. dof numbering Structural model with global coordinate system 5 and node numbering in arbitrary order 6 4 3 8 2
2 4 3 1 9 7
Y 1
13 X 5 12 11
10 14 15
Number degrees of freedom in sequence (automatic) 1. Start with free dofs and proceed in node order with translation in X, then Y, then Z (3d), then rotation about X (3d), Y (3d) and Z 2. Number restrained dofs in the same fashion
we use the abbreviated notation nf for the number of free dofs and nr for the number of restrained dofs; the total number of dofs then, nt, is equal to the sum of nf and nr, i.e. nt = nf + nr with the above numbering the displacement vector is partitioned according to U =
Uf Ud
is the free dof displacement vector
U f U d
is the restrained dof displacement vector (note that restrained displacements are not necessarily zero; instead restrained displacements are of specific value at the start of the analysis with zero a special case; given support settlements thus fall into this category
Page 11
Equilibrium
Structural model: Generalized forces

Structural models are subjected to generalized forces at the nodes. We collect the values of the applied generalized forces in a vector P. It is logical to use the same numbering for the generalized forces as for the generalized displacements, so that we can easily determine the external work by the inner product of the two vectors. The applied force vector is thus partitioned into the vector of the applied forces at the free dofs of the structural model, and the vector of the applied forces at the restrained dofs. The latter are commonly known as support reactions. The following example illustrates the applied force vector for a particular load case. The applied force numbering is the same as the dof numbering on the preceding page.
10 0 0 0 10 20 Pf = 0 0 15 200 0
20 6 15 200 3 2 1
5 4
8 9 7
13 11 12
10 14 15
the applied force vector is partitioned according to
Pf
R
is the vector of the applied forces at the free dofs
P P P = f or P = f Pd R
is the vector of the applied forces at the restrained dofs, commonly known as support reactions
Page 12
Equilibrium
Structural model: Loading

Loading 1. applied forces or moments at nodes grouped in generalized force vector Pf 2. imposed translations or rotations at nodes grouped in support displacement vector Ud 3. element loading a. applied forces or moments along element axis b. initial deformations (thermal, shrinkage, creep)
In this course we will consider loading type 1 and 2. For loading type 3 we limit ourselves to uniformly distributed transverse forces and uniform initial deformations over the entire element span
Distinction between nodal and element forces is a question of discretization
nodal loading
element loading
suitable for computer solution if element library does not include concentrated element forces (more equations and dofs than solution to the right)
this model has fewer nodes and elements and thus a smaller number of dofs and equations; it is thus suitable for hand solution, but requires treatment of concentrated forces as element loading
We can avoid element loading by approximation

Actual model Approximation
requires element with distributed element loading
no element loading required, but more computational effort
Page 13
Equilibrium
EQUILIBRIUM (STATICS)
Objective: static variables for structure, element and section and their interrelationship through free body equilibrium equations; static matrix of structural model and its properties; degree of redundancy; basic force influence matrix; solution of equilibrium equations
Page 14
Equilibrium
Structural model: Free bodies and element variables

Generalized displacements and generalized forces are related by Newton's first law which states that an object at rest remains at rest if it is acted upon by a set of balanced forces (the case of uniform velocity is not of interest in this course). To formulate this law we isolate first the nodes of the structural model by fictitious cuts into free bodies. These free bodies also isolate the elements of the model and reveal another important set of force and displacement variables, those belonging to each element.
p
node and element free bodies; node numbering as before; element numbering in arbitrary order denoted with lower case letters
3 b c
(b)
p(c)
a
5
Because we deal exclusively with two node elements in this course, i.e. elements that connect to only two nodes, the fictitious cuts separate each element from the structural model at its two ends. The cut reveals element force variables, i.e. a force and a moment at each cut. We decompose these into components relative to the global coordinate system and collect them in a generalized element force vector p. We use the convention in this course that lower case letters refer to element variables and upper case letters to structural variables. We identify the end points of each element with the letters i and j, with i referring to the end point at the node with lower number and j to that with higher number. The end points of the element undergo generalized displacements, i.e. a translation and rotation at each end. We decompose these into components relative to the global coordinate system and collect them in a generalized element displacement vector u. We number the components of the element force and displacement vector in sequence starting with the translation (or force) components in X, Y and Z at node i, continuing with the rotation (or moment) components about X, Y and Z at node i and then proceeding in the same fashion with the translation (or force), and then rotation (or moment) components at node j. For a two node element we end up with 6 generalized displacement (or force) components in a 2d model, and 12 components in a 3d model. 5 p1 generalized displacement and u1 6 force vector for 2d element b; p2 u2 4 j p the little white square are there u (b ) 3 p (b) = 3 to indicate that the element u = p4 free body extends from node u4 element b 2 p to node, i.e. the full element u 5 length 5 p u 3 6 1 6 i
Page 15
Equilibrium
Structural model: Node equilibrium equations

We are now in a position to apply Newton's first law to the node free bodies of the structural model. Instead of writing these equations in vectorial form, we write them in component form, i.e. we write one equation in the direction of each dof. These are the node equilibrium equations.
Structural model 3 b 2 a Y 1
Node free bodies 6 2
5 4
8 9 7
c 4
d 13 10 11 12 15 14
Write equilibrium equations at free dofs in terms of the applied forces P and the element forces p
p (b) 0 0 (a) P1 p4 1 0 (a) p (b) 0 0 0 P2 p5 2 0 0 (b) P (a) p 0 3 p6 3 p (c) 0 P4 0 p (b) 1 0 4 (c) 0 P p2 0 5 0 p (b) 5 (c) 0 = 0 which we can write in compact form as Pf Pfr = 0 P6 p (b) 0 p6 3 p (d) (c) 1 where Pfr is the resisting force vector at the free dofs 0 P7 0 p 0 4 (d) of the structural model; we see that the resisting force P (c) p 0 8 0 0 p5 2 vector for all dofs is the sum of the element forces (d) 0 P9 0 0 p (c) p3 and we write symbolically P 6 (d) 0 10 0 0 0 p6 P = p (el ) with the understanding that each r
el
element force term is assigned to the appropriate dof equilibrium equation
The equilibrium equations for the restrained dofs result insimilar fashion R Pdr = 0 We can combine these two sets of equations in the expression of Newton's first law for the structural model
Pf Pfr 0 = R Pdr 0
or, shorter
P Pr = 0
if the applied and resisting forces are not in equilibrium, then we are dealing with Newton's second law which states that where U
t
P Pr = M U t
is the dof acceleration vector and M is the mass matrix of the structural model (see CE225)
Page 16
Equilibrium
Structural model: Element equilibrium equations

After writing the equilibrium equations for the node free bodies we investigate the element free bodies, which are also separated by the fictitious cuts from the structural model. We note that there are again as many equilibrium equations as dofs for the element free body: 3 for an element in a planar structural model, and 6 for an element in a 3d model. We write these equations for an element with general orientation in a planar model under the assumption that there are no loads acting along the element span. The presence of element loading complicates the equations without any benefit to the argument of comparing the number of available equations to the number of force unknowns of the problem. 5 6 j 2 1 3 i
X = X j X i
the element equilibrium equations are
p1 + p4 = 0 p2 + p5 = 0
p3 + p6 + p5 X p4 Y = 0
Y = Y j Yi
In a structural problem the applied forces at the free dofs of the structural model are given. Similarly, the displacements of the restrained dofs are also given. It is our task to determine the displacements at the free dofs and the forces at the restrained dofs (support reactions). We write this in compact form Structural Analysis Problem
Given: Determine:
Pf
and U d
U f and
Structural model: Degree of redundancy or static indeterminacy

Since the support reactions are unknown at the start of the analysis, we cannot make any use of the equilibrium equations at the restrained dofs of the structural model. We therefore focus our attention on the equilibrium equations at the free dofs only. There are nf available equations in 6 x ne unknowns where ne is the number of elements. However, the element equilibrium provides another 3 equations for each element, i.e. a total of 3 x ne equations without increasing the number of unknowns. Thus, in summary we have nf + 3 x ne equations in 6 x ne unknowns. The difference between number of force (or static) unknowns of the problem and number of available equations is known as the degree of redundancy or degree of static indeterminacy of the structural model. We use the shorthand NOS to denote the degree of redundancy of the model. NOS = (6 x ne) - (nf + 3 x ne) NOS = (3 x ne) - nf
Note: instead of adding 3 x ne element equilibrium equations to the nf node equlibrium equations it is much more efficient to use the element equilibrium equations to express the element forces in terms of only three independent or basic element forces. This is what the boxed equation reflects: there are only 3 x ne unknown element forces and nf available node equilibrium equations. This assumes that none of the basic element forces are set to zero through special devices (releases). We will address this issue later on. Note: nothing changes to the above discussion by adding the nr equilibrium equations at the restrained dofs since these equations involve an additional nr unknown support reactions. Thus, it is convenient to leave the support reactions and the corresponding equilibrium equations out of consideration.
Page 17
Equilibrium
Element variables: global, local and basic reference system

Instead of adding the element equations of equilibrium to the nodal equations of equilibrium it is more efficient and insightful to use the number of element equilibrium equations to reduce the number of unknown element forces*. For a 2-node, 2d element we have 6 element forces and 3 equilibrium equations. Thus, we have just 3 independent or basic element forces. We can use the element equilibrium equations to express the other element forces in terms of the basic forces. We denote the basic element forces by q.
*Note that adding the element equilibrium equations to the node equilibrium equations results in a very large system of equations with many 0 terms, since each element equilibrium equation involves only the forces of the particular element. In working out the relation between dependent and independent element forces it is convenient to work with an element specific right handed coordinate system. This system is shown in the following figure. It is called local or element coordinate system, and we use lower case letters to denote its axes.
element coordinate system (e.g. for b)
y
b
j
Definition of element specific or local coordinate system 1. Local x-axis points from lower to higher numbered node (we denote the former node i and latter node j) 2. In 2d local y-axis lies in the plane and is normal to x; in 3d local y-axis is specified by user (e.g. along principal axis of cross section) 3. Local z-axis is normal to the plane formed by x-y
The force vectors at the end points of the element can be expressed relative to the global or to the local coordinate system. The former decomposition is shown on the left and the latter on the right of the following figure. We introduce a new symbol for denoting the components of the element force vector in the local coordinate system. element force vector in local coordinates
5 5 6 j 2 3
X = X j X i
end forces in global system
6 j 4
end forces in local system
2 1 3 i
Y = Y j Yi
L = X 2 + Y 2
p1 p2 p p = 3 p4 p 5 p 6
In the local coordinate system the element equilibrium equations in the absence of element loading become
p1 + p4 = 0 p2 + p5 = 0 p3 + p6 + p5 L = 0
Page 18
Equilibrium
Element variables: basic element forces

We restate the element equilibrium equations in the absence of element loading
p1 + p4 = 0 p2 + p5 = 0 p3 + p6 + p5 L = 0
There are some obvious choices for the basic element forces (note that we cannot pick any three!) One common choice is this group Another choice is this group
p1 p2 p4 p3
p3 p6
In this course we pick the second choice for the basic forces. We use then the element equilibrium equations to express the other three element forces in terms of the basic.
p1 = p4 p5 = p3 + p6 L p3 + p 6 L
q3
p 2 = p5 =
Because of their importance we introduce a new symbol for the basic element forces: q
p4
p3
p6
q1 q2
with this definition we have
p4 = q1 p3 = q 2 p6 = q 3 p1 = q1 p5 = p2 = q 2 + q3
L q 2 + q3 L
or, in compact form
1 0 p1 1 0 L p2 p 0 1 p = 3= 0 p4 1 p 5 0 1 p L 6 0 0
0 1 L q 0 1 q = bq 0 2 q 1 3 L 1
with b the force transformation matrix from the basic to the local coordinate system. We call q1 the longitudinal basic force, q2 and q3 the flexural basic forces of the element. q2 acts at node i and q3 at node j
Summary: the relation between local components of the element force vector and basic element forces is
p = bq
with
1 0 1 0 L 0 1 b= 1 0 0 1 L 0 0
0 1 L 0 0 1 L 1
Page 19
Equilibrium
Force component transformation from local to global coordinate system

pj
global
6 element end forces in global reference 6 element end forces in local reference 3 basic element end forces and 3 dependent end forces
pj
local
pi
(a)
q3
pi
q 2 + q3 L
q1
basic
(b)
q2
q1
(c)
q 2 + q3 L
After having established a relation between the local and basic element forces, we need to relate the global element force components to the local. This is rather straightforward, if we note that the two coordinate systems are related by a rotation in the plane of the model. We use the direction cosines of the element orientation in the undeformed (original) position in lieu of trigonometric functions of the orientation angle.
p5
p5
p4
p4
p4
p5
p5
j Y
Y
y i x X
p4
X
X Y p5 L L Y X p5 = p4 sin + p5 cos = p4 + p5 L L p4 = p4 cos p5 sin = p4
or, compactly
X p4 L = p Y 5 L 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 X L Y L 0
The transformation for the forces at end i is identical. Note that the moments do not transform during the rotation. Thus, we can write for the relation between global components and local components of the element end forces
X L p1 Y p2 L p 0 p = 3= p4 p 0 5 p 6 0 0
Page 20
Y L X L 0 0 0 0
Y L p4 X p5 L 0 0 p 1 0 0 p 2 0 0 p3 p = br p Y 0 4 L p5 p X 0 6 L 0 1
Equilibrium
Element equilibrium: from basic forces to global element force components

combining
p = br p
with
p = bq
Y L X L 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
gives
p = br b q = bg q
0 0
with
X L Y L 0 bg = b r b = 0 0 0
0 0 0 X L Y L 0
0 Y L X L 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 L 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 L 0 0 0 1
X L 0 1 Y L L 0 0 = 0 X 1 L L Y 1 L 0
Y
2
L X L2 1 Y
L2 X L2 0
Y 2 L X L2 0 Y L2 X 2 L 1
Thus, finally the relation between element force components in the global coordinate system and the basic forces is
X L p1 Y p2 L p 0 p = 3= p4 X p L 5 p Y 6 L 0
L2 X L2 1 Y
L2 X L2 0
Y L2 X L2 q 0 1 q = bg q Y 2 q3 L2 X 2 L 1
with bg the force transformation matrix from the basic to the globall coordinate system; this matrix can also be regarded as the equilibrium or static matrix of the element.
Page 21
Equilibrium
Element equilibrium: from basic forces to global element force components

The basic forces of a 2d frame element are: the axial force q1 and the end moments q2 and q3 The end element forces in the global coordinate system can be expressed in terms of these
q1
Y q1 L
X q1 L
q1
Y q1 L
X q1 L
X q2 L2
q2 L
q2
X q2 L2
Y q2 L2
q2 L
q2
Y q2 L2
q3
q3 L
X q3 L2
X q3 L2
q3
Y q3 L2
q3 L
The figures on the left show each basic force in turn along with the dependent element force components in the local reference system satisfying equilibrium.
Y q3 L2
The figures on the right show the element force components in the global reference system for each basic force in turn; each group of force components corresponds to a column of the static matrix bg and satisfies element equilibrium
Page 22
Equilibrium
Special cases of basic element forces for 2d frame elements

We deal at first only with devices that release one or more of the element basic forces. We will return later to deal with more general internal force releases.
longitudinal basic force release
flexural basic force release
end i truss element: both flexural basic forces released; only one basic force
end j
q1
2d frame element; one flexural basic force released; two basic forces only
q2
q1
2d frame element; one flexural basic force released; two basic forces only
q2
q1
q1
2d frame element; longitudinall basic force released; two basic forces only
q2
Page 23
Equilibrium
Relation between element and section static variables

It is very important to distinguish between element forces and internal forces. The latter arise at a fictitious cut through the element at a distance x from end i, as shown in the following figure. The cut separates the element into two parts, each of which needs to satisfy the equations of equilibrium. For the 3 additional equilibrium equations there are 3 additional unknowns, the internal element forces at the cut at a distance x from end i. These internal forces are the resultants of the normal and shear stresses acting at the cut and are, therefore, known as stress resultants. They are also known as section forces, since they are the static variables of an infinitesimal slice of the frame element.
y
q1
frame element
q3
q 2 + q3 L
q1
q2
q 2 + q3 end i L
end j
x
N ( x) M ( x)
q1
q2
q 2 + q3 L
M ( x)
V ( x)
q 2 + q3 L
q3
N ( x)
V ( x)
slice of length x
We collect the section forces in a vector s(x), which for the 2d element in the figure includes the normal force N(x), the shear force V(x) and the bending moment M(x). Note that the section or internal forces N, V, and M (there is another shear force, another bending moment, and a torsional moment in 3d) are continuous functions of x and not discrete variables as the basic element forces. As continous functions of x the internal forces can be differentiated with respect to x. Moreover, the sign convention for the internal forces needs to follow the sign convention for continuous functions: the forces at the face of the cut (section) closest to end i follow the axes orientation of the local coordinate system, while those at the opposite section act in the opposite direction. By contrast, the basic element forces are discrete static variables and follow the sign convention adopted for all structural and element variables. We can now introduce releases of the internal forces at any section inside the element. These result in one constaint equation between the basic element forces for each release. Each release, therefore, reduces the number of basic element forces by one. Three common cases follow
q1
2d frame element with normal force release
q2
i i
q2
q2
j j
2d frame element with shear force release
q1
q2
Lx x
2d frame element with moment release at x
i
Page 24
j
x L-x
q1
Equilibrium
Example 1: Equilibrium equations for gable frame, properties of static matrix

After establishing the relation between basic element forces and element force components in the global coordinate system we return to the equilibrium equations of the node free bodies in the direction of the free dofs. Setting up these equilibrium equations in the undeformed configuration establishes a linear relation between applied forces and basic element forces. The coefficients of the basic element force can be collected in the static matrix of the structural model. We use example 1 to illustrate. The following provides a brief overview of process. More details are available in the example description.
p (b) 0 0 (a) P1 p4 1 P (a) p (b) 0 0 p5 2 2 0 0 P3 (a) p (b) 3 (c) p6 P4 0 p (b) p1 0 4 p (c) 0 P (b) 5 0 + p5 + 2 + = 0 (c) P6 0 (b) p3 (d) p6 P p (c) p1 7 0 0 4 (d) p (c) P8 0 0 p5 2 P (d) 9 0 0 p (c) p3 6 P (d) 10 0 0 0 p6
Node free bodies 6 2
5 4
8 9 7
c 4
d 13 10 11 12 15 14
b b (a) b (a) b (a) g.11 g.42 g.43 P1 g.41 b (b) (a) (a) (a) g.21 P2 bg.51 bg.52 bg.53 b (b) P3 (a) (a) (a) g.31 bg.61 bg.62 bg.63 (a) b (b) P4 g.41 0 0 0 q1 P (b) 5 = 0 0 0 q 2 + bg.51 P6 (b) 0 0 q3 P 0 bg.61 7 0 0 0 P8 0 0 0 0 P 0 9 0 0 0 P 10 0 0 0 0 0
(b)
bg.12
(b)
(b) bg.22
bg.32
(b)
(b) bg.42
bg.52 0 0 0 0
(b)
(b) bg.62
(b) 0 0 0 bg.13 0 0 0 0 0 (b) 0 0 0 bg.23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (b) (c) (c) (c) bg.33 bg.11 bg.12 bg.13 0 0 0 (c) (b) (c) (c) (c) bg.43 q (b) b 0 0 0 q (d) bg.22 bg.23 q1 g.21 1 1 (b) 0 0 q bg.53 q 2 + b (c) b (c) b (c) q 2 + 0 2 g.32 g.33 (d) (d) (d) g.31 q bg.11 bg.12 bg.13 q 3 (b) q 3 bg.63 b (c) b (c) b (c) 3 (d) g.42 g.43 (d) (d) g.41 bg.21 bg.22 bg.23 0 b (c) b (c) b (c) (d) g.51 g.52 g.53 (d) (d) 0 bg.31 bg.32 bg.33 (c) (c) (c) b bg.62 bg.63 (d) 0 (d) (d) g.61 bg.61 bg.62 bg.63 0 0 0 0
Now, collect all basic element forces into a single vector Q for compact notation. We have:
q (a) 1 Q q2 1 Q2 q3 Q (b) 3 q1 Q4 q 2 Q5 q Q 3 6 = =Q (c) q Q7 1 Q q 2 8 q Q9 3 Q (d) 10 q1 Q11 q 2 Q 12 q 3
Page 25
Equilibrium
The equilibrium equations at the free dofs then become
b (a) b (a) b (a) b (b) b (b) g.42 g.43 g.11 g.12 g.41 (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) b bg.52 bg.53 bg.21 bg.22 P1 g.51 (a) (a) (a) (b) ( b) P2 bg.61 bg.62 bg.63 bg.31 bg.32 P (b) (b) 0 0 bg.41 bg.42 3 0 P4 (b) (b) P 0 0 0 bg.51 bg.52 5 = (b) (b) P6 0 0 0 bg.61 bg.62 P7 0 0 0 0 P 0 8 0 0 0 0 P9 0 P 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
or, in compact form
(b) bg.13 (b) bg.23 (b) bg.33
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
(b) (c) (c) (c) bg.43 bg.11 bg.12 bg.13 (b) bg.53 (b) bg.63 (c) bg.21 (c) bg.31 (c) bg.41 (c) bg.51 (c) bg.61 (c) bg.22 (c) bg.32 (c) bg.42 (c) bg.52 (c) bg.62 (c) bg.23 (c) bg.33
0 0 0 0
(c) (d) (d) bg.43 bg.11 bg.12 (c) bg.53 (c) bg.63 (d) bg.21 (d) bg.31 (d) bg.61 (d) bg.22 (d) bg.32 (d) bg.62
0 Q1 0 Q2 0 Q3 Q 0 4 Q5 0 Q 6 0 Q7 Q 8 (d) bg.13 Q9 (d) bg.23 Q10 Q11 (d) bg.33 Q12 (d) bg.63
Pf = B f Q
where Bf is the static matrix of the structural model for the free dofs
Compare these with the equations set up one at a time in Example 1.

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 Q2 + Q3 12 Q4 0.8 Q5 + Q6 10 0.8 0.6
Q1 0.6 Q4 + Q3 + Q5 0.8 Q4 + 0.6 Q4 Q6 + Q8
Q5 + Q6 10
Q5 + Q6 10 Q5 + Q6 10
0.6 0.8 Q7 + 0.8 + 0.6 Q7 +
Q8 + Q9 10 Q8 + Q9 10
0.6 0.8
P7 P8 P9 P10
0.8 Q7
Q8 + Q9 10 10
0.6 +
Q11 + Q12 12
0.6 Q7 Q9 + Q11 Q12
Q8 + Q9
Bf
0.8 + Q10
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.6 0.6 1 0.8 10 12 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 0.8 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 10 1 0.6 10 0.8 10 0 0.6 10
0 0 0 0.8 0.6 0 0.8
0 0 0 0.6 10 0.8 10 1 0.6 10
0 0 0 0.6 10 0.8 10 0 0.6 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 12 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 12 0 0 1
0.8 0.8 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0.6 0 0
0.8 0.8 1 10 10 0 0 1 0 0 0
Page 26
Equilibrium
Static matrix- Stability and degree of redundancy (static indeterminacy) of structure

The equilibrium equations at the free dofs of the structural model including the effect of element loading take the following form where Pfw are the equivalent nodal forces due to element loading The above equation can be rewritten with the known loading terms on the left and the unknown basic element forces on the right.
Pf = B f Q + Pfw
Pf Pfw = Bf Q
The solution of this linear system of equations depends on the properties of the static matrix Bf. In a stable structural model the number of linearly independent rows of static matrix Bf should be equal to to the number of free dofs. The number of linearly independent rows of a matrix is known as its rank. Thus, for a stable structural model the rank of the static matrix should be equal to the number of free dofs. The degree of redundancy (static indeterminacy) of the structural model is given by the difference between the number of basic element forces and the number of linearly independent equations of equilibrium at the free dofs. For a stable structural model the degree of redundancy or static indeterminacy NOS is the difference between the number of columns and the number of rows of matrix Bf.
Examples of statically indeterminate structures

Degree of redundancy (static indeterminacy) NOS
STRUCTURE A
STRUCTURE B
STRUCTURE C
NOS = 18-12=6
NOS = 15-11=4
NOS = 15-11=4
NOS = 10-7=3
a b
NOS = 10 - 8 = 2
Page 27
CE220 - Theory of Structures
Example 1 - Equilibrium for Gable Frame
Example 1 - Equilibrium Equations for Gable Frame

Objectives: (a) set up the equilibrium equations for a frame structure with general orientation members (b) assess stability and degree of static indeterminacy of structural model (c) automate process of setting up equilibrium equations
Node free bodies 6 2 3 1
5 4
c 4
8 9 7
12
13 10 11 12 15 14
We isolate node free bodies and number the equations of equilibrium (or, degrees of freedom dofs, according to Newton's second law). We number the free dofs first starting from the lowest numbered node, and number the support or restrained dof's after completing the numbering of the free dof's in the same way. The equilibrium of the element free bodies is satisfied by selecting 3 basic forces as independent or basic forces and then expressing the element end forces in the global reference system in terms of them, so as to satisfy the 3 equilibrium equations of the element. We obtain the relation p = b g q If we write the equilibrium in the undeformed configuration (first order or linear equilibrium) then the array bg depends only on the geometry of the element (length and direction cosines)
the element equilibrium transformation matrix to global coordinates b g has the form
pj pj
q1
pi
(a)
q3
q2 + q3 L
pi
(b)
X L p1 Y p2 L p 0 p= 3= p 4 X p5 L Y p 6 L 0
Y L2 X L2 1
Y L2 X 2 L 0
q1 q = b q 2 g Y q L2 3 X 2 L 1
Y L2 X L2 0
q2
L
q 2 + q3 L
q1
(c)
where X/L and Y/L are the direction cosines of the element and L is the element length
Page 28
When writing the equilibrium equations we proceed equation by equation and limit ourselves to the equations not involving support reactions, i.e. the equilibrium equations for the free dofs of the structural model. We note in the following figure that the basic forces Q are numbered in sequence starting from element a through element d. The node i and node j correspondence for the elements of the model is shown next to the figure.
Q5
2 3
Q6
Q4
6
Q8
Q9
Q7
4 8 9 7
element a
node i 1 2 3 4
node j 2 3 4 5
Q1
Q3 Q2
Q11 Q12
10 13 12 11 15 14
b c d
Q10
P1 =
Q2 + Q3 12
Q4 0.8
Q5 + Q6 10 0.8
0.6
P2 = Q1 0.6 Q4 + P3 = Q3 + Q5 P4 = 0.8 Q4 + P5 = 0.6 Q4 P6 = Q6 + Q8
Q5 + Q6 10
Q5 + Q6 10 Q5 + Q6 10
0.6 0.8 Q7 + 0.8 + 0.6 Q7 +
Q8 + Q9 10 Q8 + Q9 10
0.6 0.8 we can write this system of equations in compact form Pf = Bf Q
P7 = 0.8 Q7
Q8 + Q9 10 10
0.6 +
Q11 + Q12 12
P8 = 0.6 Q7 P9 = Q9 + Q11 P10 = Q12
Q8 + Q9
0.8 + Q10
Page 29
Observations: 1. the basic longitudinal force is always assumed at node j 2. we can use the appropriate terms of the element equilibrium matrix b g; the signs will be correct as long as we remember that X is measured by subtracting the X-coordinate of node i from that of node j and the same is true for Y. Thus, for element c in the gable frame of the example, Y is negative because node j is located lower than node i.
Thus, the bg matrix for element c is
8 6 6 10 2 2 10 10 6 8 8 10 2 2 10 10 0 1 0 bgc := 6 6 8 10 102 102 6 8 8 2 2 10 10 10 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Bf := 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 1 0.8 10 12 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 0.8 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 10 1 0.6 10 0.8 10 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 10 0 0.6 10 0.8 10 1 0 0 0 0
0.8 0.6 0 bgc = 0.8 0.6 0
0.08 0.08 0 1 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.08 1 0

0.06 0.06
0 0 0 0.8 0.6 0 0.8
0 0 0 0.6 10 0.8 10 1 0.6 10 0.8 10 0 0
The static matrix Bf for the free dofs of this structural model is
0.6 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 0 0 10 0.8 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0.6 1 1 0 10 12 12 0.8 1 0 0 10 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0
In the structure equilibrium matrix Bf we see the contribution of element c in columns 7-9. The terms of the equilibrium matrix bg for element c appear in rows 4 through 9. Before discussing the automatic assembly of the equilibrium equations let us write down the equilibrium equations for the support reactions.
Page 30
For the restrained dofs the equilibrium equations become
Q5
2 3
Q6
Q4
6
Q8
Q9
Q7
4 8 9 7
P11 =
Q2 + Q3 12
Q1
Q3 Q2
P12 = Q1
Q11 Q12
10 13 12 11 15 14
P13 = Q2 P14 = Q11 + Q12 12
Q10
P15 = Q10
we can write these equations in compact form as
R = Bd Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
with
P11 P12 R = P13 P14 P 15
and
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 12 12 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bd := 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 12 12 0 1 0
0 0 0
we can see that this matrix contains a lot of zeros, since only one element connects to a support. Thus, the determination of the support reaction by the operation Bd Q is not very efficient. Instead, each support reaction should be evaluated from the corresponding equation. we can combine the equilibrium equations for the free and restrained dofs in a single set by stacking the corresponding vector and matrices on top of each other. We get the matrix B=
Bf Bd
Pf = R
Bf Q Bd
is the static matrix of the structural model for all dofs
Matrix B can be readily assembled automatically by considering the contribution of one element after another. The contribution of each element goes into 3 separate columns, so that the contribution of element a goes into columns 1 to 3, element b into columns 4 to 6, and so on. The rows of each element equilibrium matrix bg go to the rows of matrix B according to the incidence relation of the dofs of this element. This incidence relation expresses the relation between element dof and global dof numbers. Since the 2-node, 2d frame element has 6 dofs, the incidence (id) array for this element has 6 rows. Each row contains the global dof number that corresponds to the element dof number for that row. We illustrate this for the example
Page 31
Incidence matrices for element dofs element a element b element c element d

Node free bodies 6 2 3 1 9 5 4
11 12 13 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
4 5 6 7 8 9
7 8 9 14 15 10
8 7
13 11 12
10 14 15
this means that the first row of the equilibrium matrix of element c goes to row 4 of the structure matrix B, the fourth row to row 7, etc. In Matlab this reassignment of rows can be easily accomplished with array indexing as the FEDEASLab function B_matrix.m illustrates. B := stack ( Bf , Bd)
0 0.083 0.083 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B= 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.083 0.083 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.8 0.06 0.06 0.6 0 0.8 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.08 1 0.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.08 0 0.06 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0.8 0.6 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0.06 0.08 1
0 0 0 0.06 0.08 0
0.08 0.08
0.06 0.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.6 0.08 0.08
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.083 0.083 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.083 0.083 0 0 1

0 0 0
Even though the function B_matrix.m assembles the static matrix B for all dofs of the structural model we use only the static matrix Bf for the free dofs of the model for discussions of stability and static indeterminacy. This is so because the addition of the support dofs does not change stability or static indeterminacy considerations. In the case of static indeterminacy this is easy to see: there are as many equilibrium equations at the restrained dofs as unknown support reactions.
Page 32
Moreover, the total set of equilibrium equations in the form
Pf = R
Bf Q Bd
is not very useful
since it contains the unknown support reactions on the left hand side of the equations. We always work only with the top portion of these equations, and determine the support reactions only after having determined the basic element forces Q, as subsequent examples will illustrate. We return now to deal with the equilibrium equations at the free dofs of the structure Pf = Bf Q
It is the properties of the static matrix Bf for the free dofs of the structural model that determine whether a solution exists, and whether it is unique, or whether there are multiple solutions. Note that the specification of a loading is not necessary for the task, except for the case of an unstable structure being stable for a specific load, which is of no interest to us. Let us look at one important property of static matrix Bf : the rank of the matrix, i.e. the number of linearly independent rows A necessary and sufficient condition for a structural model to be stable is that the rank of Bf be equal to the number of rows, i.e. to the number of free dofs; such a matrix is known to have full rank Let us check the present example: rank ( Bf) = 10 which is equal to the number of rows rows ( Bf) = 10
A structure is called statically determinate, if it is stable and its static matrix Bf has the same number of rows as columns (i.e. it is a square matrix). In such case the inverse of the structure equilibrium matrix exists and is called the force influence matrix. We give it the symbol Bbar. The equilibrium equations have a unique solution for a stable, statically determinate structure. This is an important class of structures, since the internal stress state does not depend on material properties. A structure is called statically indeterminate, if it is stable and its structure equilibrium matrix has more columns than rows (i.e. more unknowns than available equations). The difference between number of columns or unknowns and number of rows or available equations is called the degree of static indeterminacy and we use the shorthand NOS for this number. In a stable, statically indeterminate structure the equilibrium equations have multiple solutions. These solutions can be expressed as the sum of a primary basic force field (called primary or particular solution), and NOS self-stress basic force fields with NOS redundant basic forces as parameters (consult Strang, 3rd edition, pp 71-77). The selection of these redundant basic forces can be done automatically with the Gauss-Jordan form of the structure equilibrium matrix. We will illustrate this solution process with examples. The structure in this example has 12 unknown basic forces and 10 equations of equilibrium, i.e. NOS = 2. In the above system of equilibrium equations, there is one that involves only one unknown basic force, which can be therefore determined immediately and independently from the rest, i.e. P10 = Q12 given the value for P10 at the beginning of the analysis we can immediately calculate Q12. Quite often the value for P10 is zero, resulting in a basic force with zero value and the final result 0 = 0 for the corresponding equilibrium equation. If the value of P10 is not zero, we can still calculate Q12 and account for its effect on the remaining equilibrium equations (this would be equation 7 for this structure). To economize on the number of equations and basic forces, it is advisable to identify such equations and basic forces at the beginning of the analysis and avoid numbering the corresponding dof and basic force. We should make sure to include the effect of a non-zero value for the corresponding basic force on the remaining equilibrium equations.
Page 33
An interesting case results with the insertion of a moment release at node j of element b, i.e. by releasing the basic force Q6 . Since Q6 = 0, equation 6 now involves a single unknown P6 = Q8 Thus, for this structure we should only set up 8 equations (i.e. eliminate #6 and #10 above) and then use only 9 unknown basic forces, because Q8 and Q12 can be determined independently at the start of the analysis from the corresponding equilibrium equation. Note that NOS = 1 in this case, since we have 8 equilibrium equations for 9 basic forces.
12
Q4
Q5
6 2 3 1
5 4
Q8
Q9
Q7
8 9 7
Q1
Q3 Q2
Q11 Q12
13 11 12 15 10 14
Q10
Page 34
Matlab script for Example 1 in CE220 class notes
% Automatic assembly of equilibrium equations for gable frame with FEDEASLab function B_matrix % Clear workspace memory and initialize global variables CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 12]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 8 18]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 16 12]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 16 0]; %
% connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; 0 = free) (specify only restrained dof's)
Page 35
% boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 0]; % 2d frame element
% specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('2dFrm');
Model = Create_SimpleModel(XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);
Equilibrium equations
% set up equilibrium equations for all dof's B = B_matrix(Model);
% extract rows corresponding to free dof's to form matrix Bf Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:);
% display equilibrium matrix disp(Bf)
% check rank of matrix Bf disp(['the rank of the structure equilibrium matrix is ' num2str(rank(Bf))])
Page 36
% determine NOS by difference of no of columns and rows (use size command) ncol = size(Bf,2); disp(['the no of columns of the structure equilibrium matrix is ' num2str(ncol)]) nrow = size(Bf,1); disp(['the no of rows of the structure equilibrium matrix is ' num2str(nrow)]) NOS = ncol-nrow; disp(['the degree of static indeterminacy of the model is ' num2str(NOS)])
0.0833 0 1.0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.8000 -0.6000 0 0.8000 0.6000 0 0 0 0 0 -0.0600 0.0800 1.0000 0.0600 -0.0800 0 0 0 0 0 -0.0600 0.0800 0 0.0600 -0.0800 1.0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.8000 0.6000 0 0.8000 -0.6000 0 0 0 0 0 0.0600 0.0800 1.0000 -0.0600 -0.0800 0 0 0 0 0 0.0600 0.0800 0 -0.0600 -0.0800 1.0000 0
0 1.0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.0833 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0000 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0833 0 1.0000 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0833 0 0 1.0000
the the the the
rank of the structure equilibrium matrix is 10 no of columns of the structure equilibrium matrix is 12 no of rows of the structure equilibrium matrix is 10 degree of static indeterminacy of the model is 2
Equilibrium
Special case for equilibrium equations - Statically determinate structures

When the structural model is stable and its static matrix Bf is square, the structure is statically determinate and a unique solution for the basic forces exists for any applied loading. This solution does not depend on the element properties. We can write this solution in compact form
Q = Bf 1 Pf Pfw
Q = B Pf Pfw
B is the basic force influence matrix of the structural model

In a statically determinate model the basic force influence matrix is the inverse of the static matrix for the free dofs. The coefficient (i,j) of the basic force influence matrix expresses the effect of a unit force at dof j on the basic force i of the structural model. Once the basic forces are determined in a statically determinate structure, the support reactions can be obtained one by one from the equation of equilibrium of the corresponding restrained dof. Finally, the analyst should check global equilibrium between applied forces and support reactions for the free body of the entire structural model. Consult examples 2, 3 and 4 for applications of the equilibrium equations to statically determinate structures.
Page 37
CE 220 - Theory of Structures
Ex. 2 - Truss equilibrium
Example 2(r) - Equilibrium equations for statically determinate 2d truss

Objectives: (a) set up and solution of the equilibrium equations for a statically determinate truss (b) determination of force influence matrix; physical interpretation (c) determination of support reactions and check of global equilibrium In this example we will set up the equilibrium equations at the nodes of a statically determinate truss. The truss is given in Figure 1. The global coordinate system X-Y is also shown.
4
c Y 1 a X 8
b 2 8
Fig. 1: Statically determinate truss We number the nodes in arbitrary numerical sequence and identify the elements with lower case roman letters (could have also used numbers). The element numbering is also in arbitrary sequence. Before embarking on the equilibrium equations we note the following: a truss is a structure made up exclusively of truss elements. These are straight elements (see Remark below) with a moment release at each end. Thus, each element has only one basic force q1 . The following figure displays all moment releases for the truss model.
q1
truss element
q1
It is quite clear from the above figure that no moments can be applied at the nodes of the truss. With this assumption the moment equilibrium at the nodes is satisfied automatically, i.e. 0 = 0. Strictly speaking, however, this results in an unstable node. Thus, it is better to represent the model as shown in the following figure and then postulate that the applied moments at the nodes are zero (this is what makes sense in computer analysis).
Page 38
in this case there is one element with a rigid (moment) connection at each node so that the stability of the nodes against rotation is ensured. If no moments act at the nodes, there are no end moments in the elements. For convenience we simplify the display of these construction details with a single circle at the node, as shown in Fig. 1. This indicates a node without any applied or resisting moments. Remark: The longitudinal basic force q1 in each element should not be confused with the axial force N(x), which is the internal force acting parallel to the element axis at a section located a distance x from end i of the element. While N(x) is equal to q1 in the absence of longitudinal element loads, this is not the case in their presence. q1 and N(x) are also not equal if the "truss element" is curved. It should then be considered as a frame element with end moment releases. Based on the preceding discussion, there are no moment equilibrium equations at the nodes of a truss structure. Starting with the first node we number the equilibrium equations at the node free bodies in the following order: equilibrium equations without support reactions are numbered first, in the X-direction and then Y-direction following the node sequence (we call these equilibrium equations for the free degrees of freedom or dofs). After we finish with the equations without support reactions, we number in the same fashion the equations with support reactions (we call these equilibrium equations for restrained dofs). The numbering in Figure 2 results.
7 6
2 1
8 3
Fig. 2: Dof or equilibrium equation numbering
Page 39
Length of elements
La := 8 Lb := 8 Lc := Ld := 6 Le := 6 +8
2 2
La = 8 Lb = 8 6 +8
2 2
Lc = 10 Ld = 6 Le = 10
We now set up the equilibrium equations at the free bodies of the nodes after separating these with mental cuts from the elements. Each truss element has a single basic force. Note that we keep the loading general, i.e. we assume that forces may be present at any degree of freedom. We have: Equilibrium equations for free dofs
5 4
P1 Q 1 + Q 2 = 0 P2 + Q 4 = 0 P3 Q2 0.8 Q5 = 0
Q3
7 6
Q4
2
Q5
8 1
P4 0.8 Q3 + 0.8 Q5 = 0
3
Q1
Q2
P5 0.6 Q3 Q4 0.6 Q5 = 0
moving the unknown basic forces to the right hand side of the equations gives the following equations
5
P1 = Q 1 Q 2 P2 = Q 4 P3 = Q2 + 0.8 Q5 P4 = 0.8 Q3 0.8 Q5 P5 = 0.6 Q3 + Q4 + 0.6 Q5

7
Q3
Q4
Q5
8 3
Q1
Q2
Conclusion: To determine the signs of the element forces Q directly on the right hand side of the above equilibrium equations we can use the element force orientation at the element side of the cut of the corresponding node free body.
Page 40
The coefficients of the element forces Q (note that they range in absolute value from 0 to 1, since they represent direction cosines) can be collected in static or equilibrium matrix of the structure for the free dofs. We can then write the above equations in compact form: after denoting the applied forces at the free dofs with Pf the system of equilibrium equations for the free dofs of the structure becomes Pf = Bf * Q
Pf = Bf Q
with
P1 P2 Pf = P3 P4 P5
1 0 Bf := 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0.8 0.6 0.8
and
0.8 0 0.6 1
Q1 Q2 Q = Q3 Q4 Q5
Equation for dof 1 Equation for dof 2 Equation for dof 3 Equation for dof 4 Equation for dof 5
Static (equilibrium) matrix and force influence matrix
The static matrix for the free dofs is
Bf
1 0 = 0 0 0
1 0
1 0 0 0.8 0 0.8 0 0.8 0 0.6 1 0.6

0 1 0
In the static matrix for the free dofs of a truss structure rows correspond to equilibrium equations and columns to the basic force of one element Note that the static matrix for the free dofs Bf only depends on the geometry of the structural model; it is independent of the loading. Thus, it can be set up for a given model geometry, without specification of the applied forces, exactly as we have done in this example. If Bf is a square and nonsingular matrix, we talk of a statically determinate, stable structure. In such case we can invert the matrix to obtain the (basic) force influence matrix Bbar.
1 Bbar := Bf
Bbar
1 0 = 0 0 0
0.667 1 0.667 1
0.833 0 0.625 0.833 1 0 0 0 0.833 0 0.625 0.833

0.5 0.667
0.5
0.667
The rows of the basic force influence matrix correspond to the longitudinal basic force in a particular element (e.g. the coefficients in row 3 correspond to element c), and the columns correspond to a particular dof (e.g. the second column corresponds to the effect of a force at dof 2). Thus the term (i,j) of the basic force influence matrix shows the effect of a unit force at dof j on the basic force i of the structure. This basic force influence matrix coefficient is very useful in design optimization problems, since it shows which member is most affected by the given loading. Remark: the static matrix at the free dofs Bf and the basic force influence matrix Bbar depend only on the model geometry for linear statics, in which case the equilibrium equations are formulated in the undeformed (original) configuration of the structural model. When the deformed shape deviates appreciably from the undeformed configuration, the equilibrium equations should be established in the deformed configuration. This is covered in Nonlinear Structural Analysis.
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Determination of basic forces for specific load case For a specific load case the applied forces at the free dofs are given. It is then possible to solve the system of equilibrium equations for the unknown element forces Q. In a stable, statically determinate structure for which Bf is square and nonsingular there is a unique set of element forces Q that equilibrate the given loading (unique solution of equilibrium equations). Note that the solution does not depend on element properties, which means that the member sizes do not need to be known beforehand.
10
0 5 Pf := 0 10 0
5 8 8
solve for unknown element forces by Gauss elimination (function lsolve in Mathcad, \ in Matlab)
Q := lsolve ( Bf , Pf)
8.33 8.33 = 2.08 5 10.42
basic forces in truss elements (+ : tension, -: compression)
Note that if we have spent the effort to determine the basic force influence matrix (getting the inverse of a matrix is more work than performing Gauss elimination!), then we can obtain the element forces also by multiplying the second column of Bbar by (-5) and the fourth column by 10 and adding up the results.
Q := Bbar 2 ( 5) + Bbar 4 10
8.33 8.33 = 2.08 5 10.42
Thus, the end forces result from the linear combination of the 2nd and 5th column of the basic force influence matrix after these are factored by the values of the force acting at the corresponding dof.
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Support reactions and global equilibrium We can now determine the support reactions from the equilibrium equations at the restrained dofs
5 4
Equilibrium equations at restrained dofs
Q3
Q4
Q5
8 3
P6 = Q1 0.8 Q3 P7 = 0.6 Q3
Q1
Q2
P8 = 0.6 Q5
We do this directly for each support reaction (for convenience we can use the symbol R to denote the support reactions; in such case we number these independently).
R1 = P6 = Q1 0.8 Q3 R2 = P7 = 0.6 Q3 R3 = P8 = 0.6 Q5
R1 := Q 0.8 Q
1
R1 = 10 R2 = 1.25 R3 = 6.25
R2 := 0.6 Q R3 := 0.6 Q
3 5
and with these we can check the global equilibrium (a very important check indeed!)
10
10 1.25 8 5 8 6.25
In addition to the trivial sum of the forces in X and sum of the forces in Y (which are satisfied by inspection!) we check the sum of the moments about the left and right support (only one of the two is really necessary) sum of moments about left support (CCW is +ve) sum of moments about right support (CCW is +ve)
10 6 5 8 + R3 16 = 0 10 6 + 5 8 R2 16 = 0
Ok!
Page 43
If we are interested in the support reaction influence matrix, then we set up the static matrix for the support dofs consisting of the coefficients of the basic forces in the equilibrium equations for the restrained dofs of the structure. We have from the earlier equations
R1 = P6 = Q1 0.8 Q3 R2 = P7 = 0.6 Q3 R3 = P8 = 0.6 Q5

thus the complete static matrix for the support dofs is
1 0 0.8 0 0 Bd := 0 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6
eq for dof 6 eq for dof 7 eq for dof 8
The support reaction influence matrix is the product of Bd and Bbar and contains the coefficients for the effect of the applied forces at the free dofs on the support reactions.
Bd Bbar
0 1 0 1 1 = 0 0.5 0 0.375 0.5 0 0.5 0 0.375 0.5
e.g. a unit force at dof 4 produces R1 = -1, R2 = -0.375 and R3 = 0.375
Note: if we had bothered setting up the matrix Bd , we could determine the support reactions from the basic element forces with the following expression R := Bd Q
support reactions
10 = 1.25 6.25
but the direct determination earlier is faster for hand calculations. CONCLUSIONS: 1. In a stable, statically determinate structure there are as many equilibrium equations for the free dofs of the structural model as there are unknown basic element forces. The static matrix for the free dofs Bf is, therefore, square and invertible. Note that the inclusion of the support reactions does not change anything to this discussion, since there are as many equilibrium equations at the support dofs as unknown support reactions. Thus, it is better to work with the static matrix for the free dofs only. 2. The static matrix for the free dofs of the structure only depends on the geometry of the structural model in its original (undeformed) configuration (linear equilibrium). 3. The inverse of the static equilibrium matrix for the free dofs Bf gives the basic force influence matrix Bbar. This matrix is useful in many applications, such as design optimization, system identification, damage assessment. 4. For a particular loading, the equilibrium equations give a unique solution for the basic forces of the structural model. The element properties are not required, thus the element sizes need not be available. 5. The support reactions are calculated after the determination of basic forces.
Page 44

% Solution for statically determinate truss
OPTION A: perform each step with Matlab functions

% clear memory clear all % specify static (equilibrium) matrix Bf Bf = [1 -1 0 0 0; 0 0 0 -1 0; 0 1 0 0 0.8; 0 0 0.8 0 -0.8; 0 0 0.6 1 0.6]; % determine and display force influence matrix Bbar Bbar = inv(Bf); disp('the force influence matrix Bbar is'); disp(Bbar); the force influence matrix Bbar is 1.0000 -0.6667 1.0000 0.5000 -0.6667 0 -0.6667 1.0000 0.5000 -0.6667 0 0.8333 0 0.6250 0.8333 0 -1.0000 0 0 0 0 0.8333 0 -0.6250 0.8333
specify applied force vector

Pf = [ 0; -5; 0; 10; 0]; % solve for basic forces Q (Note the use of the backslash or left matrix divide operator which computes the solution for a linear system of equations by Gauss elimination) Q = Bf\Pf; % display result format short disp('the basic forces are'); disp(Q); the basic forces are 8.3333 8.3333 2.0833 5.0000 -10.4167
OPTION B: use FEDEASLab functions

% clear memory; close any open windows CleanStart; % define XYZ(1,:) XYZ(2,:) XYZ(3,:) model geometry = [ 0 0]; % first node = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc = [ 16 0]; %
Page 45
XYZ(4,:) = [
6];
% element connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 1 4]; CON { 4} = [ 2 4]; CON { 5} = [ 3 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1]; BOUN(3,:) = [ 0 1]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Truss'); 0 = free) (specify only restrained
% number of elements % truss element
create Model
Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName); % plot and label model for checking (optional) Create_Window (0.80,0.80); % open figure window Plot_Model (Model); % plot model Label_Model (Model); % label model
form static (equilibrium) matrix B

B = B_matrix(Model); % extract submatrix for free dofs Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:);
specify loading
Pe(2,2) = -5; Pe(4,1) = 10; % force at node 2 in direction Y % force at node 4 in direction X
% generate data object Loading Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); % extract applied force vector Pf at free dofs from Loading field Pref Pf = Loading.Pref;
Page 46
solution for basic forces

solve for basic forces and display the result Q = Bf\Pf; disp('the basic forces are'); disp(Q); the basic forces are 8.3333 8.3333 2.0833 5.0000 -10.4167
determination of support reactions

% the product B*Q delivers all forces at the global dofs % the upper 5 should be equal to the applied forces, the lower 3 are the support reactions disp('B*Q gives'); disp(B*Q); B*Q gives 0 -5.0000 0 10.0000 0.0000 -10.0000 -1.2500 6.2500
post-processing of results
% plot axial force distribution Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_AxialForces(Model,Q);
Page 47
Ex. 3 - Beam equilibrium
Example 3(r) - Equilibrium equations for statically determinate 2d beam

Objectives: (a) set up of equilibrium equations for a statically determinate beam (b) systematic reduction of equilibrium equations to exclude longitudinal basic forces for specific loading (c) systematic reduction of equilibrium equations involving a single unknown basic force (d) relation between basic forces and internal forces; bending moment and shear force diagrams (e) influence lines for moving loads Geometry of structural model
a 10
b 10
c 5
Case A: Complete set of equilibrium equations and basic element forces

1 3 4 2 6 5 9 8 7
Q2
a
Q3
Q1
Q5
b
Q6 Q 4 Q8
c
Q9
Q7
Complete set of equilibrium equations and basic element forces X-direction Y-direction Moments about Z-axis
P1 = Q 2 P2 = Q 1 Q 4 P3 = Q2 + Q3 10 + Q5 + Q6 10 P4 = Q 3 + Q 5
P5 = Q 4 Q 7 P7 = Q 7 P8 = Q8 + Q9 5
P6 = Q 6 + Q 8 P9 = Q 9
Page 48
We distinguish 3 horizontal force equilibrium equations (equations 2, 5 and 7) involving 3 longitudinal basic forces. We note that the longitudinal basic forces Q 1 , Q4 and Q7 do not appear in the other equations. We can therefore uncouple these three equations from the rest and solve them independently. We could have concluded this independence of equations with longitudinal basic forces by inspection at the start of the analysis. If we are not interested in the longitudinal basic forces, we can set up only the equilibrium equations involving the flexural basic element forces. This is shown next Case B: Complete set of equilibrium equations for flexural basic element forces
a 10
b 10 2
c 5
5 6
Q1
a
Q2
Q3
b
Q4
Q5
c
Q6
Y-direction
Moments about Z-axis
P1 = Q 1 P2 = Q1 + Q2 10 + Q3 + Q4 10 P3 = Q 2 + Q 3 P4 = Q 4 + Q 5 P5 = Q5 + Q6 5 P6 = Q 6
Looking at these 6 equations and the unknown 6 basic element forces we conclude that equations 1 and 6 involve a single unknown basic force each. We can therefore solve for the corresponding unknown basic force independently from the rest. Assuming that the applied force at this degree of freedom is zero in most cases, we can proceed to remove the two equations and the corresponding basic forces from the system of equations. This process can be done by inspection at the start of the analysis once the loading is given. If the applied forces at dofs 1 and 6 are not equal to zero, the corresponding basic forces will not be zero and we should be careful to include the effect of the non-zero basic force on the remaining equilibrium equations. We will see later in this example how this is done.
Page 49
We renumber the equations and basic forces. Case C: Reduced set of equilibrium equations for flexural basic element forces
1 a 10 1 2 3 c 5 4
b 10
Q1
a
Q2
b
Q3
Q4
c
Y-direction
Moments about Z-axis
P1 =
Q1 10 Q4 5
Q2 + Q3 10
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2 P3 = Q 3 + Q 4
P4 =
We note that equation 4 now involves only one unknown, which can be, therefore, determined independently from the other basic element forces. However, it is quite likely that a concentrated transverse force acts at the tip of the cantilever, so that this basic force will not be zero in most cases. For this reason we defer further simplification until we determine the solution for a specific load case.
Page 50
Determination of basic forces for specific load case The following loading is given. It is required to determine the basic forces for this loading.
15 1 a 10 2 b 10 3 c 5
5 4
2 3
5 6
We start with the 6 equilibrium equations not involving axial forces, since the latter are zero by inspection for the given loading. We note that the applied forces are zero at dofs 1 and 6, so that the corresponding basic forces are also zero. We can, therefore, set up the equilibrium equations in terms of the reduced set of 4 dofs with 4 basic forces corresponding to case C above. We restate the equilibrium equations
1 2 4
P1 =
Q1 10
Q2 + Q3 10
Q1
a
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2
Q2
b
Q3
P3 = Q 3 + Q 4
Q4
c
P4 =
Q4 5
For the given loading we have:
P1 = 15
P2 = 0
P3 = 0
P4 = 5
and it is very straightforward to solve the equilibrium equations for the unknown basic forces. We get
Q4 = 25 Q3 = 25
from equation 4 from equation 3
and then need to solve equation 1 realizing that Q1 = -Q 2 from equation 2. We get and thus,
15 =
Q1 5
2.5
Q1 = 62.5
and
Q2 = 62.5
Page 51
We can also use Gauss elimination of the system of equilibrium equations. This approach is useful for larger structures, which we do not wish to solve by hand.
The specified loading forms the applied nodal force vector
15 0 Pf := 0 5
The static or equilibrium matrix of the structure consists of the coefficients of the basic forces Q in the equilibrium equations, namely
We use Gauss elimination to solve for Q Bending moment diagram
Q := lsolve ( Bf , Pf)
1 1 1 0 10 10 10 1 1 0 0 Bf := 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 5 62.5 62.5 Q = 25 25
Before determining and drawing the bending moment diagram we need to establish the relation between basic forces and internal forces at a section located a distance x from end i of the frame element. The following figure is limited to the effect of the flexural basic forces. The corresponding internal forces are the bending moment M(x) and the shear force V(x) at a section x from the end i of the frame element.
y
q2
frame element
q3
q 2 + q3 L
end i
q 2 + q3 L
M ( x)
end j
q2
q 2 + q3 L
q3
V ( x)
q 2 + q3 L
x x M ( x) = q 2 1 + q3 L L
the bending moment is positive when acting CCW at the face of the cut closest to the origin. Its reaction acts in the opposite direction at the opposite face of the cut; the shear force is positive when acting in the positive y-direction at the face of the cut closest to the origin; its reaction acts in the opposite direction at the opposite face of the cut we draw the bending moment "upside down" or on the tension side of the reference line, but this is really a matter of taste; it is important to draw a happy or sad face so as to unambiguously define the sense of flexure we draw the shear normally, i.e. positive in positive y. With this sign convention for the shear and moment diagram the slope of the moment diagram corresponds to the sign of the shear force in the graph, even though numerically it is equal to the opposite
q2
M ( x) V ( x)
q3
q 2 + q3 L
Page 52
With the above convention the bending moment diagram becomes
62.5 a 6.25 6.25
62.5 b 8.75
25 8.75 25
25 c 5 5
62.5
Once the basic forces are known we use element equilibrium to determine all dependent forces (in this case there are only shear forces). We then use the nodal equilibrium to determine the support reactions. Finally, we check global equilibrium. This process is illustrated in the following figures. (1) Element equilibrium: determine shear forces
62.5 a 6.25 6.25 62.5 b 8.75 8.75 25 c 5 5 25
(2) node equilibrium: determine support reactions and confirm correctness of solution at applied forces
15 6.25 6.25 8.75 8.75 5 5 5
6.25
(3) complete structure free body and global equilibrium
15
13.75
6.25
13.75
Page 53
It is instructive to display this 3-step process in a single figure of element, node and structure equilibrium
62.5 a 6.25 6.25 62.5 b 8.75 8.75 25 c 15 6.25 6.25 8.75 8.75 5 5 5 5 5 25
6.25
13.75 15 5
6.25
13.75
Page 54
Force influence matrix and influence line for moving loads
The inverse of the 4x4 static matrix for the free dofs of the structural model yields the basic force influence matrix Bbar. for transverse loading
Bbar := Bf
Bbar
5 5 = 0 0
0.5 0.5 0 0 1 0
2.5
0.5 0.5 2.5 5 5
The rows of the force influence matrix correspond to a particular basic force, e.g. the second row corresponds to Q2 . The columns correspond to particular dofs. The terms of the force influence matrix are force influence coefficients that show the effect of a unit force at a certain dof on the particular basic force. For example, a unit force at dof 1 gives rise to Q2 = 5, while a unit force at dof 4 gives rise to Q2 = -2.5 (recall that a positive force is directed upwards). Thinking that the unit vertical force may be acting anywhere along the beam leads to the idea of influence line for Q2 The influence line for a particular force is the graphical representation of the effect of a moving unit force on the basic force. The value of the diagram at a particular location represents the value of the basic force when a unit force acts at that particular location of the structure.
moving unit force 1 a 3 c
+ 2.5
influence line for
Q2 under vertical force
CONCLUSIONS:
1. In beams the longitudinal basic forces and corresponding equilibrium equations are uncoupled from the other basic forces and the equilibrium equations. In the absence of applied longitudinal forces the longitudinal basic forces are all zero and do not need to be considered. 2. The inverse of the static matrix of a statically determinate structure is called the force influence matrix. Rows of this matrix represent the effect of a unit force at any free dof on a particular basic force. The corresponding values can be used to construct influence lines for each basic force of interest. The influence lines consist of straight line segments for statically determinate structures.
Page 55
Treatment of nodal force at tip of cantilever
We return to the earlier set of equilibrium equations for case C.

1 2 3 4
P1 =
Q1 10
Q2 + Q3 10
Q1
a
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2
Q2
b
Q3
P3 = Q 3 + Q 4
Q4
c
P4 =
Q4 5
We note that equation 4 only involves one unknown basic force, Q4 , and can be solved independently. For the general case we obtain
Q4 = 5 P4
which says that the basic force at the base of the cantilever it equal to the force acting at the tip times the lever arm.
after inserting this result into equation 3 we get
P3 = Q3 5 P4 P3 + 5 P4 = Q3
after moving the applied force to the left hand side of the equation we get
this is now another trivial equilibrium equation that can be solved for the basic force Q3 independently of the other equations. The above equations simplify the number of equilibrium equations and basic forces for the given load case to the following
15 1 a 10 1 2 2 b 10 5 25 3
Force in Y-direction at node 2
P1 =
Q1 10
Q2 25 10
Moments about Z-axis at node 2
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2
Conclusion: as far as equilibrium is concerned we can replace the nodal force at the tip of the cantilever by a force and a moment at the root of the cantilever. This reduces the total number of equations and basic forces by two.
Q1
a
Q2
b
25
Page 56
This is an example of determining basic forces independently, one at a time, from as many equilibrium equations. We did this in this case first for Q4 from equation 4, and then for Q3 from equation 3. In each case we have accounted for the effect of the basic force on the remaining equilibrium equations. The effect of Q4 was accounted for in equation 3 where it appears. Then, the effect of Q3 was accounted for in equation 1 where it appears. The end result is the inclusion of Q3 = -25 in equation 1 leaving us with 2 coupled equilibrium equations in two unknowns. The solution is very straightforward.
Page 57

% Solution for statically determinate beam with overhang
use FEDEASLab functions

% clear memory and close any open windows CleanStart; % define model geometry XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 10 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 20 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 25 0]; % % element connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 3 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1]; BOUN(3,:) = [ 0 1]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('2dFrm'); 0 = free)
% number of elements % 2d frame element
create Model

specify loading
Pe(2,2) = -15; Pe(4,2) = -5; % force at node 2 in direction Y % force at node 4 in direction Y
% generate data object Loading Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe);
Page 58
% extract applied force vector Pf at free dofs from Loading field Pref Pf = Loading.Pref;
solve for basic forces

Q = Bf\Pf; % display the result disp('the basic forces are'); disp(Q); the basic forces are 0 0 62.5000 0 -62.5000 -25.0000 0 25.0000 0
determine support reactions

% the product B*Q delivers all forces at the global dofs the upper 9 should be equal to the applied forces, the lower 3 are the support reactions disp('B*Q gives'); disp(B*Q); B*Q gives 0 0 -15.0000 0 0 0 0 -5.0000 0 0 6.2500 13.7500
plotting
% open window and plot moment diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); % observe that the second argument is empty [] in the following function call Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Q);
Page 59
Ex. 4 - Equilibrium of portal frame with hinge
Example 4(r) - Equilibrium equations for statically determinate frame

Objectives: (a) set up reduced set of equilibrium equations for three-hinge frame (b) uncouple equilibrium equations for the longitudinal basic forces (c) solution for basic forces of primary importance, i.e. flexural basic forces of elements (d) determination of longitudinal basic forces one at a time from node equilibrium
12
d a
10
5 1 8 8
Reduced set of equilibrium equations and basic element forces The inspection of the structural model reveals that the moment equilibrium equations at nodes 1, 3 and 5 involve only one basic force each. Assuming that there are no applied forces at these dofs the corresponding basic forces will be zero. We, therefore, leave out these equilibrium equations and corresponding basic forces and write directly the reduced set
Q3
Q6
c 5
Q4
2 3
Q5
7
Q1
Q2
4 8
Q8
d a
Q7
Page 60
Equilibrium equations: X-direction Y-direction Moments about Z
P1 =
Q2 12
Q3
P2 = Q 1 + P5 = Q4 8 Q6 8
Q4 8 + Q6 8
P3 = Q 2 + Q 4
P4 = Q 3 Q 5 P6 = Q 5 + Q8 10
P7 =
+ Q7
P8 = Q 6 + Q 8
there are 8 equations in 8 unknown basic element forces and the structure is statically determinate Suppose that we like to separate the equilibrium equations that involve the 4 longitudinal basic forces in the frame elements, Q 1 , Q3 , Q5 and Q7 . To do so, we need to isolate 4 equations from the above 8 in such a way that we are left with 4 equations that do not include the longitudinal basic forces. This is easy to do for Q1 and Q7 , since each appear in only one equilibrium equation, namely 2 and 7 respectively. We also note from the above equations that Q3 , Q5 appear in only three equations, namely 1, 4 and 6. In order to isolate these two longitudinal basic forces from the remainder, we create a new equation by summing up the three equations in the X-direction. We obtain:
P1 + P 4 + P6 =
Q2 12
Q8 10
(*)
We note that the longitudinal basic forces do not appear in this equation. We can therefore set aside the three equilibrium equations in the two longitudinal basic forces that we wish to isolate, as long as we insert the sum of these 3 equations (*) in their place. We are left with the following two sets of equations: Set A: equilibrium equations without longitudinal basic element forces X-direction Y-direction Moments about Z
P1 + P 4 + P6 =
Q2 12
Q8 10 P5 = Q4 8 + Q6 8
P3 = Q 2 + Q 4
P8 = Q 6 + Q 8
Page 61
Set B: equilibrium equations with longitudinal basic element forces X-direction Y-direction
P1 =
Q2 12
Q3
P2 = Q 1 +
Q4 8
P6 = Q 5 +
Q8 10 P7 =
Q6 8
+ Q7
Thus, by isolating the four longitudinal basic forces and an equal number of equilibrium equations from the four flexural basic forces, we have split the original set of 8 equations in 8 unknowns into two sets of 4 equations. The first set of 4 equations only involves 4 unknown flexural basic forces and can be solved independently. The second set, however, can only be solved after determining the value of the flexural basic forces Q 2 , Q4 , Q6 and Q8 from the solution of the first set. Reduced set of equilibrium equations without longitudinal basic element forces We can simplify this process by numbering only the first set of equations and corresponding unknowns. This is the fastest of tackling the problem by hand (the preceding discussion serves only as explanation of how to get to this point systematically!). Basic forces and relevant dofs are shown in the following figure.
Q3
Q2
2 1
b 3
c 4
Q1
Q4
d a
Page 62
The corresponding equilibrium equations without longitudinal basic element forces are
P1 =
Q1 12
Q4 10
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2 P3 = Q2 8 + Q3 8
P4 = Q 3 + Q 4
It is worth noting that the first equilibrium equation now physically corresponds to the force equilibrium in the global X-direction for the free body consisting of nodes 2, 3 and 4 and elements b and c, as shown in the following figure.
Q1
Q1 12
Q4 10
Q4
d a
The process of setting up these equations directly results in a significant reduction of problem size and in better insight into the system response.
The static matrix of the frame without the longitudinal basic element forces is
1 0 0 12 1 1 0 Bf := 0 1 1 8 8 0 0 1
4.36 0.55 4.36 0.55 3.64 0.55
1 10 0
0 1
and the force influence matrix is
Bbar := Bf
Bbar
5.45 5.45 = 5.45 5.45
0.55 0.45 0.45
0.45 3.64 0.45
Page 63
Solution of basic forces for specific load case including distributed element loading We wish to solve for the basic forces under the given loading
5 2 b 3 c 4 5
12
d a
10
5 1
The nodal force vector is straightforward. It is How are we supposed to include the effect of the distributed element load? We look at the equilibrium of a typical element
5 0 Pf := 0 0
q1
q2
q 2 + q 3 wy L + L 2
q3
wy
q1
q 2 + q 3 wy L + 2 L
q1
q2
q 2 + q3 L
q3
q 2 + q3 L
q1
+
2
homogeneous solution that satisfies the element free body equilibrium equations with 3 unknown "parameters", the basic element forces
wy
0
particular solution for which the basic element forces are zero
wy L
wy L 2
Page 64
We note that the equilibrium solution of a typical element consists of two parts: (a) the homogeneous solution, i.e. the relation between basic and dependent end forces so as to satisfy the element equilibrium equations, and (b) the particular solution, i.e. the values of the dependent forces that satisfy the element equilibrium under the applied element loads We have already accounted for the homogeneous solution when writing the equilibrium equations in terms of the basic forces. Now it remains to include the particular solution for the element carrying a distributed load. This is element c in our case and the shear forces of the particular solution affect dof 5 and 7 of the original equilibrium equations. We show this particular solution effect separately in the following figure.
5
20
20
2 3 1
5 4
7 6 8
Equilibrium equations for given load case: X-direction Y-direction Moments about Z
5=
Q2 12
Q3
0 = Q1 + 0= Q4 8 Q6 8
Q4 8 + Q6 8 + 20
0 = Q2 + Q4
0 = Q3 Q5 0 = Q5 + Q8 10
0=
+ Q7 + 20
0 = Q6 + Q8
Page 65
and after separating the equations involving longitudinal basic element forces we get Equilibrium equations without longitudinal basic forces X-direction Y-direction Moments about Z
5=
Q2 12
Q8 10 0= Q4 8 + Q6 8 + 20
0 = Q2 + Q4
0 = Q6 + Q8
Equilibrium equations with longitudinal basic forces X-direction Y-direction
P1 =
Q2 12
Q3 Q8 10
P2 = Q 1 +
Q4 8
P6 = Q 5 +
P7 =
Q6 8
+ Q7 + 20
After renumbering basic forces and equations, as before, to focus only on the effect of the flexural basic element forces we get
5=
Q1 12
Q4 10
0 = Q1 + Q2 0= Q2 8 + Q3 8 + 20
0 = Q3 + Q4
For hand calculations the solution of this problem can be simplified by realizing that equations 2 and 4 essentially amount to Q2 = -Q 1 and Q4 =-Q3 . This leaves us with two equations in two unknowns, an easy task.
Page 66
We can write the above equilibrium equations compactly, as
Pf = Bf Q + Pfw
with Pf the vector of the forces applied directly at the nodes, and Pfw the vector of the equivalent nodal forces due to element loading. To solve this system we move all given terms to the left hand side, and solve for the unknowns on the right hand side noting that we have as many unknowns as available equations. Thus, we have to solve the following system of equations: Pf Pfw = Bf Q
For solving the equations we set up the vectors and matrices in Mathcad or Matlab and get
with the following vector of applied forces
Pf
5 0 = 0 0
and equivalent nodal forces due to element loading
Pfw
0 0 := 20 0
and with the static matrix for the free dofs defined earlier, i.e.
1 0 0 12 1 1 0 Bf := 0 1 1 8 8 0 0 1
1 10 0
0 1
Q
we solve for the unknown element forces by Gauss elimination
Q := lsolve ( Bf , Pf Pfw )
As the equations reveal the element loading amounts to an equivalent nodal force vector of -Pfw
5
60 60 = 100 100
20
20
5 2 b 3 c 4
equivalent nodal forces due to w = 5
d a
5 1
Thus, it is possible to treat the element loading as an equivalent nodal force vector for the determination of the basic forces. For the later determination of the shear forces and bending moment distribution in element c, however, we should not neglect to include the particular solution.
Page 67
With these results we return to the remaining equilibrium equations to obtain the longitudinal basic forces. Instead of doing this analytically with the equations we set up earlier, it is better to use the element and node equilibrium directly to get the longitudinal basic element forces and dependent element end forces. This avoids the numbering of the longitudinal basic element forces and the corresponding equations. The following figure provides all details. It is an excellent way for the analyst to check equilibrium and display applied and resisting forces. Note that we have selected to include the effect of element load in element c as equivalent nodal forces. This results in the right values for all internal forces except for the shear forces and bending moments in element c for which the particular solution due to the element loading needs to be added to the homogeneous solution. We will do this separately.
7.5 10 60 7.5 b 7.5 7.5 20 10 12.5 32.5 10 12.5 10 100 10 10 12.5 c
only homogeneous solution

100 12.5 20 32.5 10 10
5 7.5 60 5
10
10
5 7.5
Node 2
a
Node 3
Node 4
d
Node 5 Node 1
32.5 10 10 32.5 7.5 10 32.5
5 7.5 5
7.5 5
The steps in the figure above are: 1. Show the flexural basic element forces Q1 through Q4 with actual values and orientation. 2. Use element equilibrium to get the shear forces in elements a through d; note that the shear forces in element c correspond to the homogeneous solution of element equilibrium only. The correct values result only after including the particular solution under element loading, as will be shown subsequently. 3. Use horizontal and vertical force equilibrium at nodes 2 and 4 to get the longitudinal basic forces (only 4 equations are needed; we can use the vertical and horizontal force equilibrium at node 3 to check) 4. Use the vertical and horizontal force equilibrium at nodes 1 and 5 to obtain the support reactions. Remark: in an actual problem only the four flexural basic element forces would be numbered and the corresponding equilibrium equations not involving longitudinal basic forces would be set up. Thus, there is no need to number the longitudinal basic element forces and corresponding equations. A computer program on the other hand sets up all equations and then solves them, since it is more work to consider special cases than to solve a system of equations, however large the size of it may be.
Page 68
Bending moment diagram For determining and drawing the bending moment distribution in all elements of the structural model we need to include the particular solution for element c under element loading. This is shown in the following figure.
10
12.5
homogeneous solution
100
12.5
10
+
0
20 particular solution 20
100
60
wy L2 8
100
60
Determination of maximum positive moment in element c use the shear force value at the left end
w := 5
2
7.5 Mmax := 2 w
Mmax = 5.625
2
use the shear force value at the right end (just for practice)
Mmax := 100 +
32.5 2 w
Mmax = 5.625
Page 69
Check of global equilibrium Finally, it is very important to check global equilibrium for the free body of the entire structural model. This is shown in the following figure.
20 20
12
10
10 5 7.5 8 8 32.5
Sum of the forces in X and Y is satisfied by inspection. Sum of the moments about the right support yields:
5 2 5 10 7.5 16 + 40 4 = 0
Remark
ok
Basic forces and support reactions are the same under the distributed element load or the equivalent nodal forces due to the element load (this is where the name equivalent comes from). The particular solution only plays a role in the determination of the shear force and bending moment distribution of the element carrying the distributed element load. CONCLUSIONS: 1. In frame analysis longitudinal basic forces are of less significance than the flexural basic forces of the elements. Thus, we try to set up only the equilibrium equations involving the latter and set aside the equilibrium equations involving the longitudinal basic forces. 2. After solving for the basic forces of primary interest, we use the equilibrium equations that were set aside in the first place to determine the longitudinal basic forces. This is usually done with free body diagrams of the elements and nodes. 3. In determining the shear force and bending moment distribution of elements carrying the element loads we should remember to include the particular solution of the element equilibrium equations under the element loading.
Page 70

% Solution for statically determinate portal frame under distributed loading

% clear memory and close any open windows CleanStart; % define XYZ(1,:) XYZ(2,:) XYZ(3,:) XYZ(4,:) XYZ(5,:) model geometry = [ 0 0]; % first node = [ 0 12]; % second node, etc = [ 8 12]; % = [ 16 12]; % = [ 16 2]; %
% element connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 3 4]; CON { 4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1 0]; BOUN(5,:) = [ 1 1 0]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('2dFrm'); 0 = free)
create Model
2 2 3 3 4

Page 71
% insert hinge at left end of element c by removing corresponding column of Bf iq = setdiff(1:12,8); Bf = Bf(:,iq);
specify loading
Pe(2,1) = 5; % force at node % for vertical loading use equivalent class notes Pe(3,2) = -20; % force at node Pe(4,2) = -20; % force at node 2 in direction X nodal forces as determined in pp. 53-54 of 2 in direction Y 4 in direction Y
% generate data object Loading Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); % extract applied force vector Pf at free dofs from Loading field Pref Pf = Loading.Pref;
solve for basic forces

% make sure to re-insert zero at moment release Q = zeros(12,1); Q(iq) = Bf\Pf; % display the result for the basic forces disp('the basic forces are'); disp(Q); the basic forces are -7.5000 0 -60.0000 -10.0000 60.0000 0 -10.0000 0 -100.0000 -32.5000 100.0000 0

% the product B*Q delivers all forces at the global dofs; the upper 11 should be equal to the applied forces, the lower 4 are the support reactions
disp('B*Q gives');
disp(B*Q); B*Q gives 0 5.0000 0 0 0 -20.0000 0 0 -20.0000 0
Page 72
0 5.0000 7.5000 -10.0000 32.5000
plotting
% open window and plot moment diagram first w/o distributed element load w Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); % observe that the second argument is empty [] in the following function call % use scale factor of 2 for plot as last argument Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Q,2);
% to include the effect of the distributed load we need to specify it as part of the ElemData object, so that the element "knows" that it is carrying the load and plots the correct M-diagram % specify distributed load for element 3 ElemData{3}.w = [0;-5]; % open new window and plot new moment diagram with same scale factor Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Q,2);
Page 73
Equilibrium
Example for reduction of equilibrium equations for relevant basic forces

2 b 3 d 5
a c
NOS=2
NQ = no of basic element forces NF = no of equilibrium equations at relevant free dofs
1 4
complete dofs
3 4 2 8 7 6 10 9
complete set of basic forces

Q5
Q6
Q4 Q7 Q9
Q11
Q12
Q10
Q1
Q3
NF = 10
1 5
NQ = 12
Q2
Q8
non-trivial dofs
2 3 1 6 5 4
corresponding basic forces

Q4
Q5
Q3 Q6
Q7
Q8
Q1
Q2
NF = 6
NQ = 8
dofs not involving longitudinal basic forces

2 1 3
corresponding basic forces

Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
NF = 3
NQ = 5
Page 74
Equilibrium
General solution for redundant (statically indeterminate) structures

The following is the general solution of the equilibrium equations for statically indeterminate structures. For hand calculations the process is shown in Examples 5 and 6.
start from equilibrium equations at free dofs
Pf = B f Q + Pfw
select NOS redundant basic forces and collect them in vector Qx call remaining basic forces Qi the static matrix is partitioned accordingly into two submatrices Bi and B x
Bi is a square matrix that should not be singular; it corresponds to the static matrix of the primary structure
with this split the equilibrium equations become Pf Pfw = Bi Qi + B xQx solve for the basic forces of the primary structure in terms of the applied forces (and element loading, if present) and the redundant basic forces according to
(i.e. the statically determinate structure that results when the redundant basic force values are set to zero)
Qi = Bi1 ( Pf Pfw ) B x Qx
Qx = Qx
add the identity to recover the complete set of basic forces on the left hand side combine
B 1B Qi B 1 = i Pf Pfw + i x Qx Q I x 0
arrange vector of basic forces in original order
Q = Bi Pf Pfw + B x Qx
where
Bi , B x
are basic force influence matrices for the applied forces and for the redundant basic forces, respectively
In actual problems we are usually interested in the basic forces under a specific loading and thus determine the basic forces of the primary structure under the given loading directly without first setting up the force influence matrix Bbari We denote these basic forces with Qp we write
Qp = Bi Pf Pfw
)
Q = Qp + B x Q x
and thus the solution for a specific loading becomes
How do we select the redundant basic forces at the beginning of the solution process? (a) "by hand" we select them so that the primary structure is stable; we assess stability of structural models by kinematic criteria in the lectures on compatibility (b) automatically we can select the redundant basic forces by a linear algebra procedure known as row-echelon form of the equilibrium matrix Bf (see Strang, 3rd edition, pp. 71-77). This is a built-in function in Mathcad and Matlab and is used in the FEDEASLab function ForceInfl_matrix to establish the force influence matrices. To select specific basic forces as redundants, one needs to re-order the columns of Bf and place the selected redundants last. If you are interested in this, consult the addendum to Example 6 and Matlab file Example_6.m.
Page 75
Ex. 5 - Equilibrium for indeterminate truss
Example 5(r) - Equilibrium equations for statically indeterminate truss

Objectives: (a) set up equilibrium equations for statically indeterminate truss (b) primary structure, basic force redundants, force influence matrices for primary structure (c) general solution of problem, superposition of homogeneous and particular solution
15
Geometry:
6 b e f c
La := 8 Lc := 6 Le := 10
Lb := 6 Ld := 8 Lf := 10
Dof and basic force numbering

3 2 5 4
Q4
Q2
Q5
Q6
Q3
Q1
8
Page 76
Step 1: Equilibrium equations- degree of static indeterminacy
P1 = Q1 + 0.8 Q5 P2 = Q4 0.8 Q5 P3 = Q2 + 0.6 Q5 P4 = Q4 + 0.8 Q6 P5 = Q3 + 0.6 Q6
corresponding equilibrium matrix
1 0 Bf := 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0.8 0.6 0 0
0 0 1 0.8
0 0.8 0.6 0
There are 6 truss element forces and 5 independent equations of equilibrium at the free degrees of freedom. The structural model has a degree of static indeterminacy NOS of 6-5=1 (i.e. NOS=1). How do we know that the 5 equilibrium equations are independent? The question we need to answer is whether the structure is stable or not. For this structure this is easy to. For more complex structures with few elements the best way is by the kinematic method, as we will discuss later in the course. Linear algebra, however, provides the standard method for any size structure. It has to do with the rank of the matrix, which is equal to the number of linearly independent rows. Thus, when the rank of the static matrix is equal to the number of rows (which, in turn, are equal to the number of free dofs), then the structure is stable. Let us check this for the truss using two built-in functions of Mathcad (the corresponding Matlab functions are rank and size)
rank ( Bf) = 5
rows ( Bf) = 5
we conclude that the structure is stable
Step 2: Selection of redundant(s), primary structure Select NOS basic forces as free parameters of the equilibrium equations (linear algebra terminology). These are known in structural analysis as redundant basic forces or simply redundants. Make sure that the structure without the NOS redundants is statically determinate and stable (we will learn later how to do this with kinematic methods). In the case at hand we select the force in member f Q 6 as redundant. The structure that remains when the redundant is set equal to zero (or "removed") is known in structural analysis as primary structure.
Page 77
Review of Linear Algebra (Linear Algebra and Its Applications by G. Strang, pp. 71-77 of 3rd edition) The general solution of a system of equations M x = b
can be obtained as the superposition of the particular solution which satisfies the system of equations for the given right hand side vector, and the homogeneous solution which satisfies the system of equations M x = 0 denoting the homogeneous solution with xh and the particular solution with xp we have the following conditions and we can see clearly that M ( xp + xh) = b M xp = b and M xh = 0
If the matrix M is square and invertible, then the only homogeneous solution is the so-called trivial solution xh = 0. However, a matrix M with more columns than rows, has as many non-trivial homogeneous solutions as the difference between the number of columns and the rank of the matrix M. These non-trivial homogeneous solutions span the nullspace of matrix M. Translated to the structural problem where M is the static matrix Bf of the structural model this means: there are NOS non-trivial homogeneous solutions of the equilibrium equations for a stable structure with degree of static indeterminacy of NOS. What is the systematic way of finding the particular solution and the NOS homogeneous solutions? In Linear Algebra we select the NOS free variables by a procedure known as row-echelon form. In Mathcad and Matlab there is a built-in function called rref for Reduced Row-Echelon Form, which goes even further by transforming the matrix M through row operations into a diagonal unit matrix and unreduced columns for the free variables. Note that the diagonal unit matrix may not be contiguous as the following example shows
1 2 3 1 1 0 1 0 rref 0 1 1 0 = 0 1 1 0 1 2 3 2 0 0 0 1
here the free variable is the third, since the row operations result in a diagonal unit matrix with columns 1, 2 and 4. If this were a static matrix, then Q3 would be the redundant that the program would select, because the primary structure with Q 1 , Q2 and Q4 is stable (look at the rank of columns 1, 2 and 4). By contrast, the selection of Q 4 as redundant results in an unstable primary structure (the rank of columns 1, 2 and 3 is only 2).
In structural analysis we select the free variables (i.e. the redundants) by inspection or by the kinematic method. Once the free variables (i.e. redundants) are selected we set their value equal to 0 (primary structure) and solve the governing equations (equilibrium equations) for the remaining variables (basic forces). This gives the particular solution for the given vector (applied nodal forces) b. To obtain linearly independent homogeneous solutions we set each free variable in turn equal to 1 (all other free variables are zero) and solve the system of equations M xh = 0 . In structural analysis these solutions are called self-stress states, since the structure is stressed without external forces. Such self-stress states only arise in statically indeterminate structures, since a square matrix M has only trivial homogeneous solutions, as we have already stated.
Page 78
Step 3: Determine basic forces Q for given loading with redundants equal to zero Set redundant equal to zero. Solve the equilibrium equations for the applied nodal force vector. This is the particular solution of the equilibrium equations for the given load case; we denote the basic forces with Qp Set redundant equal to zero, i.e. Q 6 = 0 We equilibrium equations for the given applied force vector become and their solution one by one is
0 = Q1 + 0.8 Q5 0 = Q4 0.8 Q5 0 = Q2 + 0.6 Q5 15 = Q4 0 = Q3 Q4 = 15 Q3 = 0

The particular solution therefore is:
Q1 = 15 Q5 = 18.75 Q2 = 11.25
15 11.25 0 Qp := 15 18.75 0
We can also solve these equations in matrix form, but we leave this for Matlab (see Example_5.m). With the basic forces we can obtain the support reactions from node equilibrium at the restrained dofs.
15
The final result for the basic forces and support reactions of the primary structure under the applied force vector is
e 6 b
Q6 = 0
15
11.25
a 8
11.25
Page 79
Step 4: Determine the basic forces Q for a unit value of each redundant from the homogeneous equilibrium equations, i.e. without any applied force vector Determine the truss element forces for Q 6 = 1 This is a force influence vector and is denoted by Bbar x. Because of the absence of applied forces this represents a self-stress state
We solve the following equations:
0 = Q1 + 0.8 Q5 0 = Q4 0.8 Q5 0 = Q2 + 0.6 Q5 0 = Q4 + 0.8 1 0 = Q3 + 0.6 1 Q4 = 0.8 Q3 = 0.6 Q5 = 1
Q1 = 0.8
Q2 = 0.6
We can also do this in matrix form, but it is easier to demonstrate in Matlab (see Example_5.m). We can then obtain the support reactions from the equations at the restrained dofs. The final result for the basic forces and support reactions becomes
e 6 b
Q6 = 1
Bbarx
f
0.8 0.6 0.6 := 0.8 1 1
a 8
Page 80
In reality, of course, the redundant basic force can assume any value (not just the value 1!). Consequently, the general solution of the equilibrium equations is a one parameter expression of the form
15 0.8 11.25 0.6 0 0.6 Q= + Q6 15 0.8 18.75 1 0 1

in the more general case of a structural model with degree of static indeterminacy NOS, there are exactly NOS redundant basic forces and we generalize the above expression as follows: the force influence vectors for each redundant get collected into a force influence matrix Bbarx and the redundant basic forces into a vector of redundant basic forces Qx . Q = Qp + Bbarx Qx We can see that the matrix Bbarx has NOS columns, one for each redundant basic force. We therefore say that the final stress state is the linear superposition of a particular solution Qp for the given applied forces, and NOS self-stress states, each of which is expressed by a column of matrix Bbarx The columns of matrix are linearly independent because we selected a unit value for each redundant in turn. Solution with Linear Algebra functions (optional) It is interesting to note that we can obtain the above solutions directly with the reduced row-echelon form function in Mathcad and Matlab. Let us see The reduced row-echelon form of the static matrix Bf is
1 0 rref ( Bf) = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0.8 1 0 0 0 0.6
0 1 0 0 0.6 0 0 1 0 0.8 0 0 0 1 1
the program selects the first 5 variables that give a unit matrix; in this case the first 5 do the job and, thus, the last variable, i.e. Q6 , is selected as the free variable or redundant, exactly as we did above. We note that the numerical values in the sixth column of the reduced row-echelon form of Bf are the first five values of the force influence matrix Bbarx with opposite sign. Recall that the sixth value for the redundant is 1.
Page 81
If we wish to obtain the particular solution automatically, then we need to perform the reduced row-echelon operation on the augmented matrix consisting of the static matrix and the applied force vector. We demonstrate it below
with the applied force vector
0 0 Pf := 0 15 0
we get
1 0 rref ( augment ( Bf , Pf) ) = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0.8 1 0 0 0 0.6 0 1 0 0 0.6 0 0 1 0 0.8 0 0 0 1 1
11.25 0 15 18.75
15
Now, the last column contains the first 5 values of the particular solution. Recall that the sixth value is 0 in this case. CONCLUSIONS: 1. The general solution of the equilibrium equations for any stable structure is made up of the particular solution for the given applied force vector (including element loading, if present) and NOS independent self-stress states, where NOS is the degree of static indeterminacy of the structure. 2. The final stress state of the structure under the given loading is then the linear superposition of the particular solution with NOS independent self-stress states with free parameters. The independence of the self-stress states is achieved by selecting each redundant in turn equal to 1, with the other redundants equal to zero. Other ways of selecting linearly independent self-stress states are possible, indeed they are ideal for solution that take advantage of the symmetry of the structure. This will be discussed later in the course.
Page 82
Script for Example 5 in CE220 class notes

% Equilibrium equations for statically indeterminate truss % % specify each step of the process with Matlab functions clear all % structure equilibrium matrix for free dof's Bf=[ 1 0 0 0 0.8 0 ; 0 0 0 -1 -0.8 0 ; 0 1 0 0 0.6 0 ; 0 0 0 1 0 0.8; 0 0 1 0 0 0.6]; % select the redundant basic force Qx (index ix) ix = 6; % define basic forces of primary structure Qi (index ii) ii = 1:5; % extract matrix Bi (equilibrium matrix of primary structure) Bi = Bf(:,ii); % check if primary structure is stable disp(['the rank of the equilibrium matrix of the primary structure is ' num2str(rank(Bi))]) the rank of the equilibrium matrix of the primary structure is 5 % define loading Pf = [0 ; 0 ; 0 ; 15 ; 0]; % determine basic element forces under the applied loading: particular solution with subscript p Qp(ii,1) = Bi\Pf; Qp(ix,1) = 0; % extract matrix Bx Bx = Bf(:,ix); % determine force influence matrix for redundant basic forces % set up only one column since NOS=1 Bbarx(ii,1) = -Bi\Bx(:,1); Bbarx(ix,1) = 1;
Page 83
% display Qp, Bxbar Qp Bbarx Qp = 15.0000 11.2500 0 15.0000 -18.7500 0 Bbarx = -0.8000 -0.6000 -0.6000 -0.8000 1.0000 1.0000 % use FEDEASLab functions % after defining equilibrium matrix Bf use it as first argument to the function ForceInfl_matrix to obtain the force influence matrices of the primary structure for the applied forces and redundants [Bbari Bbarx] = ForceInfl_matrix (Bf); Qp = Bbari*Pf Bbarx Qp = 15.0000 11.2500 0 15.0000 -18.7500 0 Bbarx = -0.8000 -0.6000 -0.6000 -0.8000 1.0000 1.0000
Page 84
Ex 6 - Equilibrium for indeterminate frame
Example 6(r) - Equilibrium equations for statically indeterminate braced frame

Structural Model Geometry
La := 6 Lb := 4 Lc := 4 Ld := 8 +6
2 2
a
Step 1: Equilibrium equations- degree of static indeterminacy Dof and basic force numbering without axial forces and corresponding equations
dof 2 dof 1 b dof 3 dof 4 c
Equilibrium equations at free dofs
P1 =
a d 6
Q1 + Q2 6
+ 0.8 Q6
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 Q3 + Q4 Q5 P3 = + 4 4
4 4
P4 = Q 4 + Q 5
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
static matrix Bf
Q6
Q1
1 6 0 Bf := 0 0
1 6 1
0 1
0 0
0 0.8 0
0 0
1 1 1 4 4 4 1 1
0 0 0
Page 85
There are 6 basic element forces and 4 equations of equilibrium at free degrees of freedom. The structural model has a degree of static indeterminacy of 2 (NOS=2). Step 2: Selection of redundant(s), primary structure Select NOS basic forces as unknowns of the problem. These are known as redundant basic forces or simply redundants. Make sure that the structure is statically determinate and stable without the NOS redundants. In the case at hand we select the basic forces Q1 and Q4 as redundants. The structure that remains when the redundants are set equal to zero is known as primary structure. Given load case
30
b
20
c
Step 3: Determine basic forces Q for given loading with redundant forces equal to zero set
Q1 = 0 Q2 6
Q4 = 0 30 80 Q6 = + 0.8 4.8 Q2 = 80 Q3 = 80 Q5 = 0 0 80 80 Qp := 0 0 30 80 + 0.8 4.8
We solve the following equations by hand:
30 =
+ 0.8 Q6
0 = Q2 + Q3 Q3 Q5 20 = + 4 4 0 = Q5
for automatic solution with rref function in Matlab see Example_6.m
check solution
30 0 Bf Qp = 20 0
ok!
Page 86
Step 4: Determine basic forces Q for a unit value of each redundant without any applied forces. set
Q1 = 1 1 + Q2 6 Q3 4
Q4 = 0 1 Q6 = 4.8 Q2 = 0
0=
+ 0.8 Q6
0 = Q2 + Q3 0= + Q5 4 Q5 = 0 Q4 = 1 Q3 = 0
0 = Q5
set
1 0 0 Bbarx 1 := 0 0 5 24
Q1 = 0
0=
Q2 6
+ 0.8 Q6 Q2 = 2 + Q5 4 Q 5 = 1
Bf Bbarx
Q6 =
2 4.8
0 = Q2 + Q3 0= Q3 + 1 4 Q 3 = 2
0 = 1 + Q5
check homogeneous solution
0 0 = 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 2 2 Bbarx 2 := 1 1 5 12
thus, we have found two independent homogeneous solutions (self-stress) states which span what is known in linear algebra as the nullspace of the static matrix Bf In reality, of course, the redundants are free parameters that can assume any value (not just the value 1!). Consequently, the general solution of the equilibrium equations is a two parameter expression of the form
0 1 0 80 0 2 80 0 2 0 + 0 Q + 1 Q Q= 1 4 0 0 1 260 5 5 4.8 24 12
or, in compact form
Q = Qp + Bbarx Qx
Page 87
We can see that the matrix Bbarx has NOS columns, one for each redundant. We therefore state that the final stress state is the linear superposition of a particular solution Qp for the given loading, and NOS self-stress states, each of which is expressed by a column of matrix Bbarx It is important to be able to establish the particular and the homogeneous solutions of the equilibrium equations of a statically indeterminate structure by inspection. This is a much faster approach for most small structures and yields significant insight into the behavior of the structure. Consider first the applied loading on the primary structure. In the following figure we have inserted moment releases at the locations of the redundants to form the primary structure. We have also replaced the element loading by equivalent nodal forces, which give the same basic forces Q (see Example 3). We decompose the loading into the horizontal force and the vertical force, as shown.
30 20
applied loading on primary structure
30
20
Decomposition of applied loading: (a) horizontal force
(b) vertical force
Page 88
Equilibrium solution for applied loading (particular solution)

80
30
b c
80/6 80
20
80
30/0.8=37.5
80/6/0.8=16.67
80/6
no bending moments arise under horizontal force! Why? The bending moment diagram is piecewise linear in the absence of element loading. It changes slope ("kink") only when the shear force changes, which in turn requires that a concentrated force acts normal to the beam axis. Looking at elements b and c no moment diagram is possible with a zero value at the moment release. Thus, the moments are zero. If so, then the moments in column element a are also zero and the solution is obtained. Equilibrium solution for unit value of first redundant there can be no shear transfer in element c because of zero moment at each end; thus, the applied force of 20 gets transferred to element b producing a moment of 80 units at the girder-column connection. The shear force in the column element is equilibrated by a tensile force in the brace.
Equilibrium solution for unit value of second redundant

Q4 = 1
2
b
1
c
2
a
1/(6x0.8)=5/24
a
2/(6x0.8)=5/12
Q1 = 1
gray circle = location with known basic force value no bending moments in elements b and c for the same reason as for particular solution; the shear force in column element a is resisted by a compressive force in the brace element d the shear force needs to remain constant across girder elements b and c, since no concentrated force acts anywhere on the girder; this leads to a value of 2 at the girder-column connection if the value at girder midspan is 1. The shear force in column element a is resisted by a compressive force in the brace element d
Page 89
We can now use the remaining 3 equilibrium equations involving the axial forces in elements a, b and c to determine the axial forces in terms of the basic forces Q (i.e. eventually in terms of the applied loading and the two redundant basic forces) Basic axial force in element a (call it Q 7 )
Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
0 = Q7 +
i.e.
Q3 + Q4 4 Q3 + Q4 4
Q7 =
Q6
Basic axial force in element b (call it Q 8 )
Q1
30 =
i.e.
Q1 + Q2 6
Q8 Q1 + Q2 6
Q8 = 30 +
Support reactions and global equilibrium

30
b
Basic axial force in element c (call it Q 9 )
20
c
P7 = Q 8 Q 9
R4
Q9 = Q8
R3 R1 R2
4 4
Using the equilibrium equations at the restrained dof's we can determine the support reactions in terms of the basic forces Q (i.e. eventually in terms of the applied loading and the two redundant basic forces) for ease of identification we call the support reactions by R and number them in sequence starting with 1
R1 = R2 =
Q1 + Q2 6 4
0.8 Q6
bypassing the axial force in the column and using the shear force in element b
Q3 + Q4
0.6 Q6
R3 = Q 1 R4 = Q5 4 + 0.6 Q6
Page 90
Remark: We can use the static matrix Bd for the restrained dofs to set up the direct relation between the support reactions and the applied loading plus the redundants. We demonstrate
1 1 0 0 0 0.8 6 6 1 1 0 0 0 0.6 4 4 Bd := 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 0.6

the support reactions of the primary structure due to the applied loading are
Rp := Bd Qp
30 12.5 Rp = 0 32.5
Rx = Bd Bbarx Qx
the support reactions due to the redundants are
thus, with
Bd Bbarx
0 0.125 = 1 0.125
0 0 0
we get
30 0 12.5 0.125 R= + Q 0 1 1 32.5 0.125
and it is easy to check global equilibrium horizontal force equilibrium vertical force equilibrium moments about left support Remarks: (a) this solution demonstrates the utility of matrix notation in establishing direct relationships between variables; in this example the relation between the support reactions and the redundants of the structure (b) it is interesting that there are no support reactions due to the redundant Q4 ; can you explain why?
R1 + 30 = 0 R2 + R4 20 = 0 R3 30 6 20 4 + R4 8 = 0
ok ok ok, because
30 6 20 4 + 32.5 8 = 0
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% Equilibrium equations for statically indeterminate braced frame
specify each step of the process with Matlab functions

clear all % equilibrium matrix for non-trivial free dof's w/o axial forces in a-c Bf=[1/6 1/6 0 0 0 0.8; 0 1 1 0 0 0 ; 0 0 -1/4 -1/4 1/4 0 ; 0 0 0 1 1 0]; % select redundant basic forces Qx (index ix) ix=[1 4]; % define basic forces of primary structure Qi (index ii) ii=setdiff(1:6,ix); % extract matrix Bi (equilibrium matrix of primary structure) Bi=Bf(:,ii); % check if primary structure is stable disp(['the rank of the equilibrium matrix of the primary structure is ' num2str(rank(Bi))]) the rank of the equilibrium matrix of the primary structure is 4
define loading
Pf=[30 ; 0 ; -20 ; 0]; % determine basic element forces of primary structure under the applied loading Qp(ii,1) = Bi\Pf; Qp(ix,1) = [0; 0]; % extract matrix Bx Bx=Bf(:,ix); % determine force influence matrix for redundant basic forces % set up 1st column Bbarx(ii,1) = -Bi\Bx(:,1); Bbarx(ix,1) = [1;0]; % set up 2nd column Bbarx(ii,2) =-Bi\Bx(:,2); Bbarx(ix,2) = [0;1];
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% display Qp, Bbarx Qp Bbarx Qp = 0 -80.0000 80.0000 0 0 54.1667 Bbarx = 1.0000 0 0 2.0000 0 -2.0000 0 1.0000 0 -1.0000 -0.2083 -0.4167

% after defining equilibrium matrix Bf use it as first argument to the function ForceInfl_matrix to obtain the force influence matrices of the primary structure for the applied forces and redundants; in order to use specific basic forces as redundants, these need to be last among the columns of the equilibrium matrix; the order is the second argument of ForceInfl_matrix (optional) [Bbari Bbarx] = ForceInfl_matrix (Bf,[ip ii]); Qp = Bbari*Pf Bbarx Qp = 0 -80.0000 80.0000 0 0 54.1667 Bbarx = 1.0000 0 0 2.0000 0 -2.0000 0 1.0000 0 -1.0000 -0.2083 -0.4167
Page 93
Equilibrium
Collapse load factor of perfectly plastic structures

Lower bound theorem of plastic analysis: any equilibrium solution that satisfies the plastic condition results in a load factor which is a lower bound of the collapse load factor c Mathematically this is expressed as follows: the collapse load factor is the maximum load factor that satisfies the equilibrium equations and the plastic condition. This is a linear programming problem for which algorithms exist in numerical analysis toolboxes, like Matlab (optimization toolbox) and Mathcad.
c = max
for Pref = Bf Q + Pfu
and
Q Qpl
Note that Pref, contains the applied forces to be factored and Pfu the applied forces that remain constant in the equilibrium equations. We write the above statement in a single set of equations for the unknowns and Q.
max 1 0 Q Pref Bf = Pfu Q + 0 I Qpl 0 I Q Qpl
with solution
c where c stands for collapse Q c
FEDEASLab function LowerBound_PLAnalysis takes the static matrix for the free dofs, the plastic capacity array, the reference load vector and the constant load vector and returns the collapse load factor and the basic element forces at collapse.
[lamdac,Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Bf,Qpl,Pref,Pfu)
Examples 7, 8 and 9 discuss plastic analysis from different standpoints, including the case of partial collapse.
Page 94
Equilibrium
Complete or partial collapse mode for structure

write the equilibrium equations at collapse in the form cPref = BeQce + B pQcp isolating the contribution of the elastic and plastic basic forces on the right hand side, with subscript e denoting the elastic basic forces and subscript p the plastic. The static matrix is split into corresponding submatrices. For perfectly plastic behavior of the structural elements the plastic basic forces are known, as is the collapse load factor (trial and error or linear programming solution for locating the plastic hinges and determining the collapse load factor). We can then determine the elastic basic forces to satisfy the equilibrium equations
cPref B pQcp = BeQce

The properties of the static matrix Be determine whether a unique solution for the elastic basic forces is possible or not from the above system of equilibrium equations. It is useful to recall that the static matrix Bf has NOS more columns than rows. Thus, if NOS+1 plastic hinges form, meaning that we remove NOS+1 columns in Bp from Bf, then the remaining static matrix Be has a number of rows one greater than the number of columns. The rank of the matrix is now one less than the number of rows indicating that the structure with NOS+1 plastic hinges is unstable. We say that the structure has turned into a mechanism with a single independent dof . However, a unique solution for the elastic basic forces is possible, because the vector on the left hand side of the above equilibrium equations lies in the column space of the static matrix Be, i.e. it is a linear combination of the columns of Be with Qce being the combination factors (see Strang, 3rd edition, pp. 65-66). This case represents a complete collapse mode. If plastic hinges form at less than NOS+1 locations, then the static matrix Be has more unknowns than available linearly independent equations (recall that the rank of the matrix is one less than the number of rows). In such case there are multiple solutions for the elastic basic forces and these can be obtained in systematic fashion as we did for statically indeterminate structures in Examples 5 and 6. We demonstrate this in Example 9. We speak of a partial collapse mode, for which there is no unique solution of the elastic basic forces.
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Ex. 7 - Plastic analysis of simple truss
Example 7(r) - Plastic analysis of simple truss

Objectives: (a) use equilibrium equations to determine collapse load factor of simple truss by trial and error In the following example we illustrate the application of the equilibrium equations to the plastic analysis and collapse load determination of a simple truss. The process is the same for any structure.
(10) (10) a
The axial capacity in tension or compression of the truss elements of the structural model in the figure is given. It is equal to 10 units of force. The loading here is specified more generally than what we have seen so far. The actual forces applied on the structure consist of reference force values, which define the load pattern. These are arranged in a reference force vector Pref. This force vector is then multiplied by a load factor to give the applied force vector Pf. For the example at hand this means that Pref :=
10 10
and
Pf = Pref
Note that the load factor is assumed to be greater than zero, i.e. load reversal is not allowed. The equilibrium equations are straightforward in this case:
P1 = Q1 + 0.8Q2 P2 = 0.6 Q2 + Q3
10 = Q1 + 0.8Q2 10 = 0.6 Q2 + Q3
There are two equilibrium equations and 3 unknown basic element forces. Thus, the degree of static indeterminacy is NOS=1. With the load factor on the left hand side of the equations unknown that there are 4 unknowns for two available equations (the excess number of unknowns is thus NOS+1, i.e. the number of redundants of the structural model + the load factor). We now ask the following question: what is the largest load factor that the structure can resist? Looking at the above equilibrium equations it is easy to conclude that the largest load factor results when the basic forces Q 1 through Q3 are as large as possible. These basic forces cannot exceed, however, the axial capacity of the element. Thus, there is a limit to how large can become.
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In fact, from the sign of the applied forces and the sign of the basic forces we conclude that the largest l will be attained for positive (tensile) basic forces Q1 through Q3 Since there are 2 equilibrium equations in 4 unknowns we need to "guess" which two basic forces reach the axial capacity. We can do this with insight, or, we can simply apply trial and error. Since there are only 3 alternatives for the case at hand, we apply the latter method which yields some interesting information. Our first guess is that the largest collapse load factor results when truss elements a and b reach the axial capacity. With this assumption we get set
Q1 = 10
Q2 = 10
= 1.8
from the first equation we determine
substituting these into the second equation we obtain
Q3 = 12
Since no basic force can exceed the axial capacity, this is not a feasible solution. The second guess is that the largest collapse load factor results when truss elements a and c reach the axial capacity. With this assumption we get set
Q1 = 10
Q3 = 10
10 = 10 + 0.8Q2 10 = 0.6 Q2 + 10
The two equations read
by inspection we conclude that the solution is
= 1.0
Q2 = 0
The third and final guess is that that the largest collapse load factor results when truss elements b and c reach the axial capacity. With this assumption we get set
Q2 = 10
Q3 = 10
= 1.6
from the second equation we determine
substituting these values into the first equation we get Definition:
Q1 = 8
which is smaller than the axial capacity
(a) the plastic condition expresses the fact that the basic forces cannot exceed the axial capacity (b) a feasible solution is any and set of Q's that satisfies the equilibrium equations and the plastic condition Conclusion: There are two feasible solutions for the problem at hand. The largest load factor corresponds to the case when truss elements b and c reach the axial capacity. We call this value the collapse load factor c of the structure for the given loading. For this example it is equal to 1.6. the corresponding axial forces are
Q1 = 8
Q2 = 10
Q3 = 10
for
c := 1.6
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We denote the basic forces at collapse with Qc and can confirm once more the equilibrium equations
8 Qc := 10 10
Bf :=
1 0.8 0 0 0.6 1
Bf Qc =
16 16
c Pref =
16 16
good!
In this problem we were able to check all possible solutions and then select the solution with the largest collapse load factor among the feasible solutions. Thus, we are sure to have found the solution. In more complex structures it is not possible to check all feasible solutions. Thus, an additional condition becomes necessary to ensure that we have reached the unique solution of the problem. We will discuss this in due time. For now, we wish to formulate the problem that we solved in a mathematical way, so that we can use matrix methods to solve it for structural models of any size. Problem formulation: determine the largest load factor and the corresponding set of basic forces Q that satisfy the equilibrium equations and the plastic condition. We realize that the problem involves the maximization of a function (the collapse load factor), under equality (equilibrium) and inequality constraints (plastic condition). The function and the constraints are linear in the unknowns of the problem. This constitutes a linear programming problem for the solution of which there exist powerful algorithms. Mathcad and Matlab have such algorithms and we will demonstrate these in the following example. For now, we give a name to the problem of finding the largest load factor that satisfies the equilibrium equations and the plastic condition: it is called the lower bound theorem of plastic analysis. The name stems from the fact that any that satisfies the equilibrium equations and the plastic condition is a lower bound of the collapse load factor c. Thus, the collapse load factor c is the maximum that satisfies the equilibrium equations and the plastic condition, as we have already stated. Note: we have not used any information about cross section or material properties for the solution of the problem. In reality, the axial capacity is area * yield strength, so that both geometric and material properties are involved in its determination. Thus, the design of the structure is required before its collapse load factor can be determined under a given loading.
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Example 8 - Plastic Analysis
Example 8 - Plastic Analysis of Portal Frame

Objectives: (a) use equilibrium equations to determine collapse load factor of portal frame by hand calculations (b) determine plastic flexural hinge location at collapse (c) formulate the problem as linear programming problem to obtain solution by computer (d) consider the effect of factored or unfactored distributed element load (optional)
50 30
Given: (a) load pattern (b) plastic flexural capacity of girder, i.e. elements b, and c is 120 units (c) plastic flexural capacity of columns, i.e. elements a and c is 150 units (d) axial capacity of all elements is large (e) effect of axial force on flexural capacity is negligible
We avoid writing the equations of equilibrium involving longitudinal basic forces, so as to reduce the problem size. We note that the collapse load factor is not affected, because of (d). Without the longitudinal basic forces there are 8 basic forces (2 for each element) and 5 corresponding equilibrium equations.
2 1 3 4
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
The equilibrium equations are:
Q2
Q7
5
P1 =
Q1 + Q2
Q1
4 4
Q8
5 5 P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 Q3 + Q4 Q5 + Q6 P3 = + 4 4 P4 = Q 4 + Q 5 P5 = Q 6 + Q 7
Q7 + Q8
the reference applied force vector for the given loading is
30 0 Pref := 50 0 0
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b 120

c 120
The following flexural capacities are given under the assumption that the positive and negative capacity is the same.
a 150
150 d
We plan to solve this problem in trial and error fashion before using linear programming functions to get the solution by computer. We note first that there are 5 equilibrium equations for 8 unknown basic forces, meaning that the degree of static indeterminacy NOS is three, i.e. NOS=3. We also note that there are 5 possible plastic flexural hinge locations (we denote the locations by the corresponding subscript of the basic force): at the base of each column, i.e. at 1 and 8, at the girder ends at the girder-column connection, i.e. at 3 and 6, and at the girder midspan, i.e. either at 4 or 5. Note that no plastic flexural hinge is possible at the top of the columns, since their flexural capacity is larger than that of the girder ("strong column" design). For each of these locations a positive or negative value is possible, i.e. there are 5x2 = 10 possible outcomes, at least as long as we do not use structural insight to eliminate unlikely outcomes. For a complete collapse (more in the following example) we need NOS+1 = 4 plastic flexural hinges for getting a solution to the problem, and so there are 210 possible combinations!!
combin ( 10 , 4) = 210
this is indeed a very large number for such a small problem, imagine what would happen in a multi-story frame!
We can now use the signs of the terms in the equilibrium equations to reduce the number of possible outcomes to an extremely small number (many people call this process "insight into structural behavior"). we first specialize the equilibrium equations for the given loading
30 =
Q1 + Q2 5
Q7 + Q8 5
(1) (2)
0 = Q2 + Q3 ( 50) = 0 = Q4 + Q5 0 = Q6 + Q7 Q3 + Q4 4 + Q5 + Q6 4
(3) (4) (5)
and then take advantage of the fact that plastic hinges can occur at 1, 3, 4, 6 and 8 to retain only the basic forces at these locations in equations (1) and (2) after making use of moment equations (2), (4) and (5). We get:
30 =
Q1 Q3 5 4
Q 6 + Q 8 5 + Q 4 + Q 6 4
(1*)
for largest Q1 , and Q8 should be positive, Q3 and Q6 should be negative for largest Q3 , and Q4 should be positive, Q6 should be negative
50 =
Q3 + Q4
(3*)
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Thus, we have reached some very specific conclusions regarding the signs of the basic forces at the likely plastic hinge locations. The only contradiction regards Q3 which according to (1*) should be negative, and according to (3*) should be positive. This is a strong indication that no plastic flexural hinge is likely to occur at 3, as long as neither applied force in the above equations dominates. Why? Because the preceding discussion indicates the opposite effect that the horizontal force has on Q3 relative to the vertical force. Only when the horizontal force is very large a hinge will form at 3 with negative value. Only when the vertical force at girder midspan is very large, a hinge will form at 3 with positive value. For the problem at hand, we will assume first than neither force is very "large" (note that we have no criterion what this means, so we need to be cautious). Then, we will check the other possibilities just to be sure. Note: studying the deformed shape of the structure gives good insight of what happens, but not as good as the equilibrium equations. Let us see why. Here are the bending moments under each applied force separately (draw an approximate deformed shape for each load case)
We see that the moments at locations 6 and 8 act in the same sense under these two load cases. Thus, plastic hinges are a sure bet at these two locations with the indicated signs (-ve for 6 and +ve for 8). The next likely hinge location is at 4 and then it is not clear whether 1 or 3 is the most critical. This depends on the relative magnitude of the horizontal and vertical force, as we have already discussed. After this preliminary discussion we have one very strong candidate for the collapse load factor (instead of 210!). It is the following case plastic hinges at 1, 4, 6 and 8
Q1 = 150
Q4 = 120
Q6 = 120
Q8 = 150
We substitute these values into the equilibrium equations and obtain
30 =
150 Q3 5 4
120 + 150 + 5
+ 120 120 4
30 =
Q3 5
+
420 5
50 =
Q3 + 120
50 =
Q3 4
360 4
We use the Given Block in Mathcad to solve the two simultaneous equations
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with initial guess values
Given
30 = 50 =
:= 0 Q3 := 0
Q3 5
+
420 5
Q3 4
360 4
= 2.229
:= Find( , Q3) Q3
Q3 = 85.714
we have determined a feasible solution, since Q3 is smaller than the flexural capacity at that location. Is this the largest load factor, i.e. is it the collapse load factor? Let us see what happens if we assume that a plastic hinge arises at 3 either because the horizontal force is "large", i.e. using eq (1*), or because the vertical force is "large", i.e. using eq (3*). With eq (1*) we assume
Q1 := 150
:=
Q3 := 120
Q6 := 120
Q8 := 150
1 Q 1 Q 3 Q 6 + Q 8 + 5 5 30 Q3 4 Q6
= 3.6
the load factor is now much larger; is this a feasible solution? from eq (3*) we get
Q4 := 2 50 Q3 := 120
:=
Q4 = 360 not feasible since larger than 120! Q6 := 120

note that only 3 values are req'd
With eq (3*) we assume
Q4 := 120
1 Q 3 + Q 4 Q 4 + Q 6 + 50 4 4
= 2.4
the load factor is again larger; is this a feasible solution? we substitute in equation (1*) to obtain
30 =
Q1 Q3 5
Q 6 + Q 8
Q1 + Q8 = 150 + Q3 + Q6
i.e.
Q1 + Q8 = 360
it is clear from the last equation that the solution is not feasible, since there is no way to select values for Q1 and Q8 that satisfy the horizontal force equilibrium without exceeding the flexural capacity of the column. Thus, it is clear that there can be no plastic hinge at 3. Is there another solution? It does not seem possible in this case, since we do not seem to have further equilibrium solutions. Nonetheless, we will be able to answer this definitively, once we look at the collapse mechanism later in the course.
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Automatic solution with linear programming Let us now look at a computer solution. For this we need to write the static matrix of the structural model
0.2 0 Bf := 0 0 0
0.2 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0.2 0.2 0 0 0 1 0
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
0 0 0
so that the equilibrium equations become Pf = Bf Q with Pf = Pref
We specify the plastic moment capacities of the elements in a vector with the same numbering as the basic forces vector. This way we can write the inequality in very compact form. plastic moment capacities T Qpl := ( 150 150 120 120 120 120 150 150 )
The determination of the collapse load factor of any structure can be formulated as a linear programming problem. To this end we define the function to maximize subject to given equality and inequality constraints. In a structural problem the unknowns are the load factor and the basic forces. The function to maximize is the load factor . The equality constraint are the equilibrium equations, and the inequality constraints are the yield conditions stating that the basic forces cannot exceed the plastic capacity of the member (positive or negative). Mathcad has a built-in linear programming function called Maximize (there is also Minimize). We define the function for our purposes and supply guess values for the start of the search. function to maximize
g ( , Q) :=
:= 0
Q := 0 8 note that this statement sets to zero the entire array
We then specify the equality and inequality constraints in a "Given" block, as follows
Given
Pref = Bf Q Q Qpl Q Qpl
equality constraint (equilibrium equations) inequality constraints (plastic condition)
Note that we need to specify both negative and positive capacities, which affords the possibility of specifying different capacity values We invoke the Maximize function with the name of the function and the variables. Mathcad returns the solution in a nested array, here called Sol.
Sol := Maximize ( g , , Q)
2.229 150 85.714 85.714 Sol = 120 120 120 120 150
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We can extract the collapse load factor as the first element of the nested array Sol. Collapse load factor is:
c := Sol1
c = 2.229
and the basic forces at collapse as the second element of the nested array Sol. Qc := Sol2 T Qc = ( 150 85.714 85.714 120 120 120 120 150 ) We confirm that the plastic hinges have formed at 1, 4(5), 6 and 8. Substituting Q into the equilibrium equations we should be able to confirm the collapse load factor.
66.857 0 c Pref = 111.429 0 0
Bf Qc
66.857 0 = 111.429 0 0
confirmed
We will show later that the collapse mechanism of this structure under the given loading is
2.229*50 2.229*30
Note: the plastic hinge can be either at 4 or 5; this creates an ambiguity that is, however, not relevant
Page 104
After determining the flexural basic element forces we use element equilibrium to determine the transverse (shear) forces and then use node equilibrium at the free dofs to determine the axial forces. It is important to recall that the applied forces should be multiplied by load factor . The following figure illustrates the determination of the shear forces.
2.229*30 12.86 51.43 85.71 12.86 51.43 51.43 120 60 60 54 2.229*50 60 120 54
12.86
54 150 150
We conclude that the axial force in the left column is 51.43 (C), and in the right column it is 60 (C). The axial force in the girder is 54 (C). The following figure shows the support reactions
2.229*50 2.229*30
Check of global equilibrium
sum of forces in X
5
51.43 2.229 50 + 60 = 0.02

sum of forces in Y
150 12.86 51.43 4 4
150 54 60
2.229 30 12.86 54 = 0.01
moment equilibrium about left support
150 2.229 30 5 2.229 50 4 + 150 + 60 8 = 0.15
Page 105
Load Case: Factored distributed load in left half of girder (optional) We change the loading to a distributed load in the left half of the girder. The magnitude of the distributed load is such that the equivalent vertical force at node 3 remains equal to 50. Consequently, the distributed element load value is 50/2 = 25 units of load/per unit length. The force vectors in the equilibrium equations change, but the end effect is the same, as long as it assumed that both the applied nodal force and the distributed element load are factored. Consequently, the collapse load factor does not change, as the following calculations reveal.
30 0 0 0 Pref := 0 50 0 0 0 0
Given
Pref = Bf Q
Q Qpl
distributed load effect moved from right hand side of equilibrium equations
equality constraint
Q Qpl
inequality constraints
We invoke the Maximize function with the name of the function and the variables. Mathcad returns the solution in a nested array, here called Sol.
Sol := Maximize ( f , , Q)
2.229 150 85.714 85.714 Sol = 120 120 120 120 150
u = 2.229
We can extract the collapse load factor as the first element of the nested array Sol. Upper bound load factor is: u := Sol1
The same answer is also obtained with Matlab. See Example_8.m
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We show the flexural basic forces in element free bodies and determine the shear forces.
2.229*30 12.86 60 85.71 12.86 162.88 60
2.229*25=55.725 54 60 120 120 60 60 54
12.86
54 150 150
We determine the maximum moment at the left girder element. It is
60
2 u 25
+ 120 = 152.308
This clearly exceeds the plastic moment capacity. Thus, the collapse load factor is not correct. If we scale down, the left and the right hand side of the equilibrium equations, so that the maximum moment just reaches the plastic moment capacity we have a lower bound that satisfies equilibrium and the plastic condition. It is
l := u
120 152.308
l = 1.756
From this we can only conclude that the actual collapse load factor c is between 1.756 and 2.229. Since the difference between the two values is significant, we need to repeat the analysis by inserting another node at the expected location of the maximum moment. Instead of the exact location of maximum moment (which will change after inserting the node!), we place the extra node at midspan of element b. We perform this analysis in Matlab (see Example_8.m)
Page 107
Load Case: Constant distributed load in left half of girder (optional) How does the above result change if the distributed element load is not factored? In this case the system of equilibrium equations becomes
30 0 Pref := 0 0 0
Given
Pfw
0 0 := 50 0 0
Pref = Bf Q + Pfw
Q Qpl
equality constraint
Q Qpl
3.6 150 120 120 Sol = 100 100 120 120 150
u := Sol1 u = 3.6
We can extract the collapse load factor as the first element of the nested array Sol. Upper bound for load factor is:
The result is now very different, of course and the plastic hinge locations have changed.
Page 108
We show the flexural basic forces in element free bodies and determine the shear forces.
3.6*30 54 55 120 54 45 55
25 54
55 120 100 55 55 54
54
54 150 150
We determine the maximum moment at the left girder element. It is
55 + 100 = 160.5 2 25
This exceeds again the plastic moment capacity. Can you obtain an estimate of the lower bound? A more exact analysis is obtained with Matlab, see Example_8.m
Page 109
Script for Example 8a in CE220 class notes

% Plastic analysis of one story portal frame (consult pp. 84-94) solution with Matlab functions and FEDEASLab function LowerBound_PLAnalysis % Clear workspace memory and initialize global variables CleanStart
set up equilibrium matrix w/o axial forces in frame members

Bf = [0.2 0 0 0 0 0.2 1 0 0 0 0 1 -0.25 0 0 0 0 -0.25 1 0 0 0 0.25 1 0 0 0 0.25 0 1 0.2 0 0 0 1 0.2; 0 ; 0 ; 0 ; 0 ];
specify applied force vector at free dof's for load case of nodal forces
Pref = [ 30; 0; -50; 0; 0];
define plastic flexural capacity of elements in a column vector (2 entries per element)
Qpl = [ 150 150 120 120 120 120 150 150]';
call function for lower bound plastic analysis in FEDEASLab

[lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Bf,Qpl,Pref); disp(' The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is'); disp(lambdac); disp(' The basic forces Q at collapse are'); disp(Qc); Optimization terminated. The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is 2.2286 The basic forces Q at collapse are 150.0000 -85.7143 85.7143 120.0000 -120.0000 -120.0000 120.0000 150.0000
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load case of distributed element load in left half of girder (factored)

% consult pp. 91-92 in class notes: assume that a plastic hinge may form at midspan of element b % redefine equilibrium matrix, applied force vector, and plastic capacity vector Bf = [0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.2; 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 -0.5 -0.5 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -0.5 -0.5 0.25 0.25 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0]; Pref = [ 30; 0; -50; 0; -25; 0; 0]; Qpl = [ 150 150 120 120 120 120 120 120 150 150]';

[lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Bf,Qpl,Pref); disp(' The collapse load factor for factored distributed load is'); disp(lambdac); disp(' The basic forces Q at collapse are'); disp(Qc); Optimization terminated. The collapse load factor for factored distributed load is 2.1882 The basic forces Q at collapse are 150.0000 -91.7647 91.7647 120.0000 -120.0000 112.9412 -112.9412 -120.0000 120.0000 150.0000
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load case of distributed element load in left half of girder (not factored)
% redefine applied force vector only Pref = [ 30; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0]; Pfw =[ 0; 0; 50; 0; 25; 0; 0];

[lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Bf,Qpl,Pref,Pfw); disp(' The collapse load factor for unfactored distributed load is'); disp(lambdac); disp(' The basic forces Q at collapse are'); disp(Qc); Optimization terminated. The collapse load factor for unfactored distributed load is 3.2444 The basic forces Q at collapse are 150.0000 66.6667 -66.6667 120.0000 -120.0000 73.3333 -73.3333 -120.0000 120.0000 150.0000
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Script for Example 8b in CE220 class notes

% Plastic analysis of one story portal frame (consult pp. 84-94) solution entirely with FEDEASLab functions
Clear workspace memory and initialize global variables

CleanStart % define XYZ(1,:) XYZ(2,:) XYZ(3,:) XYZ(4,:) XYZ(5,:) model geometry = [ 0 0]; % first node = [ 0 5]; % second node, etc = [ 4 5]; % = [ 8 5]; % = [ 8 0]; %
create Model
2 2 3 3 4
% axial force capacity is "very large" Qpl = [1e5 150 150 1e5 120 120 1e5 120 120 1e5 150 150]';
Page 113

specify loading
Pe(2,1) = 30; Pe(3,2) = -50; % force at node 2 in direction X % force at node 3 in direction Y
% generate data object Loading Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); % extract applied force vector Pf at free dofs from Loading field Pref Pref = Loading.Pref;

[lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Bf,Qpl,Pref); disp(' The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is'); disp(lambdac); disp(' The basic forces Q at collapse are'); disp(Qc); % open window and plot moment diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Qc);
% open window and show plastic hinge locations Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_PlasticHinges (Model,Qpl,Qc);
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% we can also show the plastic hinge locations in the same window as the moment diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Qc); Plot_PlasticHinges (Model,Qpl,Qc); Optimization terminated. The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is 2.2286 The basic forces Q at collapse are -51.4286 150.0000 -85.7143 -54.0000 85.7143 120.0000 -54.0000 -120.0000 -120.0000 -60.0000 120.0000 150.0000
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Example 9 - Partial Collapse
Example 9 - Plastic Analysis of Braced Frame with Partial Collapse

Objectives: (a) use equilibrium equations to determine collapse load factor of portal frame by linear programming (b) study basic force distribution for partial collapse
40 30 4 d 5 e 6
Given: (a) load pattern (b) plastic flexural capacity of horizontal elements a, b, d and e is 100 units (c) plastic flexural capacity of vertical element c is 150 units (d) axial capacity of brace element f is 20 units (e) elements a through e have very large axial capacity (f) effect of axial force on flexural capacity of any element is negligible
2 1 a 6 b 6
1 3 4
Q7 Q6
Q5
Q8
Q4
2
Q1
Q2
Q3
Global dof numbering (eq equations) without those affected by longitudinal basic forces in elements a through e. The basic forces are also numbered accordingly. The equilibrium equations are:
P1 =
Q1 + Q2 6
Q3 6
Q6 6
Q7 6
+ 0.8 Q8
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 4 P3 = Q4 + Q5 8 0.6 Q8
P4 = Q 5 + Q 6 + Q 7
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which can also be written in matrix form as
Pf = Bf Q
with
1 6 0 Bf := 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 6 6 6 6 1 1 0 0 1 1 8 8 0 0 1
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 0.6 1 0
0.8
the applied force vector Pf results from a reference force vector Pref (load pattern) multiplied with a load factor
40 0 Pref := 30 0
Define the plastic moment capacities of the member in an array.
plastic moment capacities
100 100 100 150 Qpl := 150 100 100 20
The determination of the collapse load factor of any structure can be formulated as a linear programming problem. To this end we define the function to maximize subject to given equality and inequality constraints. In a structural problem the unknowns are the load factor and the basic forces. The equality constraint is the set of equilibrium equations, and the inequality constraints are the so-called plastic conditions, which state that the basic forces should not exceed the plastic capacity of the member (positive or negative). Mathcad has a built-in linear programming function called Maximize (there is also Minimize). We define the function for our purposes and supply guess values for the start of the search. function to maximize
g ( , Q) :=
:= 0
Q := 0 8 note that this statement sets to zero the entire array
We then specify the equality and inequality constraints in a "Given" block, as follows
Given Pref = Bf Q
Q Qpl equality constraint
Q Qpl
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1.442 100 0 100 Sol = 100 150 50 100 20

c := Sol1 c = 1.442
We can extract the collapse load factor as the first element of the nested array Sol. Collapse load factor is:
and the basic forces at collapse as the second element of the nested array Sol. Qc := Sol2 T Qc = ( 100 0 100 100 150 50 100 20 ) Interestingly, Matlab's linear programming function returns a different set of basic forces for the solution. In both cases, however, the collapse load factor c is the same. The collapse load factor is unique while the solution for the basic forces is not! Why is this happening? Let us first list the solution by Matlab:
40 30 4 d 5 e 6
T Qc.matlab := ( 100 50 100 150 100 0 100 20 )
2 1 a 6 b 6
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We note that both solutions agree at 1, 3, 7 and 8, and that the plastic capacities are reached at these locations. We conclude, therefore, that these plastic hinge locations are unique. The rest of the basic forces is not unique. What does this mean? (a) for a unique solution of the basic forces we require plastic hinges to form at NOS+1 locations, converting the equilibrium problem to a unique solution (NOS basic forces more than available equations + collapse load factor c require NOS+1 values among the unknowns to be given; these values are the basic forces at the plastic hinge locations). (b) if plastic hinges form at less than NOS+1 locations, we speak of a partial collapse. In the case of the example we have NOS=4 and 4 plastic hinges at collapse. We are therefore left with 5 unknowns, i.e. the other 4 basic forces + the collapse load factor. Since the values for these 5 unknowns are unique at collapse, we are actually left with 3 independent equilibrium equations in 4 unknown basic forces (recall that the structure becomes unstable at collapse). This is a statically indeterminate problem and its general solution has one parameter (one redundant basic force). We have studied such problems earlier. How do we identify this static indeterminacy? By studying the rank of the equilibrium matrix without the columns corresponding to the plastic hinges. We call this matrix Be
1 6 1 Be := 0 0
1 0 0 6 1 0 1 1 8 8 0 1 0
0 1
rank ( Be) = 3
we note that the rank of the equilibrium matrix for the elastic portion of the structure is 3 and not 4. This means that only 3 columns of the matrix are linearly independent. The mathematicians speak of the column space of matrix Be having dimension 3.
Solving for the remaining elastic basic forces at incipient collapse since the collapse load factor c and the basic forces at the plastic hinge locations are known at this point from the linear programming problem we solve the equilibrium equations for the remaining basic forces
c Pref = B eQ ce + B pQ cp c Pref B pQ cp = B eQ ce
Because matrix Be has rank 3 and not 4, such a system of equations does not generally have a solution except for the very special case of the left hand side vector lying in the column space of the matrix Be . This is indeed the case at incipient collapse of a structure in a partial collapse mode. To see this we determine the rank of the matrix that consists of the left hand side "load vector" next to the elastic equilibrium matrix Be let us first form the left hand side in the above equation
1 6 Bp := 0 0 0
1 1 6 6 1 0 0 1
0.8 0 0
0 0 0.6
100 100 Qcp := 100 20
LHS := c Pref Bp Qcp
8.333 100 LHS = 31.25 100
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Here is the rank of the matrix that results from placing the left hand side load vector next to Be
rank ( augment ( Be , LHS) ) = 3
indeed, the rank is still 3, which means that the column of the applied load vector lies in the space spanned by the columns of Be , i.e. it a linear combination of these columns
In such case where the load vector lies in the space spanned by the columns of the equilibrium matrix, even though the rank of the matrix is less than the number of rows, and the matrix is thus singular, there is a m-n parameter solution for the elastic basic forces at incipient collapse Qce, with m being the number of unknown elastic basic forces and n the dimension of the column space or rank of matrix Be . In our example, m=4, n=3 and there is a one parameter general solution which we now seek. We use the method of Examples 5 and 6. We select the last basic force in vector Qce (i.e. Q6 ) equal to zero and solve for the values of the other 3 under the given left hand side load vector. We obtain the following particular solution (recall that we have used the subscript p for the particular solution in Examples 5 and 6). In the following we drop the subscript c to avoid having to deal with 3 subscripts. It is clear from the context that we are referring to forces at collapse
50 150 Qep := 100 0
a quick check confirms that
Be Qep
8.333 100 = 31.25 100
is indeed equal to the left hand side load vector
Then we set the last basic force in vector Qce (i.e. Q6 ) equal to 1 and determine the values of the other 3 forces from the 4 equilibrium equations (this solution is known as the nullspace of Be ).
We obtain
1 1 Bbarxe := 1 1
a quick check confirms that
0 0 Be Bbarxe = 0 0
The general solution for the elastic basic forces at incipient collapse is
Qce = Qep + Bbarxe Q 6
The Mathcad solution above is obtained with
Q6 := 50
0 100 Qep + Bbarxe ( 50) = 150 50 50 150 Qep + Bbarxe ( 0) = 100 0
and the Matlab solution with
Q6 := 0
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% Plastic analysis with partial collapse mechanism % solution with Matlab functions and FEDEASLab function LowerBound_PLAnalysis % Clear workspace memory and initialize global variables CleanStart
set up equilibrium matrix w/o axial forces in frame members

Bf = [-1/6 0 0 0 -1/6 1 0 0 1/6 1 0 0 0 1 1/8 0 0 0 1/8 1 -1/6 0 0 1 1/6 0 0 1 0.8 0 -0.6 0 ; ; ; ];
specify applied force vector at free dof's for load case of nodal forces
Pref = [-40; 0; 30; 0];
Qpl = [ 100 100 100 150 150 100 100 20]';

[lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Bf,Qpl,Pref); disp(' The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is'); disp(lambdac); disp(' The basic forces Q at collapse are'); disp(Qc); Optimization terminated. The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is 1.4417 The basic forces Q at collapse are 100 -50 -100 150 100 0 -100 -20
rank of equilibrium matrix for structure with plastic hinges at incipient collapse
% basic force index at plastic hinge locations ip = [1 3 7 8]; % basic force index at non-plastic locations (subscript e for elastic) ie = setdiff(1:8,ip); % left hand side of equilibrium equations (consult pp. 101 in class notes) LHS = lambdac*Pref - Bf(:,ip)*Qc(ip);
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% remainder of equilibrium matrix (elastic part) Be = Bf(:,ie); disp('number of rows of elastic part of equilibrium matrix'); disp(size(Be,1)) disp('rank of elastic part of equilibrium matrix'); disp(rank(Be)) % check that the load vector lies in the column space of elastic equilibrium matrix disp('rank of elastic part of equilibrium matrix with load vector placed alongside') disp(rank([Be LHS])) number of rows of elastic part of equilibrium matrix 4 rank of elastic part of equilibrium matrix 3 rank of elastic part of equilibrium matrix with load vector placed alongside 3
general solution for elastic basic forces

% particular solution for given left hand side (last elastic basic force = 0) Qep = zeros(4,1); Qep(1:3) = Be(1:3,1:3)\LHS(1:3); disp('the particular solution for the elastic basic forces is'); disp(Qep); % determine the homogeneous solution using the nullspace command of Matlab Bbarxe = null(Be,'r'); disp('the homogeneous solution for the elastic basic forces is'); disp(Bbarxe); the particular solution for the elastic basic forces is -50.0000 150.0000 100.0000 0 the homogeneous solution for the elastic basic forces is -1 1 -1 1
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% Plastic analysis with partial collapse mechanism % solution entirely with FEDEASLab functions % Clear workspace memory and initialize global variables CleanStart % define XYZ(1,:) XYZ(2,:) XYZ(3,:) XYZ(4,:) XYZ(5,:) XYZ(6,:) model geometry = [ 0 0]; % first node = [ 6 0]; % second node, etc = [ 12 0]; % = [ 0 8]; % = [ 6 8]; % = [ 12 8]; %
% element connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 2 5]; CON { 4} = [ 4 5]; CON { 5} = [ 5 6]; CON { 6} = [ 3 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1 1]; BOUN(3,:) = [ 0 1 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [ 0 1 0]; BOUN(6,:) = [ 0 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:5}] = deal('2dFrm'); ElemName{6} = 'Truss'; 0 = free) (specify only restrained
% 2d frame element % truss element
create Model
4 4 5 5 6
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% axial force capacity is "very large" except for brace (truss) element Qpl = [ 1e5 100 100 1e5 100 100 1e5 150 150 1e5 100 100 1e5 100 100 20]';

specify loading
% generate data object Loading Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); % extract applied force vector Pf at free dofs from Loading field Pref Pref = Loading.Pref;

[lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Bf,Qpl,Pref); disp(' The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is'); disp(lambdac); disp(' The basic forces Q at collapse are'); disp(Qc); Optimization terminated. The collapse load factor for nodal force at girder midspan is 1.4417 The basic forces Q at collapse are 43.2500 100.0000 -50.0000 12.0000 -100.0000 0 -25.0000 150.0000 100.0000 -43.2500 0 -0.0000 0 -100.0000 0 -20.0000 % open window and plot moment diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Qc);
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% open window and show plastic hinge locations Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_PlasticHinges (Model,Qpl,Qc);
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% we can also show the plastic hinge locations in the same window as the moment diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Qc); Plot_PlasticHinges (Model,Qpl,Qc);
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Equilibrium
Equilibrium Summary
static variables applied forces at free dofs element end forces
Pf
support reactions
basic or free element forces
q
Qx
collect all basic element forces in vector
select NOS redundant basic forces and collect them in a vector
static matrices representing equilibrium relations between static variables static matrix of structure for free dofs
Bf
basic force influence matrix of structure due to applied loads basic force influence matrix of primary structure due to applied loads basic force influence matrix of primary structure due to redundants
Bi
Bx
Pf = Bf Q + Pfw
degree of static indeterminacy NOS = no of columns - rank (usually no of rows) of matrix Bf
superposition principle since Bf does not depend on Q or P for equilibrium in the original (undeformed) configuration of the structure
if
Pf (1) = B f Q (1) then
and Pf (2) = B f Q (2)

Q = B ( Pf Pfw )
Pf (1) + Pf (2) = B f ( Q (1) + Q (2) )

B = B f 1
for stable, statically determinate structures
where B is the force influence matrix
for stable, statically indeterminate structures ( Pf Pfw ) = B i Q i + B x Q x lower bound theorem of plastic analysis
Q = Bi ( Pf Pfw ) + B x Qx
c = max
for Pref = B f Q + Pfu
and Q Qpl
for perfectly plastic response at collapse
c Pref = B eQ ce + B p Qcp + Pfu
( c Pref Pfu ) B pQcp = BeQce
if the rank of matrix Be is equal to the number of columns a complete collapse mode exists accompanied by a unique set of elastic basic forces Qce. If the rank is smaller than the number of columns, a partial collapse mode arises and difference between the number of columns and the rank of the matrix defines the number of free basic force parameters of the general solution.
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Kinematics
KINEMATICS (COMPATIBILITY)
Objective: kinematic variables for structure, element and section and their interrelationship through compatibility equations; kinematic matrix of structural model and its properties; stability of structural model
Page 128
Kinematics
Relation between structural and element displacements

Recall the numbering of the global dofs for the structural model in the following figure. 5
6 2 3 1 9 4
Recall also the numbering of the element dofs for a typical 2 node element in a 2d model (here we use element b for reference). The following figure shows the corresponding displacement components in the global reference
8 7
u (b )
u1 u2 u = 3 u4 u 5 u 6
5 6 j element b 4
13 11 12
10 14 15 1
2 3 i
There is a one to one correspondence between element displacement dofs in the global reference and structural displacement dofs. The following figure shows an example for the dofs at the middle node of the gable frame. We have
u6 u5 u4
U6
u3
u1
U5
b b
U4 u2
c c
(b) u 4 =U 4 (b) u5 =U 5 (b) u 6 =U 6
(c) u1 = U 4 (c) u 2 =U 5 (c) u3 =U 6
and completing these one-to-one relations for all elements and dofs (including the restrained dofs) we get
d
(a) u1 = U11 (a) u 2 = U12 (a) u 3 = U13 (a) u 4 =U1 (a) u5 =U 2 (a) u 6 =U 3
(b) u1 =U1 (b) u 2 =U 2 (b) u3 =U 3 (b) u 4 =U 4 (b) u5 =U 5 (b) u 6 =U 6
(c) u1 = U 4 (c) u 2 =U 5 (c) u3 =U 6 (c) u 4 =U 7 (c) u5 =U 8 (c) u 6 =U 9
(d) u1 =U 7 (d) u 2 =U 8 (d) u3 =U 9 (d) u 4 =U14 (d) u 5 =U15 (d) u 6 =U10
11 12 13 id (a) = id 1 2 With this array as index the correspondence of element and structural displacements can be compactly written 3 (el) u =U (el)
We introduce the incidence or id array of each element which provides the correspondence between element and structural dofs. We list this array for each of the elements in the gable frame.
id
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1 2 3 (b) = id 4 5 6
4 5 6 (c) = id 7 8 9
7 8 9 (d) = 14 15 10
Kinematics
the relation between element and structural displacement dofs can also be written in terms of a matrix-vector multiplication by a Boolean compatibility matrix (Boolean is a matrix with terms of 1 and 0); this is not used in computing but furnishes a convenient way of writing the displacement correspondence relations
u (el) =U
(el) id
can be written as
(el)
= Ab U
(el)
1 0 0 (el) where A b = reorder columns 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (el) according to id 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 (a) for element a the Boolean compatibility matrix is A b = 1 0 0
the size of the Boolean compatibility matrix is 6 x nt for a planar model with nt total degrees of freedom and for the example it becomes 6 x 15 as shown.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 note that the transpose of the Boolean compatibility matrix arises from (a)T reordering the rows instead of the columns; we write here explicitly the A b = 0 transpose of the Boolean compatibility matrix for element a 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
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Kinematics
Remark: Note that the equilibrium equations at the node free bodies can be written in compact form with the help of the id array or Boolean compatibility matrix. Recall the following equilibrium equations from Part I
p (b) 0 0 (a) P1 p4 1 (a) p (b) 0 0 P2 p 2 5 0 0 P (a) p (b) 3 p6 3 p (c) 0 P4 0 p (b) 1 4 (c) 0 P 0 (b) p2 5 = + p5 + (c) + 0 P6 (b) p 0 p6 3 p (d) (c) 1 P7 0 p 0 4 (d) P (c) p 8 0 0 p5 2 (d) P9 0 0 p (c) p3 P 6 (d) 10 0 0 0 p6
we include now also the equations at the restrained dofs (support reactions in the force vector)
p (a) 0 1 P11 (a) 0 0 0 p P12 2 0 0 0 (a) P = p3 + 0 + 0 + 13 p (d) P14 0 0 0 4 (d) P 0 0 0 p5 15 0 0

P = Ab P=
(a)T
with the Boolean compatibility matrix for all elements of the structure the above equations can be written in compact form or, simply First instance of a contradient transformation
(a)
+ Ab
(b)T
(b)
+ Ab
(c)T
(c)
+ Ab
(d)T
(d)
el =1
A(el)T p (el) b
u (a) = A (a) U b u (b) = A (b) U b u (c) = A (c) U b u (d) = A (d) U b
ne
We observe that the element displacements of the example structure are
or, in compact form
u (a) u (b) = A bU u (c) u (d)
A (a) b A (b) where A b = b A (c) b A (d) b

P = A (a)T b A (b)T b A (c)T b
then the corresponding forces obey the following relation
The pair of relations
u (a ) u (b) = AbU u (c) u (d)
p (a) p (b) T P = Ab p (c) p (d)

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p (a) p (a) p (b) p (b) T A (d)T b (c) = A b (c) p p p (d) p (d)
are known as contragradient transformations. They will appear over and over in the next pages and are the direct result of the principle of virtual work, as will be shown later.
Kinematics
Element displacements from global to local reference system

Similar to the transformation of the generalized element forces from the local to the global coordinate system in Part I, we transform the components of the displacement vector from the global to the local reference. The following figure shows the details for end node j; the same relations hold for node i; the rotation at node i and node j does not change during the transformation. We note again that the matrix relating the components is a rotation matrix
u4
j Y y i x L
u4
u5
u5
u 5
u5
Y
u4
X
u4
X Y + u5 L L Y X u 5 = u4 sin + u5 cos = u4 + u5 L L u 4 = u4 cos + u5 sin = u4
or, compactly
X u4 L = u Y 5 L
Y L X L
u 4 u5
The transfromation of all element displacement components becomes
X L u1 Y u2 L u 0 u = 3= u4 u 0 5 u 6 0 0
Y L X L 0 0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0
0 0 0 Y L X L 0
0 X 0 L Y 0 L 0 0
0 u 1 0 u 2 0 u3 u = ar u 0 4 u5 0 u6 1
and we note that the transformation of the displacement components is the transpose of the corresponding transformation of the force components
br = ar
It remains now to relate the element end displacement components in the local reference system to the relative element displacements or element deformations. We derive this relation on the following page. Second instance of a contradient transformation The relation between local and global components of the element displacement vectors is u = a r u then the corresponding forces obey the following relation
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p = aT p r
Kinematics
From element end displacements in local coordinates to element deformations

The following figure (a) shows two nodes i and j that will be connected by an element of any geometry. In any case the straight line connecting the nodes will be the element chord. This is the name we plan to use for this line from now on. Because the actual element geometry between nodes i and j is not important, the straight line connecting nodes i and j is dashed. The original distance between the nodes is L. The figure also shows the nodes in the displaced position involving translation and rotation at each end. The rotation is depicted by drawing a line emanating from the node that originally coincides with the element chord. We call this line the node tangent for the particular element chord. The angle of this line relative to the original orientation of the element chord is the end rotation of the element. Figures (b) and (c) decompose the displaced state of the nodes in two parts: (a) a rigid body translation in figure (b); we note that the node tangents rotate so as to continue coinciding with the element chord which rotates through the angle relative to the original position in the process; (b) end rotations relative to the chord in figure (c). It is clear from figure (b) that the change in distance L between the nodes depends only on the relative translation components between nodes i and j.
u6
u y = u 5 u 2
u x = u 4 u1
L
Ln
Ln
u5
y
u3
Y L y L j
u y
i x j
u4
u x
(b) position under rigid body translation
u2
i
x X
u1
(a)
(c)
i
v2
u3
x
u6
v3
u y
u x
We have the following relations under large displacements. change in distance between nodes i and j angle between node tangent and chord in displaced position at node i at node j
v1 = L = Ln L
v2 = u3 v3 = u 6
the change in distance between nodes i and j and the angle between node tangent and chord in the displaced position at node i and j make up the components of the element deformation vector v under large displacements we have the following relations for the change of distance L and the chord rotation angle
L =
( L + u x )
+ u y
( )
= arctan
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u y
L + u x
Kinematics
Element deformations under linear and nonlinear kinematics

We transform the expressions for the change in distance and the chord rotation angle using an expansion in power series that allows us to assess the relative magnitude of individual terms. change of distance
L =
( L + u x )
+ u y
( )
L
2
2 u x u y L L = L 1 + + L L 2 u x u y L = L 1 + 2 + + L L 0 L
u x
2 u y 1 + u x + 1 u x + 1 L = L L 2 L 2 L
2 1 2u x 2 + higher order terms L 8 L
where we made use of
1+ x =1+
1 1 x x 2 + higher order terms for 2 8
finally, we obtain for a moderate relative transverse displacement ratio and for a small relative transverse displacement ratio
u x 1 u y L L 1 + + L 2 L
u y L = L u x + 1 L 2 L
u x L L 1 + L = u x = u 4 u1 L u x
L
noting that in structural engineering practice, typically
5 103 5 103 5 102
a small relative transverse displacement ratio is and a moderate relative transverse displacement ratio is
u y
L
u y
L
We can show that the relative transverse displacement ratio is approximately equal to the chord rotation angle. To this end we expand the trigonometric arctan function into a power series
= arctan
u y L + u x
u y = arctan 1+ L u x L
2 u y u u x x 1 + higher order terms L L L
noting that in structural engineering practice, typically
u x
L
5 103
it follows that
u y
L
We conclude that the chord rotation angle is approximately equal to the relative transverse displacement ratio. This is known as tranverse "drift" in professional engineering practice, or, as lateral drift or interstory drift for vertical members.
Page 134
Kinematics
Element deformations for linear kinematics

As long as
u x L u y L u y L
5 10
and
u y L
5 103
the element deformations become
v1 = u x = u 4 u1
v 2 = u3 v3 = u 6
or, in compact form
1 v1 v = v2 = 0 v 3 0
0 1 L 1 L
0 1 1 0 L 1 0 0 L
0 1
u 1 0 u 2 u3 = au 0 u 4 1 u5 u 6
b = aT
we note again that the relation between element deformations and the end displacement components in the local reference system is the transpose of the transformation of the element force components from the local to the basic reference system Third instance of a contradient transformation The relation between local components of the element displacement vector and the element deformations is then the relation between basic forces and local components of the element force vector is
v = au p = aTq
We note that the relation between relative element displacements and end displacement components in the local reference system is linear under the small displacement assumption. We speak of linear kinematics. The matrix a in the above relation is known as the rigid body kinematic matrix, since it removes the three (3) rigid body components from the set of six (6) element end displacements leaving only three (3) relative displacements for the 2 node element in a planar model. It is worth pointing out at this stage that the rigid body kinematic matrix reveals the uncoupled nature between the relative translation in the direction of the chord, and the chord rotation angles at the element ends; this means that transverse translations and rotation do not cause a change of distance between the nodes, and that translations in the direction of the chord do not cause the chord to rotate under linear kinematic considerations..
1 0 0
0 1 L 1 L
0 1
1 0
1 L 1 0 0 L
0 0 1
Element kinematics: from element end displacement components to deformations

combining
v = a u with
u = ar u
gives
v = a a r u = agu where bg = b r b = aT aT = aa r r
( )
= aT g
Fourth instance of a contradient transformation The relation between global components of the element displacement vector and the element deformations is then the relation between basic forces and global components of the element force vector is
v = a gu
p = ag q
T
Page 135
Kinematics
The relation between global components of the element displacement vector and the element deformations is
X L Y v = agu with ag = 2 L Y u5 2 L u4 j
Y =Y j Yi
Y L X L2 X L2
0 1 0
X L Y L2 Y L2
Y L X 2 L X 2 L
0 0 1
L = X 2 + Y 2
Y
u2
u1 i
Y L
X =X j X i
note that the angle is measured from the chord in the displaced position to the node tangent (note that CCW is positive and CW negative)
j
u 2 = 1 deformations are
X L
Y L X 2 L X 2 L X L Y 2 L Y 2 L
X L
Y L
u1 = 1
deformations are
Y L
X L
j
1
Y L X u5 = 1 deformations are 2 L X 2 L
1
Y L
j
X L
u 4 = 1 deformations are
i
Page 136
X L Y 2 L Y 2 L
Kinematics
Structure kinematics: from global dof displacements to all element deformations

5 6 2 3 1 9 4
A (a) u (a) b A (b) u (b) for all elements of the structural = A b U = b U model and then combine it with A (c) u (c) b 7 u (d) A (d) b
we write v = agu
13 11 12
10 14 15
to obtain
(a) (a) (a) (a) v (a) ag u ag A b (b) (b) (b) (b) v (b) ag u ag A b = = U v (c) a(c) u (c) a(c) A (c) g g b v (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) a g u a g A b
We collect the element deformations into the deformation vector V for the elements of the entire structure. Similarly, the compatibility matrices on the right hand side which are stacked one on top of the other are collected to the kinematic or compatibility matrix A for the entire structure. We get
V = AU
with
v (a) v (b) V = v (c) v (d)
and
a(a) A (a) g b a(b) A (b) b g A= (c) (c) ag A b (d) (d) a g A b
We partition the displacement vector into free and restrained dofs, as we have already discussed. The kinematic or compatibility matrix of the structure gets partitioned accordingly into a set of columns that correspond to the free dofs and another set that corresponds to the restrained dofs. We write
V = A f U f + A d U d = A f U f +Vd
where Vd = A d U d the element deformations due to displacements at the restrained dofs (e.g. support settlements) are known at the start of the analysis We express the equilibrium equations in terms of the basic forces of the structure and get
p (a) (b) T p = A (a)T P = Ab (c) b p p (d) a(a)Tq (a) g (b)T (b) ag q (d)T (a)T (a)T = A a Ab a(c)Tq (c) b g g (d)T (d) ag q q (a) (b) (d)T (d)T q A b ag q (c) q (d)
Ab
(b)T
Ab
(c)T
Ab
(b)T (b)T ag
A b ag
(c)T (c)T
or, after introducing the structure kinematic matrix on the right hand side and T P=A Q collecting the basic forces into a vector Q for the entire structure we get We partition the applied force vector into free and restrained dofs, as we have already discussed. The transpose of the kinematic or compatibility matrix of the structure gets partitioned accordingly into a set of that correspond to the free dofs and another set that corresponds to the restrained dofs. We write
T T Pf A f we have encountered the first equation already in the form Pf = Bf Q we note that Bf = A f Q = T R A d we note that R are the forces at the restrained dofs or support reactions
Page 137
Kinematics
Fifth instance of a contradient transformation The relation between global dof displacement components and the element deformations of the entire structure is then the relation between basic forces and global components of the applied force vector is
V = Af U f + Ad U d
Pf R
T Af = T Q Ad
Limiting ourselves to the free dofs only by assuming that the displacements at the restrained dofs are all zero, we set aside the support reactions and get the following important pair of relations kinematic or compatibility relation for structure static or equilibrium relations for struct ure
V = Af U f
Pf = B f Q
or Pf = A f Q
T
The properties of the static matrix Bf that we have discussed in Part I are also properties of the transpose of the kinematic matrix. In particular, a statically determinate structure has a square kinematic matrix with as many element deformations as global dof displacements. Thus, any set of element deformations is compatible with a unique set of global dof displacement values, as we can see in Examples 10, 11, 12 A statically indeterminate structure has more element deformations than global dof displacements. This means that an arbitrary set of deformations will, in general, not be compatible with a set of global dof displacement values, since the compatibility relations have more equations than unknowns. The only way that such a system will have a unique solution is, if the deformation vector V lies in the column space of the kinematic matrix Af (Strang, pp. 66). For this to be the case, the deformation vector V needs to be orthogonal to the nullspace of the transpose of the kinematic matrix (Strang, pp. 135-139). Since the latter is equal to the static matrix, we have already determined the nullspace of the static matrix in Part I as the force influence matrix for the redundant basic forces (see Examples 5 and 6). Thus, the necessary and sufficient condition for a set of given element deformations to be compatible with a unique set of global dof displacement values, is that
BT V = 0 x
compatibility condition for statically indeterminate structure
We use this condition in Examples 13 and 14
Page 138
Ex. 10 - Compatibility for determinate truss
Example 10(r) - Compatibility relations for statically determinate 2d truss

Objectives: (a) set up of the compatibility relations between the displacements at the free dofs of a statically determinate truss and the element deformations (b) determination of deformed shape for given element deformations The truss is shown in Figure 1. The global coordinate system X-Y is also shown.
4
c Y 1 a X 8
b 2 8
Figure 1: Statically determinate truss with global coordinate system We focus on the number of independent ways that the nodes of the structure can displace. Since rotations are of no interest in this case, there are two independent translations at each node, except for the translations restrained by supports. We call each independent translation a degree of freedom of the structure. We number these in sequence starting with the node with lowest number exactly as we did for the equilibrium equations of Example 1. The one to one correspondence between degree of freedom (dof) and equilibrium equation is established by Newton's second law. The numbering is, therefore, the same for both.
5 4
2 a 1 b 3
Figure 2: Free dof numbering
Page 139
If rotations at the nodes are of no significance, then the only "deformation" between nodes of interest here is the change in the original distance. In the following we wish to establish a relation between this change of distance between nodes and the deformed element length. If there are no gaps in the structure after deformation, then the element deformation must be equal to the change in node distance. For a truss element the only element deformation is the change of its length denoted by v1 . To set up the compatibility relation between free dof displacements and element deformations we proceed in the following systematic way: (1) set each dof in turn to a unit value, while holding the other dofs equal to zero, (2) determine the change in distance between the nodes in the deformed configuration assuming small displacements and deformations, (3) record this change of distance in a column vector with each row number corresponding to the number of the element that connects the corresponding nodes (recall that there is only one "deformation" of interest for each element, the change in distance of the nodes). The column number corresponds to the number of the dof we "activate". The corresponding array or matrix is known as compatibility or kinematic matrix Af Preliminary geometric calculation: original distance between nodes numbered according to the corresponding element number.
La := 8 Lb := 8 Lc := Ld := 6 Le := 6 +8
2 2
La = 8 Lb = 8 6 +8
2 2
Lc = 10 Ld = 6 Le = 10
original distance between nodes 1 and 4
Unit value for degree of freedom (dof) 1. dof 1

4
for unit displacement at dof 1 (translation)
1 1 Af 1 := 0 0 0
dist change btw 1 and 2 dist change btw 2 and 3 why?? very small displacements
1 2
Page 140
dof 2
4
0 0 Af 2 := 0 1 0
why?? very small displacements
dist change btw 2 and 4
dof 3
4
0 1 0 Af 3 := 0 8 L e
b
Page 141
dof 4
4
0 0 8 4 := Lc Af 0 8 Le
dof 5
0 0 6 Af 5 := Lc 1 6 Le
dist change btw 1 and 4 dist change btw 2 and 4 dist change btw 3 and 4
Page 142
The change in node distances when all dof's are "activated" is the linear combination of the individual dof effects. Since the dof translation values are parameters to be determined, we collect them into the free dof displacement vector Uf and write for the change in node distances the following general relation. We restate that the change in distance between the nodes is the linear combination of the columns of the kinematic matrix for the free dofs Af with the free dof displacement values serving as parameters.
change in node distances is
Af Uf with
Af
1 1 =0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0.8 0
0 0 0.6 1
0.8 0.8 0.6
we note that matrix Af is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix Bf for the same truss structure in Example 2. This is a consequence of the principle of virtual work, as we prove later. Now let us look at the elements that are supposed to connect the nodes of the truss structure. In general, elements may have different lengths than those resulting on the basis of the original (undeformed) configuration of the structure. One reason is that the elements are fabricated longer or shorter than specified. This happens in prefabricated structural systems like most steel and timber structures where the elements are fabricated in a shop or plant and delivered to the site for installation. Elements may be longer or shorter either intentionally (we will see why), or unintentionally due to unavoidable fabrication errors (fabrication tolerances are usually prescribed for a structure). Even if the element length can be assumed as "perfect", another reason that it may not match the actual distance between the corresponding nodes during installation is a temperature change between fabrication and installation time, particularly in severe climate sites like underwater, arctic, desert etc. Finally, it is known from earlier courses that elements change length due to stress (forces cause stress at every material point which gives rise to strain which results in change of the element length). For now we will limit ourselves to the first two causes for change of element length, the so called non-mechanical causes: intentional or unintentional fabrication "error", and temperature. We denote the difference between the actual and the ideal or original element length the element deformation and denote it by the lower case letter v. A truss element has only this one deformation. We will see in the following example that beam elements have two and frame elements have 3 deformation measures. It is, therefore, justified to use already a vector to contain the element deformations. Exactly as we have done for the basic forces of the element we collect the element deformations for the entire structure into a single vector which we denote with the upper case letter V. It contains the deformations of all elements in the structure numbered in element sequence, i.e. deformations of element a stacked on top of deformations of element b and so on.
Page 143
Compatibility states that in order for the elements to fit perfectly in the space between the displaced nodes the element deformations V need to be equal to the change in the distance between nodes. We write this equality relation as follows: V = Af Uf let us write it out in full to appreciate it better for this small structure
V1 = U1 V 2 = U 1 + U 3 V3 = 0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5 V 4 = U 2 + U 5 V5 = 0.8 U3 0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5
Let us look at these compatibility relation in some more detail. First, we reiterate that the coefficients multiplying the displacements at the free dof's are the same as those of the equilibrium equations for the same structure but in transpose form, i.e. the rows of the equilibrium matrix have now become columns. We will see that this relation holds for every structure in this course and we will prove it by the principle of virtual work in a later lecture. Secondly, we note that if the element deformations V are given on the left hand side of the compatibility equations, then we have exactly as many unknown global dof displacement values on the right hand side as equations of compatibility. In such case if the matrix Af is non-singular there is a unique solution. This is the case for a stable structure and we can confirm this by checking the rank of the kinematic matrix Af. (recall a similar argument for the static matrix Bf, which is the transpose of the kinematic matrix).
rank ( Af) = 5
this means that all equations are independent
Let us then solve an example. Let us assume that elements c, d and e are fabricated longer or shorter than required by the specified geometry such that c is longer by 0.02 units, d is shorter by -0.006 units and e is longer by 0.01 units of length. We assume that elements a and b have ideal length according to the undeformed geometry of the structure. For this scenario the element deformation vector becomes
0 0 V := 0.02 0.006 0.01
We can now solve for the displacements that are compatible with these deformations from the compatibility equations
Uf := lsolve ( Af , V)
Uf
0 0.031 = 0 0.006 0.025
We can easily solve the 5 compatibility equations by hand and gain more insight into how the nodes displace due to the element deformations, e.g. from the first equation we conclude that U1 is zero, and then from the second that U3 is zero, if V1 =V 2 =0. Then, we can use the third and fifth equation to determine U4 and U5 and locate the displaced position of node 4. In fact, because elements c and e have the same direction cosine values the solution is easy. By addition of eq. (3) and (5) we get and by subtraction
V3 + V5 = 1.2U5 V3 V5 = 1.6U4
Page 144
From eq (4) we conclude then that the translation U2 is equal to
U2 = U5 V4
The resulting deformed shape of the truss structure looks as follows (magnification factor is 50) The geometrical relations we noted are clear in the figure (i.e. node 4 "at the intersection of elements c and e each pivoting about the supports that do not move; vertical translation of node 2 is the difference between vertical translation of node 4 and the deformation of element d)
CONCLUSIONS In a statically determinate structure there are as many element deformations (rows of Af) as there are free global dof displacements (columns of Af). Consequently, Af is a square matrix. In a stable structure the rank of the matrix is equal to the number of columns (or rows for a determinate structure). This means that it is always possible to find a deformed configuration of the structure that matches any given element deformations. It also means that the only way to match the original length of the elements, i.e. a zero deformation vector on the left hand side of the compatibility equations, is with zero displacement values at all free dof's, i.e. only the undeformed configuration results in no-element deformations. We will see later that the kinematic matrix of an unstable structure is "rank deficient", meaning that the rank is smaller than the number of columns. In such case it is possible to find deformed positions of the structure without deforming any of the elements at least under the assumption of small displacements. This is clearly not desirable for structures, unless we plan to "deploy a folded structure" in which case these considerations need to be extended to large displacements. Corollary In a statically determinate structure it is possible to have any element deformations (and thus element lengths) and "fit them together" without "forcing" the elements. This is not possible in a statically indeterminate structure, as later examples will demonstrate. The above structure is not subjected to any forces at the free global dof's. This means that there are no basic element forces and, of course, no support reactions. The nodes displace due to the non-mechanical element deformations while the elements are stress-free!
Page 145

% Deformations and deformed shape for statically determinate 2d truss
OPTION A: perform each step with Matlab functions

% clear memory clear all % specify kinematic matrix Af (consult page 144 in Part I Notes) Af = [ 1 0 0 0 0; -1 0 1 0 0; 0 0 0 0.8 0.6; 0 -1 0 0 1; 0 0 0.8 -0.8 0.6]; % specify the element deformations V = [ 0; 0; 0.02; -0.006; 0.01]; % solve for free global dof displacements Uf = Af\V; % display result format short disp('the free global dof displacements are'); disp(Uf); the free global dof displacements are 0 0.0310 0 0.0063 0.0250
OPTION B: use FEDEASLab functions

% clear memory; close any open windows CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 16 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 8 6]; % % connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 1 4]; CON { 4} = [ 2 4]; CON { 5} = [ 3 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1]; BOUN(3,:) = [ 0 1]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); 0 = free)
% number of elements
Page 146
[ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Truss'); % truss element Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);
Post-processing functions on Model (optional)

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Label_Model (Model); % open figure window % plot model (optional) % label model (optional)
specify element deformations

V V(3) V(4) V(5) = zeros(Model.ne,1); = 0.02; = -0.006; = 0.01;
Kinematic (compatibility) relations

% set up kinematic matrix for all dof's A = A_matrix(Model); % extract columns corresponding to free dof's to form matrix Af Af = A(:,1:Model.nf);
solution for free global dof displacements

Uf = Af\V; % put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf;
plot deformed shape of structural model

MAGF = 50; % magnification factor for deformed configuration Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U,V);
Page 147
Kinematics
Section kinematics and non-mechanical effects

Under the assumption that plane sections normal to the reference axis remain plane after deformation and normal to the deforrmed reference axis, there are two kinematic variables at a section x: the axial strain at the reference axis and the curvature. We call these the section deformations e(x).
section deformations
( x) e ( x) = a ( x)
( x)dx
reference axis h
a ( x) dx
dx
section x
section x+ dx
section deformations may be caused by mechanical and non-mechanical effects; section forces, such as the normal force, shear and bending moment, cause mechanical effects; we can quantify these only after studying the material response in Part IV. For now we limit ourselves to non-mechanical effects. These effects arise from environmental causes, or from intentional camber or lack-of-fit considerations. As an example, we look at the effect of differential temperature in the following. Assume a temperature difference between the time of fabrication of the element and the time of installation. Then, the axial strain at the reference axis is If there is a different temperature difference at the top than at the bottom of the cross section, then there is not only an axial strain at the reference axis, but also a curvature. The latter is given by the following expression
a = Ta
Tt
h
where is the thermal expansion coefficient of the material and Ta is the temperature difference
Tt
Ta
reference axis
Tb
x
( Tb Tt )
h
( T )
h
Tb
temperature increment
Shrinkage of a material produces similar effects to temperature. On the other hand, it is common to fabricate or build members with intentional camber or different length then specified so as to induce a desired level of prestressing in the structure. We will investigate this in later lectures. In order to distinguish non-mechanical deformations from mechanical deformations later in the course we denote the former with a subscript 0. We leave this out for the moment, since we focus exclusively on non-mechanical deformations and there is no danger of confusion.
Page 148
Kinematics
Element deformations and section kinematics

The change of element length is equal to the integral of the distribution of the axial strain at the reference axis, as long as the element does not contain axial force release devices.
v1
a ( x)
we write
v1 = a ( x)dx
0
and for uniform axial reference strain

x
v1 = a L
The axial deformation of a force release device needs to be added to the above deformation. We will investigate this later, after first discussing the effect of the curvature on the deformations. The following figure shows the element chord connecting nodes i and j and the deformed reference axis of the element. In determining the angle between the element chord and the tangent to the deformed axis of the element at the end nodes we make use of the height of the highlighted triangle and the total distance at node i and node j that it covers as x increases from 0 to L. For small deformations we have
j
( x)dx
v3
element chord
v2
x ( x)dx
(
0
L x ) ( x)dx
x
L
Lx
for the deformation at node i
for the deformation at node j
L L 1 = 1 x ( x) dx v 2 = ( L x ) ( x) dx L L 0 0 L L 1 x v3 = x ( x) dx = ( x) dx L L 0 0
Note: the deformed axis has a positive curvature, since the angle of the tangent to the horizontal increases with increasing x. For this case the deformation at node i is negative and that at node j is positive, as shown. Recall that the deformation angle is measured from the chord of the element to the tangent of the deformed reference axis at the end node.
Page 149
Kinematics
Element deformations
The expressions for the deformations v2 and v3 involve integrals of the type where A
x ( x) dx
0
which is equal to
x A
is the area under the curvature diagram, and x
is the distance of the centroid of the area under the curvature diagram from node i
Because of this interpretation of the integral and the fact that curvatures are proportional to bending moments for linear elastic material response, this geometric method for determining beam deformations is known in the literature as "moment area method". Unfortunately, this is not the most appropriate name; curvature-area method would be a lot better and completely general for small deformations. With this definition the deformation at node i and node j becomes for the deformation at node i for the deformation at node j
v2 = v3 =
L x L A
A =
x
L
with
x L
the distance of the centroid of the area under the curvature diagram from node j
For the case of a constant curvature with value the deformations become
i j
( x) = const=
v2 =
1 ( L ) 2
v2
v3
v3 =
1 ( L ) 2
For the case of a linear curvature with value i at node i the deformations become
i j
i
21 1 v2 = i L = i L 32 3
v2 v3
v3 =
11 1 i L = i L 3 2 6
and we note that the angle at node j is one half the value of the angle at node i, but of opposite sign
Page 150
Kinematics
Element deformations (cont'd)

For the case of a linear curvature with value j at node j the deformations become
i j
11 1 v2 = j L = j L 3 2 6
v2
v3
v3 =
21 1 j L = i L 32 3
For the case of a parabolic curvature with value m at midspan the deformations become
i j
12 1 v2 = m L = m L 23 3
v2
v3
v3 =
12 1 mL = m L 23 3
Other cases can be obtained with the help of integration tables, or numerical integration
Page 151
Ex. 11 - Compatibility for determinate beam
Example 11(r) - Compatibility relations for statically determinate 2d beam

Objectives: (a) set up of the compatibility relations between the displacements at the free dofs of a statically determinate beam and the element deformations (b) determination of deformed shape for given element deformations (c) reduced set of degrees of freedom In this example we will set up the compatibility relations between the displacements at the free dofs of a statically determinate beam with overhang and the deformations of each element in the model. The beam with overhang is shown in Figure 1. It is clear from the figure that the horizontal translations and corresponding deformations are independent from the transverse translations and rotations. We will not bother with the longitudinal translations of the nodes of the structural model and the corresponding change of length in this problem, and instead concentrate on the transverse translations and node rotations.
1 a 10 b 10 3 c 5 4
Figure 1: Statically determinate beam Each node of the structural model has 3 independent ways of displacing in the plane. We call these the degrees of freedom of a node. They are: translation in the global X-direction, translation in the global Y-direction, and rotation about the Z-axis or rotation in the plane of the structural model). As already stated, we limit our attention in this example to the node translations in Y and the rotations. The unrestrained dofs are numbered in sequence starting with the lowest number node. The free dofs are shown in Figure 2.
1 3 2 4 6 5
Figure 2: Free dof numbering Length of elements
La := 10
Lb := 10
Lc := 5
We want to set up a relation between the displacements (i.e. translations and rotations) of the nodes and the angle that forms between the node tangent and the node connector line for nodes connected by elements (this will be called a node connector line in the course). To display this angle without ambiguity we make use of the following figure the figure shows a line connecting node i and j implying that these nodes are connected in the structural model (note that the element connecting the nodes need not be a straight element!). It also shows a line emanating from the face of the square symbol for the node. This line points originally in the direction from node i to node j and follows the node in its rotation. The angle is measured from the line connecting the nodes to the line attached to the square symbol for the node and is positive in the counterclockwise (CCW) direction.
node i
node j
Page 152
Dof displacements and corresponding deformations (angles) To set up the relation between the free dof displacements and the angles between the node tangents and the node connector lines in the structural model we proceed as follows: we activate each dof in turn and give it a unit value; during activation of a particular dof the others remain "locked". We measure the angle between the node tangents and the node connector lines in the structural model. We number the angles systematically starting with end i of element a, to end j of element a, end i of element b, etc. as shown in the following figure for dof 1. We record the values of these angles for a unit displacement of the particular dof in a column of the kinematic matrix Af (one column for each dof with corresponding number). The following figure shows the concept and the angle numbering
2 1 3 a b
4 c
5 6
dof 1
dof 2
dof 3
dof 4
dof 5
dof 6
Page 153
for unit displacement at dof 1 (rotation)
dof 1
1 0 1 := 0 Af 0 0 0 1 La 1 La 1 2 := Af L b 1 Lb 0 0 0 1 1 Af 3 := 0 0 0 0 0 0 Af 4 := 1 1 0
dof 2
Note: we limit ourselves to small displacements in this course (linear geometry). In such case the arctan of the angle is a very close approximation of the angle itself.
dof 3
dof 4
Page 154
dof 5
0 0 0 5 := 0 Af 1 L c 1 Lc 0 0 0 Af 6 := 0 0 1
dof 6
After establishing the individual relations we can conclude that the combined effect of all free dof displacements on the angles between node tangents and node connector lines can be written in the form
Af Uf
with
Af
1 0 0 = 0 0 0
0.1 0 0 0.1 1 0 0.1 0.1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0.2 0 0 0 0.2 1
we note that matrix Af is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix Bf for the same beam structure in Example 3 (case B without longitudinal basic forces).
Page 155
Element deformations Now we look at the elements connecting the nodes. Elements that are supposed to be straight in ideal conditions may end up curved either by intentional or unintentional fabrication, or by thermal effects. The following figure shows the effect of curvature on the element deformation. Note that curvature means the change of angle of the tangent to the deformed shape of the element at two infinitesimally adjacent sections ((x) dx in the figure). We see that the element curvature results in an angle between the tangent to the deformed shape of the element at each end and the line connecting the ends of the element. The latter is known as the element chord. These angles can be expressed by curvature integrals as shown in the figure.
j
( x)dx
v3
element chord
v2
x ( x)dx
(
0
L x ) ( x)dx
x
L
Lx
Recalling that the change of length of the element is counted as the first element deformation v1 , the angle between tangent and chord at end i represents element deformation v2 , and the angle between tangent and chord at end j represents element deformation v3 . Noting that the angle is measured from the chord to the tangent, as shown in the figure and that CCW is positive we have
1 v2 = ( L x) ( x) dx L 0
and
1 v3 = x ( x) dx L 0
after bringing the length L of the element into the integral we can write
x v2 = 1 ( x) dx L 0
and
x v3 = ( x) dx L 0
Page 156
We note that the above integrals represent the "moment" of the area under the curvature function about end i (for v2 ) and about end j (for v3 ) divided by the element length. This interpretation of the geometric facts is, therefore, known in the history of structural analysis as "moment area" method. for the case of constant curvature, which we denote with 0 , we have
0 L 2
0 ( x) = const=0
0 L 2
A constant curvature arises from a temperature field with a difference in the change of temperature between the bottom and top fiber of the section as the following figure shows
thermal field beam element L
in this case
Tt
h
Tt
Ta
reference axis
0 =
Tb Tt h
Tb
x
Tb
temperature increment
where h is the section depth
Page 157
Continuity requirement Assuming now that the elements are not straight but deformed we state that the continuity of tangents at nodes with rigid or continuous connections requires that, when the element chord is placed so as to line up with the line connecting the corresponding nodes, each element deformation should match the corresponding angle between the node tangent and the node connector line in the structural model. We show this state of continuity in the following figure for each dof separately.
3 1 2 a b
4 c
5 6
dof 1
dof 2
dof 3
dof 4
dof 5
dof 6
We can see from the above figure that the final deformed shape of the structural model will be the linear combination of the deformed shapes for each dof scaled by the displacement value of the corresponding dof
Page 158
Compatibility relations To write the compatibility statement of angle equality in compact form we put the element deformations in a single vector V starting with the deformation at end i for element a, then deformation at end j for element a and so forth, so that there is perfect agreement in numbering between the complete set of element deformations and the angles between node tangents and node connector lines in the structural model. The compatibility or geometric continuity statement then reads where Uf is the vector of free dof displacements and where the deformation vector V is V = Af Uf
v( a ) ( b) V =v (c) v
U2 10
or,
V1 V2 V 3 V= V4 V5 V 6
deformation at end i of element a deformation at end j of element a deformation at end i of element b deformation at end j of element b deformation at end i of element c deformation at end j of element c
We write the compatibility relations for the example explicitly
V1 = U1 V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 = V6 = U2
+ U3 10 U2 + U3 10 U2 + U4 10 U5 U4 5 U5 + U6 5
We note that there are as many compatibility equations as variables on the right hand side of the equations V = Af Uf.
Page 159
Numerical results Let us assume that element a is deformed due to a uniform curvature field of
0 := 1.2 10
while elements b and c are in their ideal condition, i.e. perfectly straight. What is the resulting deformed shape of the structure that ensures tangent continuity at all nodes?
Given
0.006 0.006 0 V := 0 0 0
note
La 2
= 0.006
we obtain Uf := lsolve ( Af , V)
Uf
0.009 0.03 0.003 = 0.003 0.015 0.003
it is worth noting that the translation values are roughly an order of magnitude greater than the rotations. The system of compatibility equations can be readily solved by hand allowing insight into the deformation behavior of the beam. Since V 3 through V6 are zero we conclude that
U6 = U4 =
U5 5 U5
5 U2 U4 = 10 U2 U3 = 10
and thus
U4 = U6
and thus
U3 = U4
thus, in the absence of any deformations in elements b and c the rotations U3 , U4 and U6 are equal. finally,
U2 = 5 V2
and
U1 = V1 +
U2 10
The deformed shape of the structure under a magnification factor of 50 is shown below. The geometric interpretation of the above equations is clear from the figure.
U2
U2 10
5V2
U1
V1 +
10
10
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We repeat the conclusions and corollary of Example 10. CONCLUSIONS In a statically determinate structure there are as many element deformations (rows of Af) as there are free global dof displacements (columns of Af). Consequently, Af is a square matrix. In a stable structure the rank of the matrix is equal to the number of columns (or rows for a determinate structure). This means that it is always possible to find a deformed configuration of the structure that matches any given element deformations. It also means that the only way to match the undeformed ("ideal") state of all elements is by zero displacement values at all free dof's, i.e. by the undeformed configuration. We will see later that the kinematic matrix of an unstable structure is "rank deficient", meaning that the rank is smaller than the number of columns. In such case it is possible to find deformed positions of the structure without deforming any of the elements. This is the key criterion for judging the stability of a structural model. There is a clear geometric interpretation of the compatibility relations. The solution of the compatibility equations "by hand" affords insight into the deformed shape of the structure and the interplay of element deformations and global dof displacements. Corollary In a statically determinate structure it is possible to have any element deformations and "fit them together" without "forcing" the elements. This is not possible in a statically indeterminate structure. The above structure is not subjected to any forces at the free global dof's. This means that there are no basic element forces and, of course, no support reactions. The structure deforms but is stress-free!
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Reduced set of dofs From the compatibility equations, which we summarize again on the right, we can see that the displacement of dof 1 only affects the deformation V1 and the displacement of dof 6 only affects the deformation V6 . We say that the corresponding dof does not have to negotiate its value with more than one element. This is reflected by a column with a single non-zero entry in the compatibility matrix. In such case we can set aside the equation and the corresponding dof, and work with a smaller set of free dofs and corresponding element deformations (smaller system of compatibility equations). If we are interested in determining the displacement of a dof that has been set aside, we can do so after obtaining the values of the free dof displacements for the reduced set using the compatibility equation that was set aside. We will demonstrate this in the following. We mark the equations that we set aside for later use with an asterisk (*). Note that by setting aside two equations we also set aside the corresponding dofs for the case at hand. We emphasize again that for this to be possible it is necessary that the dof to be set aside affects only one compatibility relation and thus only one element deformation.
V1 = U1 V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 = V6 = U2
U2 10
(*)
+ U3 10 U2 + U3 10 U2 + U4 10 U5 U4 5 U5 + U6 5
(*)
Because we intend to use this reduced set of dofs in future problems we number the reduced set of free dofs and the corresponding element deformations from scratch. We have
1 2 a b c 3 4
The kinematic matrix Af becomes
1 La 1 L b Af := 1 L b 0 0.1 0.1 = 0.1 0
1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Lc
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Af
0 1 0.2
note that the kinematic matrix Af is the transpose of the static matrix Bf for case C of example 3.
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It is worth noting in the preceding figure that the end nodes are free to rotate with the node connector line emanating from them, since there is no rotation dof present at the end. We restate that the kinematic matrix Af for the reduced set of dofs can be obtained directly from the matrix for the full set of dofs by setting aside rows 1 and 6 and columns 1 and 6. With the renumbered dofs and element deformations the compatibility relations become.
V1 =
+ U2 10 U1 V2 = + U2 10 U1 V3 = + U3 10 U4 V4 = U3 5
U1
we now use the values for the element deformations to solve for the displacements at the free dofs
0.006 0 V := 0 0
deformation of node j of element a
Uf
0.03 0.003 = 0.003 0.015
which, of course, match the earlier values for the same dofs. How can we calculate the rotation at node 1 and node 4? Quite simply, using the rows of the complete kinematic matrix that we have set aside. We renumber the corresponding deformation and dof: the rotation at node 1 is U5 and that at node 4 is U6 . The deformation at end i of element a is V5 and that at end j of element c is now V6 . We have the following two compatibility relations that we set up earlier (see equations with asterisk):
V5 = U5 V6 = U4 5
U1 10 + U6
(*)
solve for U5
U5 = V5 + U6 = V6 +
U1 10 U4 5
U5 := 0.006 + U6 := 0 +
Uf
4
Uf
10
U5 = 0.009 U6 = 0.003
(*)
solve for U6
the values are of course the same as before (compare with dofs 1 and 6 of the complete dof solution). We can see the geometric interpretation of the above equations in the deformed shape of the structure. The rotation of node 1 is equal to the deformation of element a at the corresponding node added to the rotation of the chord connecting node 1 and 2. Because element c does not deform, the rotation of node 4 is equal to the rotation of the chord connecting nodes 3 and 4. Thus, for a quick determination in the future we can simply add the element deformations to the chord rotations at the node of interest. The deformed shape of the structure under a magnification factor of 50 is shown below.
U5
V5 +
U1 10
10
U1
10 5
Page 163
With the reduced set of dofs the deformed shape of the structural model will be the linear combination of the following deformed shapes for each independent dof after factoring these by the corresponding displacement value.
1 2 a b
3 c
Page 164

% Deformations and deformed shape for simply supported beam with overhang

% clear memory; close any open windows CleanStart % define XYZ(1,:) XYZ(2,:) XYZ(3,:) XYZ(4,:) model geometry = [ 0 0]; % first node = [ 10 0]; % second node, etc = [ 20 0]; % = [ 25 0]; %
% element connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 3 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1]; BOUN(3,:) = [ 0 1]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('2dFrm'); 0 = free)
create Model
specify element deformations (note that we also include the axial)

V = zeros(3*Model.ne,1); V(2) = -0.006; V(3) = 0.006;

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Uf = Af\V; % display result format short disp('the free global dof displacements are'); disp(Uf); the free global dof displacements are -0.0090 0 -0.0300 0.0030 0 0.0030 0 0.0150 0.0030

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 50; % magnification factor for deformed configuration Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U,V);
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Kinematics
Force release deformations

We investigate now the effect of force release devices on the element deformations. The devices can be of three types, as we have already mentioned in Part I, and can be located anywhere inside the element. Normal force release or axial translation device
vah
v1h
we see that v1h = v ah
j
Note: the presence of an axial device implies that the axial force is zero only if the device "slips" under zero axial force. More typical are devices that "slip" at a certain axial force level
Bending moment release or rotational device
i
v 2h
v fh
x L L-x
j
v3h
we see that v 2h =
Lx v fh L x v L fh
v 3h =
we obtain these formulas either directly from the figure or by using the Dirac delta function for the curvature (x) in the earlier integrals for the element deformations
If the moment release is located at node i or node j we obtain two special cases: at node i
v2h = v fh
v 3h = 0
i
v 2h
v fh
at node j
v2h = 0
v3h = v fh
i
v fh v3h
It is important to recall at this point that the element deformations are measured from the chord to the tangent at the node, which is shown in the above figures as a short line. Shear force release or transverse translation device we see that
v2h = v3h =
vth
L
vth
v 2h
v3h
x L
L-x
Note that no relative rotation is allowed by the transverse translation device, so that the two parts of the element are supposed to remain parallel. Thus, the end deformation angles are equal.
Page 167
Kinematics
Element deformations
We generalize the relations on the preceding page by stating that the total element deformations v are made up of two contributions: the deformations resulting from the integration of continuous section deformations (we call these strain-dependent deformations in the following), and the deformations resulting from the effect of concentrated relative translations or rotations due to the presence of force release devices. We denote the former with v and the latter with vh. With this notation we write for the element deformations
v = v + v h
We collect each of the above contributions into a separate vector for all elements of the structural model and obtain
V = V +Vh
the kinematic or compatibility relation for the structure then becomes V =V +Vh = A f U f here is an example with a moment release at end j
v2
v 2
i
v 3
v3
v h3
In a statically determinate structure there are as many free dof displacements on the right hand side of the above kinematic relations, as there are strain-dependent element deformations and concentrated hinge deformations. Examples 10 and 11 provide good examples without a release, and Example 12 provides a good example with a release. In the absence of releases we use V instead of V for the strain-dependent element deformations, since Vh = 0. In a statically indeterminate structure there are more element deformations on the left hand side than there are free global dof displacements on the right hand side of the above kinematic relations. The element deformations will be compatible if they satisfy the compatibility constraint we have encountered earlier, i.e.
BT V = 0 x
compatibility condition for statically indeterminate structure
or, else NOS axial or rotational devices need to be introduced in the redundant elements of the structure, so as to increase the number of unknown hinge deformations on the left hand side of the above equations for a unique solution. Example 13 is a good case in point illustrating both cases.
Page 168
Ex. 12 - Compatibility for portal frame with hinge
Example 12 - Compatibility relations for statically determinate 2d portal frame

Objectives: (a) set up of the compatibility relations between the displacements at the reduced set of free dofs of a statically determinate portal frame (three hinge frame) and the element deformations (b) determination of deformed shape for given element deformations (c) determination of hinge rotation at girder midspan of portal frame We make the following assumption: the nodes of the frame model do not displace relative to each other in the longitudinal (axial) direction of the element connecting two nodes, which also amounts to saying that the longitudinal deformation of the frame elements (change of length) is negligibly small. We call such elements inextensible. The statically determinate frame model is shown below.
2 b c
12
d a
10
5 1
We make the following observations: the vertical translation of dofs 2 and 4 is zero (or restrained) on account of the assumption that elements a and d are inextensible. Similarly, the horizontal translation of nodes 2, 3 and 4 is equal on account of the assumption about elements b and c being inextensible. After these observations we realize that there are seven independent global dofs, as shown in the following figure
4 3 2 b 5 c 6
d a
7 1
Page 169
Length of elements
La := 12
Lb := 8
Lc := 8
Ld := 10
Before setting up the relation between the free dof displacements and the angles that form between the node tangents and the node connector lines in the structural model we note that dofs 1 and 7 affect only one angle at the corresponding node. We have already encountered this case in the preceding example for the statically determinate beam. The same is also true for dof 5, because the angle at the left end of element c is of no interest for the lack of continuity at that location due to the rotational hinge. We will return to this issue subsequently to determine the hinge rotation at the left end of element c. We, therefore, set aside these dofs and plan to determine their values separately at the end, just in case their are of interest. The new set of reduced dofs is shown in the following figure
2 1 b c 3 4
d a
We proceed as follows: we activate each dof in turn and give it a unit value; during activation of a particular dof the others remain "locked". We measure the angle between the node tangents and the node connector lines in the structural model. We number the angles systematically starting with end i of element a, to end j of element a, end i of element b, etc. as shown in the following figure for dof 1. We skip angles at locations where continuity will not be enforced or is of no interest, as is the case with the hinge and the supports. We record the angle values for a unit displacement of the particular dof in a column of the kinematic matrix Af (one column for each dof with corresponding number). The following figures show the concept and the angle numbering
1 2 1 3 dof 1 4
1 La 0 Af 1 := 0 1 L d
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dof 2 2 1
1 3 4
1 2 := 1 Af 0 0
1 2 1 dof 3 3 4
0 1 Lb Af 3 := 1 Lc 0
3 2 1 dof 4 1 4
0 0 Af 4 := 1 1
Page 171
After establishing the individual relations we can conclude that the combined effect of all free dof displacements on the angles between node tangents and node connector lines can be written in the form
Af Uf
with
Af
1 12 0 = 0 1 10
0 1 8
1 0 0
1 8 0
0 1 1
we note that matrix Af is the transpose of the static matrix Bf for the same frame model after setting aside the equilibrium equations that involve axial forces in Example 4. In fact, we observe that it may be a little easier to set up the kinematic matrix under the assumption that the elements are inextensible than to combine the equilibrium equations so as to eliminate the axial forces. We will make ample use of this fact through the principle of virtual displacements later on in the course. To write the compatibility statement of angle equality in compact form we put the element deformations in a single vector V starting with the deformation at end i for element a, then deformation at end j for element a and so forth, so that there is perfect agreement in numbering between the set of element deformations and the angles between nodes and lines connecting nodes in the structural model. We note again that in this example we do not include in vector V the deformations at the element ends that are of no interest (like end i of element a, or end j or element d, and at the element end with no continuity because of the presence of a rotational hinge, i.e. end i of element c The compatibility or geometric continuity equations then read where Uf is the vector of free dof displacements and where the deformation vector V is V = Af Uf
V1 V2 V= V3 V4
V1 = U1 12 + U2 U3 8
deformation at end j of element a deformation at end i of element b deformation at end j of element c deformation at end i of element d
We write the compatibility relations for the example explicitly
V2 = U2 V3 = V4 = U3 8 U1 10
We note that there are as many compatibility relations as variables on the right hand side of the equations V = Af Uf.
+ U4 + U4
Page 172
Numerical results Let us assume now that elements a and b are curved or cambered with uniform curvature 0 (curving outward). The deformations are thus equal to
v = 0
L 2
with the appropriate sign.
We assume a curvature value of
0 := 6 10
For the same 0 the deformation is proportional to the length
La 2
= 0.0036
for element a
Lb 2
= 0.0024
for element b
leading to the following element deformation vector
T V := ( 0.0036 0.0024 0 0 )
where we use the transpose on the right hand side to save some space in specifying the vector! We can now solve for the displacements at the free dofs of the model
Uf
32.73 0.87 3 = 10 26.18 3.27
we observe that the translations (dofs 1 and 3) are an order of magnitude larger than the rotations! This is associated with the fact that the angle between node tangent and element connector is equal to the transverse translation value divided by the element length; thus, the difference in magnitude between translations and rotations is always on the order of the element length in consistent units
Noting that V3 and V4 are zero, we can determine the free dof displacements easily by hand and thus gain insight into the interplay between element deformations and global dof displacements. from (1) and (2) we get
V1 V2 = 0= U3 8
U1 12 U1 10
U3 8
(*) combining we get
from (3) and (4) we get
V1 V2 =
U1 12
U1 10
and we can solve for U1 and then substitute back to equation (*) to get U3 Finally, we can get the rotations U2 and U4 from the original equations namely:
U3 = 0.8 U1 U4 = U1 10 U3 8
U2 = V2 +
adding the last two equations up and noting the earlier relation (*) we get
U2 + U4 = V2
Finally, the rotations at the supports can be readily determined by adding the element deformation to the rotation of the chord at the corresponding node, as we have already remarked for the preceding example of the statically determinate beam.
Page 173
The deformed shape of the structure under a magnification factor of 50 is shown below
observe the chords and the deformations for elements a and b !
The geometric interpretation of the earlier relations is left as an exercise. Note that elements c and d displace as a unit that pivots about the right support
Page 174
Determination of hinge rotation We return to the compatibility equations with the intent to also include in the calculations the determination of the hinge rotation at girder midspan.
2 b 3 c 4
12
d a
10
5 1
Structural system with node and element numbering For determining the value of the hinge rotation we retain the rotation at node 3 as free dof. With this there are five free global dofs as shown in the following figure.
3 2 1 b 4 c 5
d a
Page 175
The figures with the angles that result under a unit displacement of each free global dof do not change, with the exception of dof 3 and the new rotation dof. We insert these below and pay particular attention to the fact that we also choose to record the angle between node 3 and the node connector line 2-3 as well as the node connector line 3-4. Thus, the angles to be monitored are now 6, as labeled in the figures.
3 1 1 2 dof 3 5 6 4
3 dof 4
We write the structure kinematic matrix, i.e. the relation between the angles at the six locations in the above figures and the global dof displacements (you may like to consult the earlier figures about dofs 1, 2, and 5). We obtain
Page 176
1 La 0 0 Af := 0 0 1 Ld
1 1
0 0
1 0 Lb
1 0 1 Lb 0 0 0 1 Lc 1 Lc 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
The element deformations are numbered accordingly and we have a vector V that contains six values, as shown in the figure above.
V1 V2 V 3 V= V4 V5 V 6
Af
0.083 0 0 = 0 0 0.1
0 0
1 0.125 0 0 0 0.125 1 0 0 0.125 0 0.125 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
The compatibility relations now state that the angles need to match at five locations, namely 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6. We write these compatibility relations explicitly,
V1 =
U1 La
+ U2 U3 Lb + U4
V4 = V4 + V4h = V5 = V6 =
U3 Lc U3 Lc U1 Ld
+ U4 + U5 + U5
(**)
V2 = U2 V3 = U3 Lb
(**) at end i of element c, i.e. at number 4 we do not have continuity; instead we can only calculate the lack of continuity by subtracting the element deformation from the angle of the node relative to the line connecting nodes 3 and 4. Thus, instead of
V4 =
U3 Lc
+ U4
we have the relation V 4h =
U3 + U4 V4 Lc
where V4h is the hinge rotation at end i of element c. We perform again the numerical calculations, but this time we also include a uniform curvature in element c. We assume the same uniform curvature value as for elements a and b (curving outward).
Page 177
Numerical results Elements a, b and c are curved or cambered with uniform curvature 0 (curving outward). The deformations are thus equal to
v = 0
L 2
with the appropriate sign; we assume a curvature value of
0 := 6 10
For the same 0 the deformation is proportional to the length
0 0
La 2 Lc 2
= 0.0036 = 0.0024
for element a for element c
Lb 2
= 0.0024
for element b
this leads to the following element deformation vector
0.0036 0.0024 0.0024 := 0.0024 0.0024 0
deformation at end j of element a deformation at end i of element b deformation at end j of element b deformation at end i of element c deformation at end j of element c deformation at end i of element d
We need to satisfy continuity or compatibility relations at 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6. We set up the coefficient matrix for the displacements at the free dofs and the corresponding left hand side deformation vector by extracting rows 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 from Af and V, respectively. We have
Af
0.083 0 0 = 0 0 0.1
0 0
1 0.125 0 0 0.125 1 0 0.125 0 0.125 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0
3.6 2.4 2.4 3 = 10 2.4 2.4 0
1 12 0 Coeff_Matrix := 0 0 1 10
0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0.125 0 0 0.125 1 0 0.125 0 0 0 0
3.6 2.4 3 LHS := 2.4 10 2.4 0
only rows 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6
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We can now solve for the displacements at the free dofs of the model Uf := lsolve ( Coeff_Matrix , LHS) 3 T Uf = ( 19.64 1.96 34.91 6.76 1.96 ) 10
With these displacement values, which represent a unique solution of the compatibility equations for the given element deformations for the statically determinate frame we can determine the hinge rotations at all locations of the structural model, i.e. 1 through 6. We have
Vh := Af Uf V
Vh
0 0 0 3 = 10 13.53 0 0
continuity!!
i.e. equality between Af Uf and V
discontinuity = hinge rotation at 4 i.e. inequality between Af Uf and V
hinge rotation
The figure shows that the hinge rotation is measured from the tangent of the deformed element at end i to the line following the node rotation. Since CCW is defined as positive for rotations and moments in this course, the rotation as shown is negative, in perfect agreement with the numerical result. CONCLUSION In a statically determinate structure there are as many deformation continuity conditions as independent free global dofs. Including compatibility conditions at locations with rotational hinges permits the determination of the hinge rotations with the equation Vh = Af Uf V where Vh are the hinge rotations.The hinge rotations Vh are zero at locations of continuity between node and element. Thus, in general the kinematic matrix may have more rows than columns, but continuity in a statically determinate structure can be enforced only at as many locations as available free global dofs.
Page 179

% Deformations and deformed shape for determinate portal frame (three hinge portal frame)

% clear memory and close any open windows CleanStart; % define XYZ(1,:) XYZ(2,:) XYZ(3,:) XYZ(4,:) XYZ(5,:) model geometry = [ 0 0]; % first node = [ 0 12]; % second node, etc = [ 8 12]; % = [ 16 12]; % = [ 16 2]; %
create Model
2 2 3 3 4
specify element deformations (note that we also include the axial)

V V(2) V(3) V(5) V(6) = zeros(3*Model.ne,1); = 0.0036; = -0.0036; = 0.0024; = -0.0024;
Page 180
V(8) = 0.0024; V(9) = -0.0024;
% with curvature in element c % with curvature in element c

remove row of kinematic matrix that corresponds to release (i.e. row 8)

ih = 8; ic = setdiff(1:3*Model.ne,ih); % indices of continuous element ends

Uf = Af(ic,:)\V(ic); % display result format short disp('the free global dof displacements are'); disp(Uf); the free global dof displacements are 0.0052 -0.0196 0 -0.0020 -0.0196 -0.0349 -0.0068 -0.0196 0 0.0020 0.0020
determine hinge rotation at left end of element c (consult pages 191-195 of reader)
Vh = Af*Uf - V; disp('the hinge rotation is'); disp(Vh(ih)); the hinge rotation is -0.0135

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 50; % magnification factor for deformed configuration Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); % it is necessary to insert V in the argument list for the hinge discontinuity Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U,V);
Page 181
Page 182
Ex. 13 - Compatibility for indeterminate truss
Example 13(r) - Compatibility relations for statically indeterminate 2d truss

Objectives: (a) set up of the compatibility relations between the displacements at the free dofs of a statically indeterminate truss and the element deformations (b) determination of deformed shape for given element deformations (c) compatibility condition; hinge deformation at "redundant" element The truss geometry is given in the following figure.
3 d 4
We focus on the number of independent ways that the nodes of the structure can displace. Since rotations are of no interest in this case, there are two independent translations at each node, except for the translations that are restrained by supports. There are 5 independent free global dofs in this case.
3 2
d
5 4
Page 183
To set up the compatibility relation between free dof displacements and element deformations we proceed in the following systematic way: (1) set each dof in turn to a unit value, while holding the other dofs equal to zero, (2) determine the change in distance between the nodes in the deformed configuration, (3) record this change of distance in a column vector with each row number corresponding to the element number that connects the corresponding nodes. The column number corresponds to the number of the dof we "activate". The corresponding array or matrix is known as compatibility matrix Af Preliminary geometric calculation: original distance between nodes numbered according to the corresponding element number.
La := 8 La = 8
Lb := 6 Lb = 6
d
Lc := 6 Lc = 6
Ld := 8 Ld = 8
Le :=
6 +8
Lf :=
6 +8
Le = 10
dof 2 1
Lf = 10
d
1 dof 1
dof 3 1
d
dof 4 1
Page 184
1 dof 5
d
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Af := 8 8 6 L L L e e e 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
8 6 Lf Lf
The change in node distances when all dof's are "activated" is the linear combination of the individual dof effects. Since the dof translation values are parameters to be determined, we collect them into the free dof displacement vector Uf and write for the change in node distances the following general relation
Af Uf
with
Af
1 0 0 0 0 0 = 0 1 0.8 0.8 0 0
0 1 0 0 0.6 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0.8 0.6
we note that matrix Af is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix Bf for the same truss structure in Example 5. There are now six element deformations for the five free global dofs and the compatibility matrix is 6 x 5. Compatibility states that for the elements to fit perfectly in the space between the displaced nodes the element deformations V need to be equal to the change in the distance between nodes. We write this equality relation as follows: V = Af Uf let us write it out in full to appreciate it better for this small structure
V1 = U1 V2 = U3 V3 = U5 V 4 = U 2 + U 4 V5 = 0.8 U1 0.8 U2 + 0.6 U3 V6 = 0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5
Page 185
There are now more compatibility relations for the global free dof displacements to satisfy, than there are available free global dofs. Thus, if an arbitrary set of element deformations V were supplied, it is most likely that a solution to all compatibility relations could not be found. The linear system of compatibility relations has a unique solution only if the V's satisfy extra conditions, which we call deformation constraints or compatibility conditions. The number of these conditions is equal to the difference between the number of rows and the number of columns under the assumption that the structural model we are dealing with is stable. Recall from the equilibrium discussion that this means that the rank of matrix Af is equal to the number of columns, which amounts to saying that the rank of its transpose matrix Bf is equal to the number of rows (recall discussion about equilibrium matrix in examples 1-6).
rank ( Af) = 5
the rank of this truss structure is indeed 5, as is the number of columns; it is, therefore, stable and the element deformations need to satisfy a single constraint or compatibility condition. We embark on finding this constraint. To do this we proceed as follows: we select the first 5 compatibility relations and use them to express the free global dof displacements U 1 through U5 in terms of element deformations V1 -V5 . Since this is a system of five linear equations in five unknowns, it has a unique solution as long as the rank of the coefficient matrix is equal to the number of equations. We try this and then form the inverse symbolically.
1 0 0 0 Coeff_Matrix := 0 0 0 1 0.8 0.8
0 0 1 0 1 0 0.6 0 0
1 0 0
0 0
rank ( Coeff_Matrix) = 5
Coeff_Matrix
1 0 0 0 0 1 0.75 0 0 1.25 = 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.75 0 1 1.25 0 0 1 0 0
U1 = V1
i.e.
U2 = V1 + 0.75 V2 1.25 V5 U3 = V2 U4 = V1 + 0.75 V2 + V4 1.25 V5 U5 = V3
of course, we note that the original 5 compatibility relations were simple enough that we could have obtained the same answer "by hand". Can you try? We take now the last two equations for U4 and U5 and substitute into the 6th compatibility relation above to obtain
V6 = 0.8 ( V1 + 0.75 V2 + V4 1.25 V5) + 0.6 V3

this is the condition between the element deformations to make sure that all compatibility relations can be satisfied by a unique set of global dof displacements.
Page 186
Let us simplify the above condition and collect all terms on the left hand side. We get
0.8 V1 0.6 V2 0.6 V3 0.8 V4 + V5 + V6 = 0

We write this relation as the vector product of two vectors and make an amazing discovery!
We have:
V1 V2 V 3 ( 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.8 1 1 ) = 0 V4 V5 V 6
and we note that the vector multiplying the element deformations is the transpose of the force influence matrix Bbarx from example 5. Thus, the deformation constraint or compatibility condition that ensures that all compatibility relations can be satisfied with a unique set of global dof displacements is T Bbarx V = 0 This is such a well known result in linear algebra that MIT Professor Gilbert Strang calls it the fundamental theorem of linear algebra, Part II. You can read about all this when you read Chapter 2 from page 62 to page 99 and Chapter 3 from pages 132 to 139 of his outstanding book "Linear Algebra and its Applications", 3rd edition (on reserve in the Engineering Library). We conclude our example by stating the following results: In a statically indeterminate structure the compatibility matrix Af has more rows than columns. In fact, since the compatibility matrix is always the transpose of the equilibrium matrix for the same structural model (to be proven later), the difference between number of rows and number of columns of the compatibility matrix is the degree of static indeterminacy or redundancy NOS. For a stable structure the rank of the compatibility matrix is equal to the number of columns, which means that the rank of the equilibrium matrix is equal to the number of rows. Since the compatibility matrix Af has more rows than columns in a statically indeterminate structure, there are more compatibility relations than available free global dof displacements. The latter need to satisfy all compatibility relations so that the deformed structure is continuous without gaps and angle discrepancies. For an arbitrary set of element deformation values V this is not possible, unless NOS "hinges" are inserted and NOS redundant forces are released. If this is not the case, then the element deformation vector V satisfies the T deformation constraint or compatibility condition that Bbarx V = 0 Recall that for a degree of static indeterminacy NOS, there are NOS linearly independent self-stress states that make up the columns of matrix Bbarx . Thus, NOS independent compatibility constraints are imposed T on the element deformations through the compatibility condition that Bbarx V = 0. We will see this in the following example 14. Linear algebra specialists (like Professor Strang) say that the column space of the compatibility matrix is always orthogonal to the nullspace of the equilibrium matrix (which is its transpose). If the element deformations V lie in this column space then a unique solution of the compatibility relations exists.
Page 187
Let us see now what happens if an arbitrary set of element deformations is given. We assume the following values T V := ( 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.02 ) We use the first 5 compatibility equations to determine the set of global dof displacement values that satisfy these. We obtain
1 0 0 0 Ai := 0 0 0 1 0.8 0.8
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0.6 0
0 1 0 0
0.02 0.05 Vi := 0.02 0.05 0.02
Uf := lsolve ( Ai , Vi)
Uf
0.02 0.033 = 0.05 0.083 0.02
The distance between nodes 1 and 4 then can be obtained from the 6th row of the kinematic matrix Af
( 0 0 0 0.8 0.6 ) Uf = 0.054

or, quite simply with
U1 0.02 U2 0.033 U3 := 0.05 U4 0.083 0.02 U5
0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5 = 0.054
since the corresponding element deformation, i.e. the deformation of element f, is only 0.02 an axial gap or slip of an axial translation device results. It is equal to 0.054-0.02. The formal way of expressing this is that between nodes 1 and 4 we have the following relation
V6 + V6h = 0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5

so that
with
V6 := 0.02 V6h = 0.034
V6h := 0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5 V6
Page 188
The following figure provides the representation of the deformed shape of the structural model with the gap in the in the axial translation device in element f.
0.034
Page 189

% Deformations for statically indeterminate 2d truss

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 0 6]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 8 6]; % % connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 1 3]; CON { 3} = [ 2 4]; CON { 4} = [ 3 4]; CON { 5} = [ 2 3]; CON { 6} = [ 1 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1]; BOUN(2,:) = [ 0 1]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Truss'); 0 = free)
% number of elements % truss element
Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Label_Model (Model);
3 4
% open figure window % plot model (optional) % label model (optional)

4
5 2 6 3
Compatibility relations
kinematic matrix for all dofs in structural model A = A_matrix (Model); % extract free dofs
Page 190
Af = A(:,1:Model.nf); % specify the element deformations V = [0.02;0.05;-0.02;0.05;0.02;0.02]; % extract nf rows of kinematic matrix Ai = Af(1:5,:); % extract corresponding deformations Vi = V(1:5);

Uf = Ai\Vi; % display result format short disp('the free global dof displacements are'); disp(Uf); the free global dof displacements are 0.0200 0.0325 0.0500 0.0825 -0.0200
determine incompatible ("hinge") deformation at NOS redundant elements

Vh = Af*Uf - V; disp('the incompatible deformation is'); disp(Vh(6)); the incompatible deformation is 0.0340

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 10; Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,U);
Page 191
Ex 14 - Compatibility for indeterminate braced frame
Example 14 - Compatibility relations for statically indeterminate braced frame

Objectives: (a) set up of the compatibility relations between the displacements at the reduced set of free dofs of a statically indeterminate braced frame and the element deformations (b) derive the necessary conditions for the element deformations so that a unique solution is possible for the displacements at the free global dofs (compatibility conditions for the deformations) We assume that the elements of the braced frame in the figure are inextensible, so that the nodes cannot move relative to each other in the longitudinal (axial) direction of the elements. Under this assumption the structural model has only 4 free global dofs, as shown.
dof 2 dof 1 dof 3 dof 4 b
La := 6
6
Lb := 4 Lc := 4 Ld := 8 +6
2 2
1
4 4
We are interested in the angle between node tangent and node connector line at 5 locations. These are systematically numbered in the following figures. We are also interested in the change of distance between node 1 and 4, since there is an axially deformable element at this location. The relation between global dof displacements and these deformations for the translation dofs can be inferred from the following figures
dof 3
dof 1
4 3
4 5
3 2
1
4 4
1
4 4
Page 192
The compatibility matrix is
1 6 1 6 0 Af := 0 0 0.8
0 1
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 1 1 0
We recall the equilibrium equations from Example 6 and confirm again that the compatibility matrix is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix. Equilibrium equations from Example 6
P1 =
Q1 + Q2 6
+ 0.8 Q6
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 P3 = Q3 + Q4 4 + Q5 4
1 0 4 0 0 1 4 0
P4 = Q 4 + Q 5
There are now 5 angles and one change of distance that reflect the effect of the free global displacements. Compatibility is satisfied if the element deformations match these 5 angles and the change of distance. We can write V = Af Uf
V1 =
or, written out in full
U1 6 U1 6
V2 =
+ U2 U3 4 + U4
V3 = U2 V4 = V5 = U3 4
U3 4
+ U4
V6 = 0.8 U1
There are now 6 equations in involving 4 variables, the free global dof displacement values. The difference between the number of compatibility equations and the variables is NOS, the degree of static indeterminacy, something to be expected, of course, since we noted that the kinematic matrix Af is the transpose of the static matrix Bf, which has NOS more columns than rows. If the left hand side vector is given, such a system of equations does not have a solution, unless the vector satisfies certain conditions. We set out to determine these conditions now. To do so, we select four linearly independent compatibility relations and solve for the global dof displacements in terms of the element deformations (we assume that the latter will be given). In this example we have quite a choice of which four equations to select, but because we need to prove a certain relation of the resulting equations with a result from Example 6, we select the compatibility equations 2, 3, 5 and 6. We solve for the free global dof displacement values by hand and get
Page 193
from eq (6) from eq (2) from eq (3)
U1 = 1.25 V6 5 V6 6 24 5 U3 = 4 U2 4 V3 = 4 V2 V6 4 V3 6 U2 = V2 = V2 U4 = V5 U3 4 = V5 V2 + 5 V6 + V3 24 U1
from eq (5)
To ensure that the two deformation values that we did not use above are compatible with the rest, we substitute the free global dof displacement values into the compatibility equations 1 and 4 and get from eq (1) from eq (4)
V1 =
5 V6 = 0 24 5 5 5 V 4 = V 2 + V6 + V3 + V5 V2 + V6 + V3 = 2 V2 + 2 V3 + V5 + V6 24 24 12
I.e.
5 V6 24
V1
i.e.
2 V2 2 V3 + V4 V5
5 V6 = 0 12
We write the two compatibility conditions in compact form
V1 V2 1 0 0 0 0 5 24 V3 0 = 5 V4 0 0 2 2 1 1 12 V5 V 6
or, after checking with Example 6
T Bbarx V = 0
Thus, we conclude that in order for a solution of the compatibility equations V = Af Uf to exist for a given deformation vector V, the element deformations V need to satisfy NOS conditions, which take the form T Bbarx V = 0. These conditions are known as compatibility conditions. There are no compatibility conditions in a stable, statically determinate structure (NOS=0), which means that any given deformation vector is compatible with a unique set of free global dof displacements. Linear algebra deals with the solution of linear systems of the form V = Af Uf extensively. If there are more equations than unknowns, then it is stated that a solution exists only if the vector V lies in the column space of Af. (Strang, 3rd ed, pp. 66). To prove that a vector V lies in the column space of a matrix Af, it is often easier to show that the vector is orthogonal to the so-called left nullspace of the matrix, i.e. the nullspace of the transpose of the matrix. Since Bf = transpose (Af) and the vectors of Bbarx span the nullspace of Bf, this T results in the condition that Bbarx V = 0, as stated earlier. This is the necessary and sufficient condition for V to lie in the column space of the matrix Af, so that a solution exists to the compatibility equations V = Af Uf (Strang, 3rd ed, pp. 138-139).
Page 194
Kinematics
Relation between equilibrium and compatibility

Let us show the relationship between equilibrium equations and compatibility relations.
Recall that
A f = Bf
start with V = A fU f or
Vi Ai = U f Vx A x
1
Recall also that
Pf Pfw = Bi Qi + B x Qx
1
solve top equation since Ai square and non-singular

U f = Ai 1 i V
Qi = Bi
P Pfw ) B xQx ( f
or U f = Ai
Qx = Qx
T U f = Bi V
V 0 i Vx
noting that Ai = Bi
T
B 1B Qi B 1 x Q = i Pf Pfw + i x Qx 0 I
substitute solution into the second equation
Vx = A x Ai Vi
A x Ai1 i +Vx = 0 V
A A 1 I V = 0 x i
V A A 1 I i = 0 x i V x
noting that A x = B x and
T
Bx V = 0
( CD )T = DTCT
U f 0
T Bi = T V Bx
Page 195
Kinematics
Linear constraints for inextensible and inflexible elements

A significant reduction in the number of independent free dof's can be achieved by considering approximations of the actual behavior of structural elements of the form: (a) axial deformations of frame elements can be treated as negligible in many cases, because they contribute very little to the global dof displacements of frame structures, and (b) certain elements of the structural model can be considered relatively inflexible to the other elements, because they possess a rather large flexural stiffness (e.g. shear wall elements). We impose these conditions in the form of constraint equations between the original free dof's. Using the constraint equations we can express all original dof displacements in terms of a smaller number of constrained dof's. Under small displacements the constraint relations are linear. 1. Case: inextensible element recall that the axial deformation of a 2d frame element is given by
u5
X v = L
Y L
X L
Y L
j
L = X 2 + Y 2
Y =Y j Yi
u4
v= X Y u 4 u1 + u5 u 2 L L
u1 u2 u 0 3 u4 u 5 u 6
Y
u2
u1 i
X = X j X i
Thus, if v=0, a linear relation between the end translation dof's results.
0=
X Y u 4 u1 + u5 u 2 L L
)
u1 u2 0 u 3 u 1 4 u5 u 6
2. Case: inflexible element recall that the end deformations of a 2d frame element are given by
Y v2 L2 = v3 Y 2 L
Y L Y L
2 2
X L X L2
2
1 0
Y L Y L2
2
X L X L2
2
0=
For an inflexible element both deformations are zero, i.e.
(u 4 u1 ) X (u5 u 2 ) + u3 2 (u 4 u1 )
Y L
2
0=
L X L
2
(u5 u 2 ) + u 6
L
which can be rewritten in more compact form as
u3 = u 6 =
(u 4 u1 ) + X (u5 u 2 ) 2
the constraint equations for an inflexible element show that the end rotations are equal; furthermore, the relative end translations satisfy a specific linear relation From the above two cases we conclude that an inextensible element introduces one constraint equation, while an inflexible element introduces two constraint equations. In general, in a structural model constraint equations are independent. In such case the number of indepedent free dof's is reduced by the number of available constraint equations. We can be more specific. An inextensibility condition involves only translation dof's. Thus, it reduces the number of independent translation dof's, but does not constrain the rotation dof's in any way. By contrast, the inflexibility constraint involves both rotation and translation dof's.
Page 196
Ex. 15 - Compatibility for portal frame with constraints
Example 15 - Compatibility relations for 2d portal frame with linear constraints

Objectives: (a) set up formally the compatibility relations for a portal frame with inextensible elements Start with full set of free global dofs for the case that axial deformations are not negligible.
2 1 3 b 6 5 4 c 9 8 7
There are 3 deformations per element for a total of 12 deformations. The compatibility relations are The numbering of the element deformations is shown in the following figure in italic font.
5 4 6 8 7
V = Af Uf
with
11
10
12
0 1 5 1 5 1 0 0 Af := 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 4 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 4
1 0 0 4 1 4 1 0 0 1
0 1 4 1 4 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 5
1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Page 197
We assume now that elements a, b, c and d are inextensible. This means that
V1 = 0 V4 = 0 V7 = 0 V10 = 0
or, from the compatibility relations
0 = U2 0 = U 1 + U 4 0 = U 4 + U 7 0 = U8 U1 = U4 U4 = U7
These 4 linearly independent linear constraints establish 4 linearly independent linear relations between the original set of 9 free global dofs. Consequently, only 5 independent free dofs remain. We select the original dofs 1, 3, 5, 6 and 9 as the independent free global dofs and denote them with a new symbol Utild, which stands for constrained free global dofs (we cannot insert a tilde in Mathcad, so we need to resort to the spelled out version). We have the following relations between the original and the constrained dof set
2 b 3 4 1 c 5 1
U1 = Utild1
which we can write compactly in matrix form as
U2 = 0 U3 = Utild2 U4 = Utild1 U5 = Utild3 U6 = Utild4 U7 = Utild1 U8 = 0 U9 = Utild5

with where Ac is the constraint compatibility matrix
Uf = Ac Utildf
1 0 0 1 Ac := 0 0 1 0 0
Page 198
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
We can now obtain the following compatibility relations in terms of the constrained free global dofs V = Af Uf = Af Ac Utildf = Atildf Utildf with Atildf := Af Ac
where
Atildf
0 1 5 1 5 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 5
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 4 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 4 1 4 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
we note, of course, that the deformations 1, 4, 7 and 10 are identically equal to zero, as we have assumed at the beginning deformations for dof 1
1 1
deformations for dof 3

3 1
Page 199
Since we know that the axial deformations are zero, we can write the compatibility matrix for the constrained free global dofs with only 8 deformation entries (note that the difference between deformations and constrained free global dofs is NOS, i.e. 3) in this case. We have
1 5 1 5 0 0 Atildf := 0 0 1 5 1 5
0 1
0 0
0 0
0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 4 1 1 4 1 0 0 0
1 4 1 4 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0
observe that this compatibility matrix is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix of the same portal frame from Example 8
P1 =
Q1 + Q2
5 5 P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 Q3 + Q4 Q5 + Q6 P3 = + 4 4 P4 = Q 4 + Q 5 P5 = Q 6 + Q 7
Q7 + Q8
0.2 0 Bf := 0 0 0 1 5 0 = 0 0 0
1 5 1
0.2 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 5 5
0 0 0 1
0.2 0.2 0 0 0 1 0
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
0 0 0
Bf
0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 4 4 4 4 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
Page 200
Kinematics
Let us look at a few examples: 1. Example: simple case of portal frame with inextensible elements with constraints
2 3 1 6 5 4
0 =U 2 0 =U 4 U1 0 =U 5
becomes
1
Note: only translation dofs are affected with inextensible constraints 2. Example: gable frame with inextensible elements
5 4 2 b 1 3 6 c 9 8 7 6
with constraints
0 =U 2 8 6 U 4 U1 + U U 2 10 10 5 8 6 U 7 U 4 U U 5 0= 10 10 8 0 =U 8 0=
) )
=0
12
U1 U 4 U 5 U 7
Two constraint equations for 4 translation dofs. Thus, several choices for two independent translation dof's are possible
One choice is to select the original dof's 1 and 4 as independent translation dof's
3 4
Another choice is to select the original dof's 1 and 5 as independent

3 4
Page 201
Kinematics
3. Example: portal frame with inextensible and one inflexible element

3 2 4 7 6
with constraints
5
0 =U 3 U1 = U 4 = U2 H
rigid
H 0 = U U 5 2
0 =U 6
1
becomes
4. Example: dependent or inactive constraints with constraints

b
2 3 1
0 =U 2 0 =U 2
becomes
2
with constraints
e
2 1 3
0 =U1
d c
0 =U 2 0= 0=
becomes
1
e d c
Thus, the number of independent free dofs is equal to the number of unconstrained free dofs minus the number of linearly independent constraint conditions. This number corresponds to the rank of the constraint matrix, as we will see subsequently.
Page 202
Kinematics
Constraint compatibility matrix The linear constraint conditions form a set of linear homogeneous equations in terms of the original dof displacements. We can write this system of equations symbolically
0 = A LCU
(1)
The rank of the constraint matrix ALC is equal to the number of independent constraints. Thus, the number of indepedent free dof's is equal to the number of original free dof's of the structural model (the number of unconstrained dof's) minus the rank of the constraint matrix. We can use equation (1) to select a set of independent dof's and express the remainder in terms of these. We have seen this process already in action with the equilibrium equations and the determination of the force influence matrix for the redundant basic forces, but we repeat it here for review's sake.
We select a set of independent dof's among the global dof displacement vector U and denote them with subscript i (for independent). The remainder are denoted with subscript c (for constrained). From (1) we get
0 = A LCi U i + A LCc U c
solving for Uc we get U c = A LCc
A LCi U i
We supplement the last equations with the identity U i = IU i where I is the identity matrix; this way we recover the complete set of dof's on the left hand side
1 A U c A LCi LCc U = A U we get U f = reorder c i U = reorder i i I
for better identification we denote the independent free dof's under constraints with a new symbol U f
and write U f = A cU f
for the relation between the original set of dof's and the independent free dof's under constraints
we call Ac the constraint compatibility matrix Naturally, in the absence of any constraints the constraint compatibility matrix is the identity matrix. for application consult Examples 15 and 16
Page 203
Kinematics
Geometric determination of constraint compatibility matrix 1. Step: displacement of point R lying on plane that undergoes infinitesimal rotation about point 0
R'
U RX U RY
R
from similar triangles
YR
LR
U RX
LR
U RX = YR U RY = X R
LR
X R
LR
Y
U RY
LR
LR
YR
X R
2. Step: change of distance of two nodes rotating infinitesimally about common instantaneous center of rotation IC
u4 u5
j
u1 = YC u 2 = X C u 4 = Y + YC
) u5 = ( X + X C )
Y
Y IC i X X C
for relative end displacement
u1
u2
YC
u 4 u1 = Y
u5 u 2 = X
(u4 u1 ) X + (u5 u2 ) Y = Y X + X Y = 0
Infinitesimal rotation of the line connecting two nodes is equivalent to inextensible response; thus, inextensible elements rotate about an instantaneous center of rotation; how to locate this center?
Page 204
Kinematics
from relations on preceding page we have
u4 u5
j
Location of instantaneous center of rotation for infinitesimal rotation angle
u 4 u1 Y
u5 u 2 X
Y coordinates of IC
Y IC i X X C
u1
u2
YC
YC =
u1
X C =
u2
after subtitution of
YC =
u1 u 4 u1
X C =
u2 u5 u 2
Determination of rotation angle with given instantaneous center of rotation for infinitesimal rotation angle
u 4 u1 Y
or,
u5 u 2 X
= u4 Y + YC
or,
or, better =
u1 YC
or,
u2 X C
u5 X + X C
i.e. with the translation at either end of the element determine the rotation angle by dividing this translation with the distance normal to the translation direction from the point of translation to the instantaneous center of rotation
Page 205
Kinematics
consider 4 special cases
u5
j
u5
j u4
u4
Case a
Case b
u2 = 0
u2
i u =0 1
i u =0 1
IC
IC
IC is located at end i of element; rotation can be determined with either translation
IC is located somewhere on the line parallel to X through node i; rotation can be determined from horizontal translation at node j
u4 Y
or
u5 X
u4 Y
u5
j
u4
u5 = 0
u4
IC
Case c
Case d
u2 = 0
i
u2
u1
i u1 = 0
IC
IC is located somewhere on the line parallel to Y through node i; rotation can be determined from vertical translation at node j
u5 X
IC is located at the intersection of the line parallel to X through node i and the line parallel to Y through node j; rotation can be determined with either translation
u4 Y
or
u2 X
for application consult Example 17

Page 206
Kinematics
Stability of structural models

We have encounted two very important matrices of a structural model: the equilibrium matrix Bf and the compatibility matrix Af. Since the compatibility matrix is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix the following remarks apply to both. We have mentioned repeatedly that the rank of either matrix needs to be equal to the number of independent free global dofs in the model for the structure to be stable. With a mathematical toolbox we can readily check the rank of a matrix. Is there a way to do it by "inspection"? To do this we need to consider what it means for the compatibility matrix not to have full rank, i.e. rank equal to the number of free global dofs. It means that the system of compatibility relations
V = A fU f
can have a non-zero solution for V=0.
Tranlated to our structural problem this means, that V=0 implies Uf = 0 in a stable structure (the undeformed configuration), while V=0 can result in non-zero vector Uf, which constitutes a collapse mechanism and is unacceptable. (Note that the stability of a structure at the undeformed configuration is a property of the compatibility matrix!). Answering this question becomes very important for statically indeterminate structures, when we select the basic force redundants, hoping that we can solve the equilibrium equations for the primary basic forces. The system that remains when the redundants are set equal to zero is called the primary system, and it needs to be stable. To apply the stability check in practice we ask the following question: Is it possible for global dof displacements to take place without element deformations? The answer is yes, if a set of consistent IC's of rotation for the different elements or blocks of the structural model exist. The answer is no, if the IC locations contradict, in which case the structure is stable. Let us look at a few examples example frame with NOS=4 statically determinate system: unstable
IC B RC CD
A
NOS=4
RC BC
IC D
IC C Alternative A: unstable 2
IC C @
IC C
Page 207
Kinematics
example frame with NOS=4
statically determinate system: stable

RC BC
A
NOS=4
IC A
IC B
RC AB
IC C
IC B Alternative B: stable
IC B
Note the contradictory location of the instantaneous center for element B when viewed from A or C. Note that we set the axial deformations to zero, since it is enough to make the argument with the flexural deformations.
A statically indeterminate example (w/o hinges NOS=9) stable
stable
D
A B C IC C IC A A and C form a three hinge frame = stable
another example (originally NOS=4) unstable

D
stable
C
Page 208
Example 16 - Gable Frame with Constraints
Example 16 - Compatibility Relations for Gable Frame with Constraints - Analytic Method
In this example we set up the compatibility relations for a gable frame structure. We start will all free global dofs and then constrain them by inextensibility and then inflexibility conditions. The gable frame structure is the same as in Example 1. The following figure shows the geometry.
5 4 2 1
node 2
6
node 3
b 3
c 9
node 4
8 7
a
Y node 1 X
d 10
node 5 8 8
there are 10 free global dof's, as shown. Dof #10 only affects 12 the angle at the base of element d and is put aside.
The resulting free global dof's without any constraints are:
5 4 2 1 3 b 6 c 9 8 7
6
a
Y X
12
Page 209
To set up the compatibility matrix Af we study a pair of nodes after translation and rotation. We note that there are the following measures of relative displacement: the change in the distance between the nodes, and the angles between the node tangent and the node connector line. We number these in order 1, 2 and 3.
v1
u6
v3
Ln
u5 u4
v2
u3
Y i y
u2
i
x X
v1 = L n L v1 = and X Y ( u4 u1) + ( u5 u2) L L u3 = u6
u1
We have for the change in distance
and limiting ourselves to small displacements for the angle we have for small displacements v2 = u3 =
1 X Y ( u5 u2) ( u4 u1) L L L
Page 210
collecting all these relations into a matrix relation we get the compatibility matrix that expresses the relation between the change of distance and the angles between the node tangent and the node connector line on the one hand and the end node displacements in the global reference on the other. We have
v = ag u
where
X Y 0 X Y 0 L L L L Y X 1 Y X 0 ag = 2 2 2 2 L L L L Y X Y X 1 0 2 2 2 2 L L L L
We apply this relation systematically to the above frame noting the following: element a will be placed between nodes 1 and 2 element b will be placed between nodes 2 and 3 element c will be placed between nodes 3 and 4 element b will be placed between nodes 4 and 5 The resulting structure compatibility matrix Af is 1 0 1 0 12 1 0 12 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.8 10 10 0.6 0.8 Af := 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0.8 0.6 10 0.6 10 0.6 10 0.6 10 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 0 X := 0 X := 8 X := 8 X := 0 Y := 12 Y := 6 Y := 6 Y := 12 L := 12 L := 10 L := 10 L := 12
0.8 0 10 0.8 10 1 0
0 0.8 0 0 0 0
0.6 0.8 10 0.8 10 0 0
1 0 0 0
0.8 0.6 10 10 0.6 10 0 1 12 0.8 10 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
there are 9 free global dof's represented by the 9 columns of the matrix, one column representing the effect of a single dof there 11 relative displacement entries, i.e. either change of distance or angle between node and line connecting the nodes, represented by the 11 rows of the matrix, one row for each relative displacement
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We observe that the compatibility matrix is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix for the same structure with the same numbering of equilibrium equations and basic forces. For a stable structure the rank of the compatibility matrix should be equal to the number of columns, i.e. equal to the number of independent free global dofs. Here we have rank ( Af) = 9 and indeed the structure is stable
The degree of static indeterminacy NOS of the structure is equal to the difference between the number of continuity conditions and the number of independent free dofs, assuming that the latter is equal to the rank. Thus, if we enforce continuity in all 11 locations, as the detailing of the structural model suggests, then the degree of static indeterminacy of this structure is NOS=11-9 = 2. Inextensible element - Linear constraints Let us now assume that the nodes are constrained to translate so that the distance between nodes with elements does not change. These introduces as many constraints as elements. These constraints are linear under small displacements. For the structure in this example we have 4 constraints 0 = U2 0= 0= 8 6 ( U4 U1) + ( U5 U2) 10 10 8 6 ( U7 U4) ( U8 U5) 10 10 using the first two equations and simplifying we have 0= 0= 6 8 (U4 U1) + 10 U5 10 8 6 ( U7 U4) + U5 10 10
0 = U8 thus, we are left with 2 linear equations for 4 translation dofs. These equations constrain the 4 translation dofs, so that only 2 are independent and the other 2 need to have values that satisfy the two equations (recall the discussion about basic and free variables in linear algebra, or the discussion about primary and redundant basic forces for the equilibrium equations; the situation here is entirely analogous). Let us pick the following independent free dof's and renumber them to be in sequence
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We solve first the two linear constraint equations: set U1 = 1 and U4 = 0 from the first equation we get and from the second set U1 = 0 and U4 = 1 from the first equation we get and from the second U5 = 4 3 U1 = 4 3
U7 = 1 U1 = 1 4 4 U5 = U4 = 3 3 U7 = 2 U4 = 2
We are now ready to write the linear transformation relation between the original and the constrained set of free dof's. For the latter we use the symbol Utildf and the numbering on the right figure above. We have U1 = Utild1 U2 = 0 U3 = Utild2 U4 = Utild3 U5 = 4 3 Utild1 4 3 Utild3 U9 = Utild5
U6 = Utild4 U7 = Utild1 + 2 Utild3 U8 = 0
clearly, the rotation dofs are not affected by these constraints (just renumbered), but the translation dofs are we can write the above relation between Uf and Utildf in compact from
Uf = Ac Utildf
with
1 0 0 0 4 Ac := 3 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 4 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
this is called the constraint compatibility matrix in this course
since we plan to work with the constrained set of dofs in the future we like to express the structure compatibility matrix in terms of the constrained set of free dofs. We call this matrix Atildf in other words the changes in length and angles are expressed in terms of the displacements of the constrained set of dofs by the relation Atildf Utildf and since Af Uf = Af Ac Utildf we conclude that Atildf = Af Ac
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For the structure in this example the compatibility matrix Atildf becomes
Atildf := Af Ac
0 0.083 0.083 0 0.167 Atildf = 0.167 0 0.167 0.167 0 0.083
0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0.167 0.167 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0.167 1 0 0.167 0 0 0 0 0.167 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
change of length between nodes 1 and 2
we confirm from the above that the distance between nodes 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-5 does not change. Thus, we plan to drop the corresponding rows from future uses of the structure compatibility matrix Atildf for the constrained set of free dofs. We will see later that the entries of the structure compatibility matrix Atildf for the constrained set of free dofs can be established by geometry in a much more straightforward way for small structures. Inflexible element - Linear constraint Let us now assume that element be is not only inextensible, but quite inflexible relative to the other elements in the model. This means that the rotations of nodes 2 and 3 are constrained to be equal to the angle as the following figure shows for an extensible, but inflexible element
v1
u6
Ln
the inflexibility constraints are u3 = = X L

2
( u5 u2) ( u5 u2)
Y L
2
( u4 u1) ( u4 u1) u6 = u3
u5 u4
u6 = =
X L
2
Y L
2
u3
Y i y
which implies, of course

L j
u2
i
x X
u1
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To introduce the inflexibility constraint between nodes 2 and 3 after having introduced the inextensibility constraints for the structure in this example we can proceed in one of two ways: (a) we can return to the linear constraint conditions for inextensibility and add the inflexibility conditions, or, (b) we can introduce the inflexibility conditions on the already constrained set of free global dofs. Let us show both methods: Method a: introduce inextensibility and inflexibility constraints in one step We have 4 inextensibility and 2 inflexibility conditions. We use 2 inextensibility conditions to conclude that U2 and U8 are equal to zero, as before. We have: remaining inextensibility conditions 0= 0= inflexibility conditions U3 = U6 = 8 10 10 8 10 10 U5 U5 6 10 10 6 10 10 ( U4 U1) ( U4 U1) 4 3 4 3
(U4 U1) + 10
8 10 ( U7 U4) +
6 10 6
U5 U5
10
set
U1 = 1
and
U4 = 0
from the first equation on the left we get from the second equation on the left we get from the first and second equation on the right
U5 =
U1 =
U7 = 1 U1 = 1 U3 = U6 = 1 6 1 6 U1 = U1 = 1 6 1 6
set
U1 = 0
and
U4 = 1
from the first equation on the left we get from the second equation on the left we get from the first and second equation on the right
4 4 U5 = U4 = 3 3 U7 = 2 U4 = 2 1 1 U3 = U4 = 6 6 1 1 U6 = U4 = 6 6
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The independent free dofs are now three, as shown in the following figure. We denote them with U'fTto distinguish them from the Utildf in method (b) later. The above relations give
2 c 6
U1 = U'1 U2 = 0 U3 = 1 1 U'1 U'2 6 6
U4 = U'2
a d 12
U5 = U6 =
4 4 U'1 U'2 3 3 1 1 U'1 U'2 6 6
U7 = U'1 + 2 U'2 U8 = 0 U9 = U'3
The constraint compatibility matrix A'c now is
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 6 6 0 0 1 0 4 4 A'c := 0 3 3 1 1 6 6 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
this is the matrix that relates the original set of nine independent free dofs to the constrained set of 3 independent free dofs, which displace under consideration of 4 inextensible and 1 inflexible element
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The compatibility matrix Atild'f for the three independent free dofs becomes
Atild'f := Af A'c
0 0.083 0.25 0 0 Atild'f = 0 0 0.333 0.167 0 0.083
0 0 0.167 0 0 0 0 0.333 0.167 0 0.167
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
change of length between nodes 2 and 3 angle between node 2 and chord at end i of b angle between node 3 and chord at end j of b change of length between nodes 3 and 4
We note that the change in distance between nodes 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-5 is now equal to zero, as is the angle between nodes 2 and 3 and the chord connecting them. Thus, we plan to drop the corresponding rows from future uses of the structure compatibility matrix Atild'f for the constrained set of free dofs. Method b: introduce inflexibility constraints after having introduced inextensibility constraints in this case we plan to constrain the following set of 5 independent free dofs to 3
4
b
2 c
To establish the relation between these two sets of dofs in the most direct way possible we look at the rows of the structure compatibility matrix that correspond to the angles between nodes 2 and 3 and the chord connecting them for the case of 5 independent free dofs (top of page 6). We have 1 1 Utild1 + Utild2 + Utild3 6 6 1 1 Utild1 + Utild3 + Utild4 6 6 for the angle between node 2 and the line connecting 2-3 for the angle between node 3 and the line connecting 2-3
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For an inflexible element b these two angles need to be zero, i.e. there is no angle between the node and the chord connecting it to the next node, because the node is forces to rotate with the chord. Thus, we get Utild2 = 1 1 Utild1 Utild3 6 6
and we conclude, of course that
1 1 Utild4 = Utild1 Utild3 6 6
Utild2 = Utild4
After renumbering the new set of constrained dofs, as shown in the figure on the right and denoting them with U'f we have: Utild1 = U'1 Utild2 = 1 1 U'1 U'2 6 6 Utild4 = 1 1 U'1 U'2 6 6
Utild5 = U'3
Utild3 = U'2 this means that the constraint matrix from 5 to 3 dofs (call it A''c ) is
1 0 0 1 1 0 6 6 A''c := 0 1 0 1 1 0 6 6 0 0 1
and we now have for the compatibility matrix Atild'f for the three independent free dofs
Atild'f := Atildf A''c
0 0.083 0.25 0 0 0 Atild'f = 0 0.333 0.167 0 0.083
0 0 0.167 0 0 0 0 0.333 0.167 0 0.167
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
change of length between nodes 2 and 3 angle between node 2 and chord at end i of b angle between node 3 and chord at end j of b change of length between nodes 3 and 4
which, of course, is the same result as for method a. In the latter we went in a single step from the original 9 independent free dofs to the three constrained free dofs. In method b we went in two steps: first from 9 to 5 free dofs by invoking the inextensible element constraints, and then from 5 to 3 by invoking the inflexible element constraints.
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(a) gable frame with inextensible constraints (b) gable frame with inextensible and one inflexible constraint

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 12]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 8 18]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 16 12]; XYZ(5,:) = [ 16 0]; % % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('2dFrm'); 0 = free) (specify only restrained
% 2d beam element
Compatibility analysis with inextensible elements

% set up linear constraint equations for inextensible elements % (w/o specification, all elements are by default inextensible) LC_Eqs = LinConEqs(Model); % the size of array LC_Eqs is: % number of rows = no of inextensible elem + 2*no of inflexible elem + number of restrained dofs % number of columns = no of total dofs of unconstrained model % in this case the numbers are 9x15, the difference is the number of independent free dofs % form compatibility matrix Ac from linear constraint equations % place those translation dofs you wish to retain as independent last; % here we use the horizontal translations at node 2 and 3 pick_dof = [Model.DOF(2,1), Model.DOF(3,1)]; dof_reord = [setdiff(1:Model.nt,pick_dof) pick_dof]; Ac = Ac_matrix (LC_Eqs,dof_reord); % display independent free dofs magf = [2;1;2;1;1;1]; for k=1:size(Ac,2); Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model);
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title('Deformed shape for each independent free dof with inextensible elements') % extract global dof displacements for each "mode" U = Ac(:,k); % specify magnification factor for each "mode" MAGF = magf(k); % plot model in displaced position (chords) Plot_Model (Model,U); % plot deformed shape of elements Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U); % pause and wait for user feedback % disp('press any key to continue...'), pause % get all figure elements and wipe them out % dum = get(gca,'Children'); % delete(dum); end clear Ac;
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Compatibility analysis with inextensible and one inflexible elements

% set up linear constraint equations for inextensible elements % and specify inflexible element (b or #2 in this case) LC_Eqs = LinConEqs(Model,1:4,2); % in this case the size of LC_Eqs is 11x15 and there are 4 independent free dofs % form compatibility matrix Ac from linear constraint equations % place translation dofs to retain as independent last; here % we use the horizontal translations at node 2 and 3 pick_dof = [Model.DOF(2,1), Model.DOF(3,1)]; dof_reord = [setdiff(1:Model.nt,pick_dof) pick_dof]; Ac = Ac_matrix (LC_Eqs,dof_reord); % display independent free dofs magf = [2;2;1;1]; % magnification factor for each deformed shape for k=1:size(Ac,2); Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); title('Deformed shape for each independent free dof with inextensible and one inflexible elements') % extract global dof displacements for each "mode" U = Ac(:,k); % specify magnification factor for each "mode" MAGF = magf(k); % plot model in displaced position (chords) Plot_Model (Model,U); % plot deformed shape of elements Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U); % pause and wait for user feedback % disp('press any key to continue...'), pause % get all figure elements and wipe them out % dum = get(gca,'Children'); % delete(dum); end
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Example 17 - Compatibility for Gable Frame with Constraints - Graphical Method

The gable frame structure is the same as in Example 1 and 16. The following figure shows the geometry. The resulting free global dof's without any constraints are:
5 4 2 1 3 b 6 c 9 8 7
6
a
Y X
12
With four inextensible elements a through d there are 4 independent linear constraint conditions between the 6 translation dofs, while the rotation dofs are not affected. It is quite obvious that the displacement values at dofs 2 and 8 are zero. We can, therefore, select any two of the other 4 translation dofs as the independent free global dofs for the structural model with inextensible elements. Thus, we select the following 5 independent free dofs for the structural model with inextensible elements.
3 2 4 5
3 2 6 7 4 5
We are interested in the element deformations at the locations numbered in the above figure. For the rotation dofs the compatibility matrix is straightforward.
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Let us look at the translation dofs For unit value of dof 1

1 1.33 IC c
IC b 1.33
IC c
IC b
dof 3
IC a
ICd
IC d
IC = instantaneous center of rotation of corresponding element 1. Location of IC for elements a and d is obvious 2. IC for element b is identical to case d, because the right node cannot move horizontally, since it is an independent dof. 3. Similar consideration for IC of element c 1. Location of IC for element d is obvious 2. IC for element b is at the left node, because it cannot move horizontally, since it is an independent dof. 3. IC of element c lies on the extension of element d axis and on the extension of element b axis.
Conclusion: The IC's of two adjoining elements and their common node lie on a straight line. From the unit value at the particular dof determine the rotations of the element chords.
IC c
IC b 1.33
IC c
1 1.33
IC b
a = 1 12 b = 1 6 c = 1 6
IC a
a = 0 b = 1 6 c = 1 6 d = 1 6
IC d
IC d
d = 1 12
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1. From unit value of dof 1 and location of IC for element a and b determine a and b . 2. From relative distance of node 3 from IC of element b determine vertical translation. 3. From vertical translation and distance of IC of element c determine c. 4. From relative distance of node 4 from IC of element c determine horizontal translation. 5. From horizontal translation and distance of IC of element d determine d .
1. From unit value of dof 3 and location of IC for element b determine b . 2. From unit value of dof 3 and distance of IC of element c determine c. 4. From relative distance of node 4 from IC of element c determine horizontal translation. 5. From horizontal translation and distance of IC of element d determine d .
The angles between the node tangent and the chord are equal to the opposite of the chord rotation, since the angles are measured from the chord to the tangent.
A f <1>
- a 1 12 - a 1 12 - b 1 6 = - b = 1 6 - 1 6 c - c 1 6 - 1 12 d
Af
<3>
- a 0 - a 0 - b 1 6 = - b = 1 6 - 1 6 c - c 1 6 - 1 6 d
The complete compatibility matrix for the 5 independent free dofs of the structural model with inextensible elements becomes.
1 12 1 12 1 6 1 Atildf := 6 1 6 1 6 1 12
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 6 1 6
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0
1 1 6 1 6 0 0
1 6
0 0 0 0 1 1
1
4 5
2
3 6 7
3 4 5
6 7
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Case for inflexible element b The two rotations dofs #2 and #4 are no longer independent. As Example 16, shows the rotations can be derived from the translation dofs at the ends of the element, if it is inflexible. We have only three independent free global dofs, as shown in the figure on the right.
3 2 1 b 4 c 2 c 6
12
8
IC c
The translations remain the same as before, i.e.

1.33
1 1.33
IC b
IC c
IC b
IC a
IC d
IC d
1.33
1 1.33
rotations at node 2 and 3 constrained with translation
2
rotations at node 2 and 3 constrained with translation
Page 228
The figures on the preceding page show that the inflexible element b forces the nodes 2 and 3 to rotate with the chord. This induces a rotation of the node tangent at the ends of elements a and c, as shown. The compatibility matrix for the two dofs becomes. Recalling
IC c
IC b 1.33
IC c
1 1.33
IC b
a = 1 12 b = 1 6 c = 1 6
IC a
a = 0 b = 1 6 c = 1 6 d = 1 6
IC d
IC d
d = 1 12
1.33
1 1.33
A f <1>
1 12 - a - a + b 1 12 + 1 6 0 0 = 0 = 0 - + 1 6 + 1 6 c b 16 -c - 1 12 d
Af
< 2>
0 - a - a + b 1 6 0 0 = 0 = 0 - + 1 6 1 b c - c 1 6 - 16 d
Page 229
Kinematics
Kinematics of (plastic) collapse mechanism

Let us now study the kinematics of an unstable structure. A typical case is an originally stable structure that turns into a mechanism when the collapse load factor is reached for the given loading. We study the kinematics of the structure past the point of incipient collapse, i.e. just after the last hinge has formed. Since this is an incremental motion we use the Greek letter to denote displacements and deformations.: Past the point of incipient collapse the element deformation increments are zero, since there is no change in the element end forces after the collapse load is reached. Consequently, we can write
Vh = A f U f
since
V = 0 and thus Vh = V
with
Vh
the hinge deformation increments
Example: consult detailed calculations in Example 18 and 19

2 1 3 4 5
potential plastic hinge locations
The columns of the compatibility matrix describe the independent elementary collapse mechanisms.
3
dof 1 sidesway mechanism
dof 3 beam mechanism
dof 5 joint mechanism
The actual collapse mechanism is a linear combination of elementary collapse mechanisms.
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Example 18 - Collapse Mechanism
Example 18 - Full and Partial Collapse Mechanism - Analytical Method

We consider the portal frame that we investigated in example 8 in connection with the lower bound theorem of plastic analysis. Just before the last hinge forms there are 3 plastic hinges in the structure, which is therefore statically determinate. A similar case exists for a structure with three moment releases at the same location. We study, therefore, either case, as the following figures show.
dof 2 2 3 b dof 3 dof 4 4 5 c dof 5 6 7
dof 1
dof 1 2
dof 2 3 b
dof 3 dof 4 4 5 c
dof 5 6 7
Portal frame of Example 8 before last plastic hinge at 1 forms. It is statically determinate (plastic hinges are indicated with gray circles)
Statically determinate portal frame with three moment releases at 5, 6 and 8. Moment releases or rotational hinges are indicated with white circles.
Assuming that all elements are inextensible there are 5 independent free global dofs, as shown. We determine the angles between the nodes and the lines connecting the nodes at all element ends. The compatibility matrix is then equal to the transpose of the equilibrium matrix of example 8. We have encountered this matrix in Example 15
1 5 1 5 0 0 Af := 0 0 1 5 1 5
0 1
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 4 1 0 0 0
1 4 1 4 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Page 231
With hinges at locations 5, 6 and 8 whose rotations are unknown at this stage we use the compatibility relations at locations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 where no hinges are present and we are only dealing with strain dependent element deformations. We extract the corresponding rows of the compatibility matrix and call it Ai
1 5 1 5 Ai := 0 0 1 5
0 1
0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 4 1 4 1 0
0 0 0 1
the rank of this compatibility matrix is
rank ( Ai) = 5
and this means that the structure is stable, since the rank of the matrix is equal to the number of columns; furthermore, the number of columns is equal to the number of rows meaning that we are dealing with a statically determinate structure. How can we "prove" that the structure is stable, if we do not have access to the rank function? We set Vi = 0 and seek to find a set of non-zero displacement that satisfy Vi = Ai * Uf. If this is possible, the structure is unstable (instability means that the nodes of the structural model are able to displace infinitesimally without deforming any elements, i.e. "without resistance"). If the only solution of the set of compatibility relation is the trivial solution Uf=0, then the structure is stable. Linear algebra says that the nullspace of kinematic matrix Ai consists of the null vector only.
For the example at hand we write the compatibility equations out in full. We have: V1 = V2 = 1 U1 5 1 U1 + U2 5 1 U3 4
V3 = U2
1 V4 = U3 + U4 4 V7 = 1 U1 + U5 5 recall that we eliminated rows 5, 6 and 8 of the compatibility matrix Af
Setting all V's equal to zero it is easy to see that all the U's are zero as well (proceed from the first to the last equation). Thus, the structure is stable. Of course, we have an intuitive understanding that this is indeed the case, but what we do with our "intuition" is precisely what this algebraic process illustrates: we try to see if it is possible to "move" the nodes without deforming the elements. If so, we call the structure unstable. We will see soon that we can do this geometrically with the method of instantaneous centers of rotation.
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Let us now assume that an additional hinge is inserted at end 1. The structure now looks like this.
The compatibility matrix for the continuous element ends now has only four rows (it lost the first row)
1 5 0 Ae := 0 1 5
0 0
rank ( Ae) = 4
1 0 0 1 4
1 0 0 4 0 0 0 1
1
the rank of this compatibility matrix is
which is to be expected since there are now only four rows. Since the rank of the matrix is smaller than the number of free dof's, we have an unstable structure. The question is: what are the displacement values that satisfy the condition 0 = Ae * Uf ? We may recall that the solution of these homogeneous linear equations is known as the nullspace of the compatibility matrix. Let us find this solution.
Note that strain dependent deformation increments are zero for an unstable structure as well as for the collapse mechanism of a fully plastic structure. Thus, the more accurate way of interpreting the above equation is that 0 = Ae * Uf in such case. The reason for the deformation increments being zero past the point at which the collapse load is reached is that the basic forces do not change for perfectly plastic behavior. 1 5 1 5 U3 = 4 5 U4 = 1 5
V2 = 0 =
U1 + U2 1 4 U3
setting
U1 = 1
we get
U2 =
V3 = 0 = U2
U3 = 4 U2 U4 = 1 4 U3 1 5
1 V4 = 0 = U3 + U4 4 V7 = 0 = 1 5 U1 + U5
U5 =
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Thus, any vector of displacement values of the form This displacement vector represents the collapse mechanism of the unstable structure.
1 1 5 4 5 U Uf = 1 1 5 1 5
satisfies the condition 0 = Ae * Uf and forms the nullspace of the compatibility matrix or, expressed differently, is the complete homogeneous solution of the compatibility equations
Note that U1 can assume any value. We can interpret the above as follows: the free dof's are constrained so that only one independent free dof remains during the collapse mechanism. Under this aspect the vector of relative displacement values that multiplies U1 in the above relation represents a constraint matrix Ac . Since this constraint matrix corresponds to the plastic collapse mechanism we add the subscript p. We can now return to the compatibility relations in order to calculate the hinge rotations in terms of U1 . But before we do this, let us look at the depiction of the collapse mechanism. The above vector of displacement values represents the collapse mechanism of the structure. A graphical representation of the collapse mechanism is shown in the following figure.
0.2 1 0.2
0.8
We note that the elements maintain continuity of tangents at the four locations 2, 3, 4 and 7 without deforming. We also note that the collapse mechanism is the linear combination of the columns of the compatibility matrix with factors 1, -1/5, -4/5, -1/5, -1/5.
Page 234
We return to the compatibility relations in order to calculate the hinge rotations in terms of U 1 We have in general Vh = Af Uf V
for the collapse mechanism
Uf = Acp U1
with
1 1 5 4 Acp := 5 1 5 1 5
V := ( 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 )
T
since the element deformations in our case are all zero, we have
We also need the product
Afp := Af Acp
0.2 0 0 0 Afp = 0.4 0.4 0 0.2
the kinematic matrix of the collapse mechanism
With these terms the hinge rotations become
0.2 0 0 0 Vh = U1 0.4 0.4 0 0.2
Page 235

% Collapse mechanism of one-story portal frame

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 5]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 4 5]; % third node, etc XYZ(4,:) = [ 8 5]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 8 0]; % % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = ones(1,3); BOUN(5,:) = ones(1,3); [ElemName{1:4}] = deal ('2dFrm'); 0 = free)
% 2d beam element
Analysis
% set up linear constraint equations for inextensible elements LC_Eqs = LinConEqs(Model); % form compatibility matrix Ac from linear constraint equations % re-order horizontal translation at node 2 and vertical translation at node 3 last pick_dof = [Model.DOF(2,1) Model.DOF(3,2)]; dof_reord = [setdiff(1:Model.nt,pick_dof) pick_dof]; Ac = Ac_matrix (LC_Eqs,dof_reord); % set up compatibility matrix A of structural model A = A_matrix(Model); % compatibility matrix for constrained independent free dofs Aftild (drop tild in the following) Af = A*Ac; % set up linear constraint equations from the deformations at the locations w/o hinge LC_Eqs = Af([3 5 6 11],:); % derive constrained collapse mechanism: put horizontal translation last for scaling dof_reord = [2:5 1]; Acp(dof_reord,:) = Ac_matrix(LC_Eqs(:,dof_reord)); Acp
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% displacement increments for collapse mechanism (horizontal translation dof scaled to 1) DU = Ac*Acp; % hinge deformation increments for collapse mechanism Afp = Af*Acp; DVh = Afp; DVh % display collapse mechanism; MAGF = 1; Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,DU); Acp = 1.0000 -0.2000 -0.8000 -0.2000 -0.2000 DVh = 0 0.2000 0 0 0 0 0 -0.4000 -0.4000 0 0 0.2000
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Partial Collapse Mechanism We turn our attention now to the structure of Example 9.
4 d 5 e 6
2 1 a 6 b 6
Under the assumption that elements a through e are inextensible the structure has only 4 independent free dofs, as shown in the following figure (the rotations at nodes 3, 4 and 6 are set aside). The locations for recording the angles between nodes and the lines connecting them as well as the change of length between nodes 3 and 5 are numbered in the figure.
dof 1 dof 3 dof 4 6 5 7
4 1 2 dof 2 3
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The compatibility matrix is
1 6 1 6 1 6 0 Af := 0 1 6 1 6 0.8
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 8 1 1 8 1 0 1 0 0.6 0
and we observe that it is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix Bf from Example 9.
We now assume that the following releases are inserted: a circle indicates a flexural hinge or moment release, while a telescope connection indicates an axial hinge or axial force release.
4 d 5 e 6
2 1 a 6 b 6
For this structure the continuity conditions between element deformations and angles between nodes and lines connecting the nodes or changes of distance between nodes are: 1 V2 = U1 + U2 6 V4 = U2 + 1 8 U3 V5 = 1 8 U3 + U4 there seem to be four relations for 4 unknown free global dofs, indicating that the structure may be stable. However, the rank of the compatibility matrix is not 4 but 3. Let us see
1 V6 = U1 + U4 6
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1 6 0 Ae := 0 1 6
1 0 0 1 1 8
1 0 8 0 0
0 1 1
rank ( Ae) = 3
this means that only three compatibility relations are linearly independent and that the fourth can be derived from them. This is easy to see with the above equations: add V2 and V5 and subtract V4 and V6 . We get V2 + V5 V4 V6 = 0 linear dependence!
Setting all V's equal to zero in the above equation, we can determine the vector of the displacement values for the collapse mechanism. Setting U1 = 1 we get 1 0 = U1 + U2 6 1 0 = U2 + U3 8 0= 1 U3 + U4 8
1 1 6 4 U3 = thus the collapse mechanism is represented by Acp U1 with Acp := 4 3 3 1 U4 = 1 6 6

U2 = 1 6 Vh = Afp U1 with Afp := Af Acp
and the release deformations can be determined from
1 6 0 1 3 0 with Afp = V = 0 h 0 1 3 8 5
1 6 0 1 3 0 U 0 1 0 1 3 8 5
The collapse mechanism is shown in the figure below.

4/3 1
3 6
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% partial collapse mechanism of braced frame with two floors

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 6 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 12 0]; % third node, etc XYZ(4,:) = [ 0 8]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 6 8]; % XYZ(6,:) = [ 12 8]; % % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 2 5]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; CON {5} = [ 5 6]; CON {6} = [ 3 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = ones(1,3); BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(6,:) = [0 1 0]; [ElemName{1:5}] = deal ('2dFrm'); ElemName{6} = 'Truss'; 0 = free)
% 2d beam element % truss element
Analysis
% set up linear constraint equations for inextensible elements LC_Eqs = LinConEqs(Model,1:5); % form compatibility matrix Ac from linear constraint equations % re-order horizontal translation at node 4 and vertical translation at 5 last pick_dof = [Model.DOF(4,1) Model.DOF(5,2)]; dof_reord = [setdiff(1:Model.nt,pick_dof) pick_dof]; Ac = Ac_matrix (LC_Eqs,dof_reord); % set up compatibility matrix A of structural model A = A_matrix(Model); % compatibility matrix for constrained independent free dofs Aftild Af = A*Ac; % set up linear constraint equations from deformations at locations w/o hinge LC_Eqs = Af([3 6 8 9 11 12 15],:); % derive collapse mechanism: put vertical translation last for unit scaling dof_reord = [1:4 6:7 5]; Acp(dof_reord,:) = Ac_matrix(LC_Eqs(:,dof_reord)); Acp
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% displacement increments for collapse mechanism (vertical translation dof scaled to 1) DU = Ac*Acp; % hinge deformation increments for collapse mechanism Afp = Af*Acp; DVh = Afp; DVh % display collapse mechanism; MAGF = 1; Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,DU); Acp = 0.1667 -0.1667 -1.3333 0.1667 1.0000 0.1667 -0.1667 DVh = 0 -0.1667 0 0 0.3333 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.3333 0 1.6000
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Example 19 - Full and Partial Collapse Mechanism - Graphical Method

We return to the two structures that were investigated in Example 18 and present here the graphical solution, which is much faster for hand calculations. We treat the first as a collapse mechanism and investigate the incremental displacements past the point at which the collapse load is reached. We use the prefix to indicate "increment of". The following figure shows that with four hinges, 3 rigid bodies result that can rotate relative to each other and the supports. They are denoted with upper case letters, A, B and C in the following figure. The instantaneous centers of rotation of the three rigid bodies are shown in the figure. Using the horizontal translation dof as the reference value (which we set equal to 1 in the figure) we have the following rigid body rotations
ICB
A := B := 1 5
1 5
CW CCW
C :=
1
1 5
CW
5
A 5 C 5
8
ICA ICC
The plastic hinge rotations are the deformations at 1, 5, 6 and 8. Note that V = 0, since the basic forces do not change past the point at which the collapse load is reached. We have: V1 := A V5 := B + A V6 := B + C V8 := C V1 = 0.2 V5 = 0.4 V6 = 0.4 V8 = 0.2 compare with Afp "matrix" in Example 18 CCW when measured from chord to node tangent CW when measured from chord to node tangent
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We treat the second structure as a mechanism, i.e. we assume that the inserted hinges do not carry any forces. There are again 3 rigid bodies that can rotate relative to each other and the supports, denoted with A, B and C. The instantaneous centers of rotation are shown in the following figure. Selecting the vertical translation as the reference value, we obtain the value of 4/3 for the horizontal translation, as shown.
ICB
We obtain the following rotation values for the rigid bodies A, B, C. 1 6 1 6 1 6
8 4/3 1
A :=
7
B
B := C :=
ICA
1
6 6
ICC 3
The hinge rotations are the deformations at 1, 3 and 7. Moreover, we also have a hinge with axial deformation at 8. We denote the hinge deformations with subscript h and note that there are no strain dependent element deformations, since the model is a mechanism that is unable to resist any loading. We have: Vh1 := A Vh3 := C + A Vh7 := B + A Vh8 := 0.8 ( 1) + 0.6 Vh1 = 0.167 CW when measured from chord to node tangent Vh3 = 0.333 Vh7 = 0.333 CCW when measured from chord to node tangent
4 V = 1.6 h8 3
compare with values in Example 18
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Kinematics
Equilibrium
nf equations
Compatibility
nf unknowns
Pf = BfQ + Pfw
AT = Bf f
V = A fU f +Vd
displacement or equilibrium method
NOS unknowns
NOS conditions
Q = Bi ( Pf Pfw ) + B x Qx
force or compatibility method
B T (V Vd ) = 0 x
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Real and virtual work
REAL AND VIRTUAL WORK
Objective: relation between static and kinematic variables through virtual work statements; incremental plastic work for upper bound theorem of plastic analysis
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3. Virtual Work Principles

3.1 Principle of virtual work or virtual displacements The principle of virtual work involves the equality between internal and external work. Work is performed by a set of forces on an independent set of displacements and deformations. Because of this causal independence we denote the set of displacements and the resulting work as virtual. Consequently, the principle is also known as principle of virtual displacements. We denote the virtual set of displacements and corresponding deformations by preceding the lower case letter to the variables. Limiting ourselves at first to nodal forces we can write for the external virtual work
We = U f T Pf + U d T Pd
and the internal virtual work takes the form
Wi = V T Q
The principle of virtual work states: If a structure is in a state of equilibrium, then the external virtual work is equal to the internal virtual work under any set of virtual displacements that satisfy the conditions of compatibility. This is a necessary and sufficient condition meaning that the reverse is also true, i.e. if the external work of the applied forces is equal to the internal work of some basic element forces for all sets of virtual displacements and deformations that satisfy the conditions of compatibility, then the applied forces are in equilibrium with the basic element forces. In practice we use the principle of virtual work for determining individual force values and, later on, individual stiffness coefficients in hand calculations (Note that a stiffness coefficient K ij is the force at dof i due to a unit displacement at free dof j only). To this end we select a virtual displacement field with a unit displacement value at the particular dof of interest and zero values at all other dofs. The corresponding deformations can be determined with the methods of the preceding section. In the process we simplify the compatibility problem as much as possible by introducing constraints among the global dofs, so as to eliminate certain element forces from the internal work. For example, in order to eliminate the contribution of axial forces we select a virtual displacement field with zero virtual axial deformations.
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The external work of element loads can be obtained by integration of the inner product of element forces with corresponding virtual displacements over the element length and summation over all elements. Alternatively, we express the element loads through equivalent end forces that get assembled into nodal forces Pfw due to element loads. In the latter case we write for the external virtual work
We = U f T ( Pf Pfw ) + U d T Pd
3.2 Principle of complementary virtual work or virtual forces The principle of complementary virtual work or virtual forces involves a set of displacements and their compatible deformations and an independent set of applied forces and the basic element forces in equilibrium with these. The forces represent the virtual set that has no causal relation with the real displacement/deformation set. We call the work complementary and have for the external complementary virtual work
We = Pf T U f + Pd T U d
and for the internal complementary virtual work
Wi = QT V
The principle of complementary virtual work states: If a structure is in a state of compatible deformation, then the external complementary virtual work is equal to the internal complementary virtual work under any set of virtual forces that satisfy equilibrium. This is a necessary and sufficient condition meaning that the reverse is also true, i.e. if the external complementary virtual work of the virtual forces is equal to the internal complementary virtual work of the corresponding virtual basic element forces for all sets of virtual applied forces and corresponding element forces in equilibrium, then the actual deformations and the global dof displacements are compatible. In practice we use the principle of virtual forces for determining individual displacement values and, later on, individual flexibility coefficients in hand calculations (Note that a flexibility coefficient Fij is the displacement at dof i due to a unit force at free dof j only). To this end we select a virtual force field with an applied unit force value at the particular dof of interest and zero values at all other dofs. We select a set of basic element forces in equilibrium with the unit
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force. The simplest set of basic element forces (i.e. with the most zero values in basic force vector Q ) is the most convenient choice, because it involves the least amount of arithmetic operations for determining the internal virtual work. Because of the presence of a unit applied force at the dof of interest, the principle of virtual forces is sometimes called the dummy unit load method. 3.3 Plastic work increment and upper bound theorem of plastic analysis Once the collapse load factor is reached and the structural model forms a complete or partial collapse mechanism the plastic work increment of the external forces on the corresponding displacement increments of the collapse mechanism is W pe = U T ( Pref ) f The internal work increment of the basic element forces on the plastic deformation increments is a bit harder to express. Because Q pl represents the absolute values of the plastic capacity of the elements, we need to distinguish between positive and negative plastic deformation increments and change the sign of the latter. We define these as follows Vpl + = Vpl Vpl = Vpl if if Vpl > 0 Vpl < 0 otherwise otherwise Vpl + = 0 Vpl = 0
With this definition the internal plastic work increment becomes W pi = Q pl + Vpl + + Q pl Vpl The superscript + or - denotes the location with a positive or negative plastic deformation increment, respectively. The equality of work requires W pe = W pi . The upper bound theorem of plastic analysis states that the collapse load factor c is determined with the collapse mechanism producing the smallest plastic work increment. In compact form we can write this as for U T ( Pref ) = Q pl + Vpl + + Q pl Vpl f and Vpl + 0, Vpl 0
c = min
Vpl + Vpl = A f U f
It turns out that this is the dual linear programming problem to the lower bound theorem. Thus, both formulations produce the same answer, i.e. a unique collapse load factor for the structural model under the given applied force pattern.
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Example 20 - Principle of Virtual Displacements
Example 20 - Applications of Principle of Virtual Displacements

In this example we demonstrate several uses of the principle of virtual displacements. This principle is used for determining individual force terms, such as applied forces, and later individual stiffness coefficients. Example a Given is the following structure with an applied force whose magnitude is unknown. Moreover, several basic forces are also supplied. These forces were obtained from an analysis of the structure under the applied force. Further details (e.g. linear or nonlinear material) are not supplied, other than that the equilibrium is satisfied in the original (undeformed) configuration. Req'd: find the magnitude of the applied force.
2
?
8
c 8
0.181
16.04 0.18 0.18 Q := 32.97 32.97 38.02
16.04
32.97
38.02
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To determine the magnitude of the applied force we select a virtual displacement field with the following characteristics: 1. it has a unit value in the direction of the applied force (positive global Y-direction at node 3) 2. it has zero displacements at the supports in the direction of unknown support reactions 3. it does not involve axial deformations in elements a, b, and c, since the axial forces under the unknown applied force are not given. First choice We select the virtual displacement field in the following figure. It meets all requirements above.
0.75
IC's as shown Virtual chord rotations
1
a :=
1 8 1 8 1 8
b :=
c :=
ICa=ICb
1 ICc
8 8
the corresponding virtual deformations are for the virtual displacement field above we get
V = Af Uf
a a b V := b c c
0.125 0.125 0.125 V = 0.125 0.125 0.125
the principle of virtual displacements says that the external work equal the internal work P1 U1 = P1 ( 1)
T
is the external work
V Q = 15
is the internal work
consequently, the applied force has magnitude of 15 units and acts downward.
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Second choice We select the virtual displacement field in the following figure. It meets all requirements above.
0.75
1
a := 1 8 1 8 1 8
b :=
c :=
ICa=ICb
1 ICc
8 8
the corresponding virtual deformations are
Vh = Af Uf
since the element deformations V are equal to zero in this case for the virtual displacement field above we get
a a + b b + b Vh := b + c c + c c
1 8 0 0 Vh = 1 4 0 1 8
Note that this virtual deformation field is a lot more convenient, since it has only 3 non-zero terms. the principle of virtual displacements says that the external work equal the internal work P1 U1 = P1 ( 1)
T
is the external work
Vh Q = 15
consequently, the applied force has magnitude of 15 units and acts downward, as before.
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Example b Given the same structure as above we want the vertical support reaction at node 1. It is not clear whether we can depend or not on the magnitude of the applied force (after all we may have an error in the above calculations) and so we choose a virtual displacement field with zero translation at node 3, so as to avoid including the external work of the applied force of uncertain value.
2
?
8
c 8
Virtual displacement field requirements 1. it has a unit value in the direction of the unknown support reaction (positive global Y-direction at node 1) 2. it has zero displacements at the supports in the direction of the other unknown support reactions 3. it does not involve axial deformations in elements a, b, and c, since the axial forces under the unknown applied force are not given. 4. it has zero translation at node 3 so as to exclude the contribution of the unknown applied force to the external work. First choice We select the virtual displacement field in the following figure. It meets all requirements above.
0.75
IC's as shown Virtual chord rotations 1 8 1 8
a :=
6
b :=
1 R
8
c := 0
ICa=ICb
8
ICc
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the corresponding virtual deformations are for the virtual displacement field above we get
V = Af Uf
a a b V := b c c
0.125 0.125 0.125 V = 0.125 0 0
the principle of virtual displacements says that the external work equal the internal work, if all forces are in equilibrium. R U1 = R ( 1) V Q = 6.126 Second choice We select the virtual displacement field in the following figure. It meets all requirements above.
T
is the external work is the internal work consequently, the vertical support reaction at node 1 is equal to 6.126 units and acts upward.
0.75
IC's as shown Virtual chord rotations 1 8 1 8
a :=
b := c := 0
1 R
8
ICa=ICb
8
Vh = Af Uf
ICc
a a + b b + b Vh := b 0 0
0.125 0 0 Vh = 0.125 0 0
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Note that this virtual deformation field is a lot more convenient, since it has only 2 non-zero terms. the principle of virtual displacements says that the external work equal the internal work R U1 = R ( 1) Vh Q = 6.126
T
is the external work is the internal work consequently, the vertical support reaction at node 1 is equal to 6.126 units and acts upward, as before.
Third choice We select the virtual displacement field in the following figure. It meets all requirements except #4 above. This means that we have to know the magnitude of the applied force in this case.
1 R
8
R U1 15 ( 1) = R 15 V Q = 8.874
T
1
15 8
is the external work R := 15 8.874 R = 6.126
ICc
0 0 0 0 V := 1 8 1 8
consequently, the vertical support reaction at node 1 is equal to 6.126 units and acts upward, as before.
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Example c Given the same structure as above under the effect of a uniformly distributed load in element a.
w=? 2
4 c 8
The corresponding basic forces are
24.29
76.45 24.29 24.29 Q := 56.94 56.94 59.68
76.45
56.94
59.68
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We proceed exactly as for example a. Let us first look at the external work done by the uniformly distributed element load. Assuming a linear virtual displacement field as in the following figure we have
w
x u ( x) = L
external work We x We = w dx L
0 L
since w is uniform, i.e constant w 2 w L We = x dx = L 0 2

L
We can think of the following interpretation of the above result: the external work is equal to the work of the resultant of the uniformly distributed load times the translation that its centroid undergoes (see following figure)
wL 0.5 1
We = wL
1 2
Consequently, we simplify the given distributed load as follows
8w
10 w 6w
a b
1 8
4 c 8
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Virtual displacement field requirements: 1. It activates external work of the distributed element load by translation of at least one end of element a. 2. it has zero displacements at the supports in the direction of unknown support reactions 3. it does not involve axial deformations in elements a, b, and c, since the axial forces under the unknown applied force are not given. We select the virtual displacement field in the following figure. It meets all requirements above.
0.75
1
a := 1 8 1 8 1 8
b :=
c :=
ICa=ICb
1 ICc
8 8
Vh = Af Uf
a + b b + b Vh := b + c c + c c
a a 3 = 0.375 a 4 = 0.5
1 8 0 0 Vh = 1 4 0 1 8
units in negative X units in positive Y
The centroid of the distributed element load moves horizontally and vertically
The components of the resultant of the uniformly distributed element load are 6w units in the positive X direction 8w units in the negative direction
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Thus, the external work of the distributed element load is The internal work is Vh Q = 31.251
T
6w ( 0.375 ) + ( 8w) 0.5 ( 6.250 ) w
and from the equality of internal and external work we obtain w := 31.251 6.25 w=5 in the given direction!
Example d: determination of collapse load factor Determine the collapse load factor for the structure in the following figure under the given loading. The location of plastic hinges at incipient collapse is given. The plastic flexural capacities of the horizontal frame elements a, b, d and e is 100 units. The plastic flexural capacity of frame element c is 150 units. The plastic axial capacity of element f is 20 units.
40 30 4 d 5 e 6
2 1 a 6 b 6
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Virtual displacement field requirements: 1. it has zero displacements at the supports in the direction of unknown support reactions 2. it does not involve axial deformations in any elements with unknown axial forces. 3. It does not involve flexural deformations in any elements with unknown end moments. 4. It involves translation under one or both applied forces, so that external work appears.
dof 1 dof 3 dof 4 6 5 7
4 1 2 dof 2 3
The inextensibility requirement for elements a through e results in the independent free dofs of the above figure. With these dofs we write the compatibility equations (consult Example 9). Setting the deformations at locations 2, 4, 5 and 6 equal to zero gives us four equations for the four independent dofs. However, as explained in Example 9, only three of these equations are linearly independent and there exists a non-zero displacement vector that satisfies these four compatibility relations. This vector is the collapse mechanism of the structural model. We pursue first the analytical solution, which is lengthier, and tackle the faster geometric solution subsequently. Example 9 shows that the collapse mechanism is given by the following displacement vector.
4/3 1
1 1 6 Uf = 4 U1 3 1 6
we use the same vector with a unit value for U1 as the virtual displacement vector
3 6
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1 1 6 Vh := Af 4 3 1 6
0.167 0 0.333 0 Vh = 0 0 0.333 1.6
1 6 1 6 1 Vh = Af Uf 6 0 with Af := 0 1 6 1 6 0.8
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 from example 9 8 1 1 8 1 0 1 0 0.6 0
We have to assume at this point that we know the sign of the basic forces at the plastic hinge locations. We will show in the following example how to get these from the consideration of real plastic work. The Q values at the other locations are of no significance, since the corresponding virtual deformations are zero and no contribution to the internal work results. We set them equal to the value 99 in the vector Q
We have:
100 99 100 99 Q := 99 99 100 20

T
the internal work is
Vh Q = 115.333
the external work is
Uf ( Pref)
with
40 0 Pref := 30 0
1 1 6 Uf := 4 3 1 6
thus, the collapse load factor is
:=
Vh Q Uf Pref
T
= 1.442
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We can also derive the mechanism by geometric considerations, as shown in the following figure. We are not worried about the scaling of the collapse mechanism and the direction.
ICC
A :=
1 8 B = 0.125
B :=
1 3 6 4
1 C 3/4
C := B
3 4
1
ICA
ICB
2
A 0 B + A 0 Vh := 0 0 C + A 3 1 0.6 0.8 4 thus, the collapse load factor is
0.125 0 0.25 0 Vh = 0 0 0.25 1.2

Vh Q Uf Pref
T T
3 4 1 Uf := 8 1 1 8
:=
= 1.442
as before
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Ex. 21 - Principle of virtual forces
Example 21 - Principle of virtual forces in lieu of compatibility relations

In this example we will demonstrate the principle of virtual forces and its use as a substitute for the compatibility relations of a structural model.
3 c 4
a 2 8 8
We assume that the vector of element deformations is supplied. We take it for granted that the given deformations are compatible and, thus, do not bother to check that they satisfy the compatibility conditions before starting the problem. We will do so, at the end of this example. The axial deformations are assumed negligible. Under this assumption there are 4 independent free dofs, as shown in the following figure. The supplied element deformations are ordered as shown in italics.
dof 1 dof 4 3 5 4 dof 3
dof 2 1
0.002530 0.002846 0.002846 V := 0.002530 0.02580 0.02580
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The structure compatibility matrix Af for the given free dofs is (we show the deformations only for the translation dofs 1 and 3):
dof 1
1 8 0 0 Af := 1 8 0.6 0.6
8
1 1 0 0
0 1 6 1 6 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0.8 0 0.8
dof 3
written out in full the compatibility relations read
1 V1 = U1 + U2 8 1 V2 = U2 + U3 6 1 V3 = U3 + U4 6 1 V4 = U1 + U4 8
V5 = 0.6 U1 + 0.8 U3 V6 = 0.6 U1 + 0.8 U3
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We make the following general observation from these equations: rotation dofs do not affect the change of distance between nodes, or, conversely, truss element deformations only depend on translation dofs. Thus, if we are interested in calculating the vertical translation of dof 1 under the given element deformations, we are well advised to use the last two compatibility relations which do not involve the rotation dofs. By subtracting equation 6 from equation 5 we get:
V5 V6 = 1.2 U1
and consequently
U1 :=
V V 5 6
1.2
U1 = 43 10
from the addition of these two equations we can obtain
V5 + V6 = 1.6 U3
U3 :=
V +V 5 6
1.6
U3 = 0
Interestingly, under the given element deformations the horizontal translation of dof 3 is equal to zero. if we like to determine one of the rotation dofs, we can use any of the other 4 compatibility relations, e.g. for dof 2 we can use the first one.
U2 := V +
1
1 U1 8
U2 = 2.845 10
We can use the second compatibility relation to check that the values for dofs 2 and 3 satisfy it as well. We have
1 6 V U 2 U 3 = 1 10 2 6
and it is indeed satisfied except for a very small round-off error.
We can use the third compatibility equation to determine the rotation of dof 4. We have
U4 := V
3
1 U3 6
U4 = 2.846 10
and after substituting into the fourth relation we confirm that it is also satisfied
1 6 V U 1 U 4 = 1 10 4 8
Since the given six element deformations give a single solution for the global dof displacement values, they are compatible.
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Principle of virtual forces We use the following statement of the principle of virtual forces: If a structure is in a state of compatible deformation, then the external complementary virtual work is equal to the internal complementary virtual work under any set of virtual forces that satisfy equilibrium. it is our job now to select the most convenient virtual force system that satisfies equilibrium and at the same time allows us to calculate the variable of interest. Let us say that we wish to determine the vertical translation at dof 1. Then, we apply a unit virtual force in the direction of dof 1 and find the virtual basic forces that satisfy the equilibrium equations.
3 5
2 1
P1 = 1
Since axial deformations are negligible, it is in our best interest to use the equilibrium equations that do not include axial forces. To this end we use the transpose of the above compatibility matrix. We have
P1 =
Q1 8
Q4 8
+ 0.6 Q5 0.6 Q6
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2 P3 = Q2 + Q3 6 + 0.8 Q5 + 0.8 Q6
P4 = Q 3 + Q 4
for the given virtual force at dof 1 we have
P1 = 1
and the virtual basic forces Q need to satisfy the following equations
1=
Q1 8
Q4 8
+ 0.6 Q5 0.6 Q6
0 = Q1 + Q2 0= Q2 + Q3 6 + 0.8 Q5 + 0.8 Q6
0 = Q3 + Q4
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What is the simplest choice of Q that satisfies all these four equations? We set
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = 0
With this choice equations 2 and 4 are satisfied.
We determine Q5 and Q6 to satisfy equations 1 and 3. We have:
1 = 0.6 Q5 0.6 Q6 0 = 0.8 Q5 + 0.8 Q6

from these two equations we get
Q5 =
5 6
T
Q6 =
5 6
The vertical translation at dof 1 is obtained from the principle of virtual forces with the choice Pf = P1 = 1
Pf Uf = Q V
we ensured that U f = U 1 is the only non-zero entry on the left hand side U1 :=
With the basic virtual force values we get:
5 5 V V 6 5 6 6
U1 = 0.043
the negative sign signifies that dof 1 moves in the direction opposite to the applied virtual force for the given deformations V. Since we took care to apply the virtual force in the positive Y-direction, the negative sign means that the translation is in the negative Y-direction, i.e. downward. We see that the resulting equation for the translation of global dof 1 is the same as the one we obtained by the combination of the last two compatibility relations. Is there another choice of virtual force system in equilibrium with the virtual unit force at dof 1? Sure there are a few. Here is another one
1=
Q1 8
Q4 8
+ 0.6 Q5 0.6 Q6
0 = Q1 + Q2 0= Q2 + Q3 6 + 0.8 Q5 + 0.8 Q6
0 = Q3 + Q4
We set
Q5 = Q6 = 0
from equations 2 and 4 we conclude that
Q1 = Q2 Q3 = Q4
The first equation becomes:
1= 0=
Q2 8
Q4 8
from which
and the third becomes
Q2 Q4 6
Q2 = Q4
and from the first equation we conclude that
Q2 = Q4 = 4
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now the virtual basic force vector becomes
4 4 4 := 4 0 0
T U1 := Q V U1 = 0.043
and the desired displacement can be determined from which gives, of course, the same result.
Thus, any virtual force system in equilibrium with the virtual unit force at the location and in the direction of the translation whose value we want to determine can be used. The fewer terms are non-zero, the easier the calculation. Thus, the first choice is superior. The second task is to determine the rotation of node 3. To this end we apply a virtual unit moment at node 3 (dof 4) and determine the virtual basic forces that are in equilibrium with it.
P4 = 1
We use the following equations
0=
Q1 8
Q4 8
+ 0.6 Q5 0.6 Q6
0 = Q1 + Q2 0= Q2 + Q3 6 + 0.8 Q5 + 0.8 Q6
1 = Q3 + Q4
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We set
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = 0
and
Q4 = 1
with this choice equations 2 and 4 are satisfied.
We determine Q5 and Q6 to satisfy equations 1 and 3. We have:
0=
1 + 0.6 Q5 0.6 Q6 8
from these two equations we get
0 = 0.8 Q5 + 0.8 Q6
Q5 =
1 9.6
T
Q6 =
1 9.6
T
The rotation at dof 4 can be obtained from the principle of virtual forces
Pf Uf = Q V
in this case we get:
U4 := 1 V V + V 4 9.6 5 9.6 6
3 U4 = 2.845 10
which is the same as the result we obtained from the compatibility relations. In conclusion, the principle of virtual forces with an applied unit virtual force at the dof whose displacement is of interest can be used in lieu of the compatibility relations. To this end we need to find any set of virtual basic forces that satisfy the equilibrium equations under the applied unit virtual force. The simplest choice involves the smallest number of non-zero terms. This method is often referred to in the literature as "dummy unit load method".
Page 269
Example 22 - Upper Bound Theorem of Plastic Analysis

In this example we determine the collapse load factor of the simple portal frame that we have already studied extensively in earlier examples from the equilibrium standpoint (Example 8), and for the determination of the collapse mechanism by kinematics (Examples 18 and 19). Here we pretend that we do not know the location of the plastic hinges in the portal frame and proceed in a systematic way by combination of elementary collapse mechanisms in the determination of the collapse load factor. The following figure shows the structural model with the plastic flexural capacities of the elements. The plastic axial capacities are assumed very large.
50 30
120
120
a 150
150 d
Assuming that all elements are inextensible there are 5 independent free global dofs, as shown in the following figure. The figure also shows the locations of the angles between node tangents and chords.
dof 2 dof 1 2 3 dof 3 dof 4 4 5 dof 5 6
Page 270
We determine the angles between the nodes and the lines connecting the nodes at all element ends. The compatibility matrix is then equal to the transpose of the equilibrium matrix of example 8. We have
1 5 1 5 0 0 Af := 0 0 1 5 1 5
0 1
0 0
0 0 0
1 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 1 0 0 0
1 4 1 4 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Under the assumption that the elements do not experience deformation increments during collapse, i.e. V=0, we have the following compatibility relation Vh = Af Uf with Uf = Ac Uref the collapse displacement vector
and with Vh the plastic deformation increments (in this case only rotations) With the above compatibility relations the columns of the compatibility matrix represent elementary collapse mechanisms as shown in the following figures.
Joint collapse mechanisms (columns 2, 4 and 5 of compatibility matrix)
1 5 1 5 0 1 0 Af = 0 0 1 5 1 5
sidesway collapse mechanism (first column of compatibility matrix)
Page 271
3 1
0 0 1 4 1 3 4 Af = 1 4 1 4 0 0
beam collapse mechanism (third column of compatibility matrix) The upper bound theorem of plastic analysis now says: the load factor determined by the equation of the external with the internal plastic work increment for any collapse mechanism constitutes an upper bound of the actual collapse load factor. We are, therefore, interested in finding the collapse mechanism that minimizes this load factor. Since the load factor is the ratio of internal to external plastic work, we seek a collapse mechanism that minimizes the internal work (fewer hinges with as small rotations as possible), while maximizing the external work (largest translations for applied forces). Let us proceed systematically. We start with the determination of the collapse load factor for the elementary collapse mechanisms. Since there are no applied moments at dofs 2, 4 and 5, the corresponding load factor is infinitely large and a definite upper bound. We look at the sidesway mechanism for a unit displacement value at dof 1 the external plastic work increment is the internal plastic work increment for this mechanism is Wpi = 4 150 Wpe = 30 ( 1)
note that the plastic deformation increments are all positive and the corresponding moments have always the same sign 1 4 150 5 The collapse load factor for the sidesway mechanism is therefore := =4 30 ( 1)
Page 272
The next elementary mechanism is the beam mechanism. In this case we note that the applied force is in the negative Y-direction. Thus, to induce positive external work (nothing else makes sense) we use a unit displacement in the negative direction of dof 3. We take then the negative values of the angles from column three of the compatibility matrix. for a negative unit displacement value at dof 3 the external plastic work increment is the internal plastic work increment for this mechanism is Wpi = 2 120 2 120 The collapse load factor for the beam mechanism is therefore := Wpe = ( 50) ( 1)
1 + 2 ( 120) 1 4 4
1 = 2.4
1 + 2 ( 120) 4 4
( 50) ( 1)
We note that the beam mechanism is much more critical in this structure under the given loading. In trying to reduce the collapse load factor we realize that we can use the sidesway mechanism with hinges in the beam instead of the columns, since the plastic capacity there is only 120 units. We accomplish this by the following elementary collapse mechanism combination = sidesway - 1/5 of joint mechanism at dof 2 - 1/5 of joint mechanism at dof 5. Here are the corresponding columns of the compatibility matrix
1 5 1 5 0 1 0 Af = 0 0 1 5 1 5
0 1 1 2 0 Af = 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 5 0 Af = 0 1 1 0
thus,
1 5 0 1 5 1 1 2 1 5 0 Af Af Af = 0 5 5 1 5 0 1 5
we see that the plastic deformations now appear at locations 3 and 6, i.e. in the beam instead of the columns. The external work of this combined mechanism is the same as for the sidesway mechanism the internal work is now a bit smaller Wpi = 2 150
1 + 2 ( 120) 1 5 5 1 + 2 ( 120) 5 5
30 ( 1) 1 = 3.6
2 150 and the collapse load factor becomes :=
Page 273
i.e. a bit smaller than the sidesway mechanism, but still larger than the beam mechanism. The question now is: is there a way of combining the beam mechanism with the last sidesway+joint mechanism so as to maximize the external work (both applied forces will do work), while minimizing the internal work. Note that if we just added the two mechanisms without canceling any plastic hinge rotations we would get a value between 2.4 and 3.6. Let us show this beam mechanism in negative dof 3 direction sidesway + joint mechanism
0 0 1 4 1 3 4 Af = 1 4 1 4 0 0
1 5 0 1 5 0 0 1 5 0 1 5
the internal and external work now become Wpi := 2 150 1
1 1 1 + 2 ( 120) + 2 ( 120) + 2 ( 120) 4 4 5

:= Wpi 50 ( 1) + 30 ( 1) = 2.85
Wpe = 50 ( 1) + 30 ( 1)
It is clear that something strange is going on at location 3, where we have inserted the plastic capacity with a positive value for the beam mechanism and then with a negative value for the sidesway+joint mechanism. Obviously, we need to combine the two mechanisms so that the plastic deformation cancels at that location. For this to happen we add 4/5 x the beam mechanism to the sidesway+ joint mechanism. In this case we get
1 0 1 5 0 5 0 1 0 0 4 1 1 5 1 5 4 4 0 + = 1 5 1 0 4 5 1 2 1 5 5 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 5 5
the internal and external work now become Wpi := 2 150 Wpe = 50
1 1 2 + ( 120) + ( 120) + ( 120) 5 5 5 5

4 := Wpi = 2.229
+ 30 ( 1) 5
4 50 + 30 ( 1) 5
Page 274
and we have managed to reduce the collapse load factor a little bit. There does not seem to be much else that we can do with this simple structure and we decide to call this the result. How can we be sure? By determining the other basic forces and drawing the moment diagram of the structure. If the plastic flexural capacity is not exceeded anywhere in the structure, then we have also found a lower bound, which then implies that we have found the unique value of the collapse load factor. Fortunately, we have done this in example 8 and we display the results one more time in the following figure
2.229*30 12.86 2.229*30 12.86 51.43 85.71 12.86 51.43 51.43 120 60 60 120 54 51.43 54 51.43 60 2.229*50 54 54 60 54 60
12.86
54 150 4 4 150
We have concluded that the final collapse mechanism is the following combination of elementary collapse mechanisms note that this combination shows a "double hinge" 1 at location 4-5. To avoid confusion we add -1/5 x joint 5 mechanism of dof 4 to get the following final result
0 0 1 5 1 1 2 4 3 1 5 Af Af Af Af = 1 5 5 5 5 2 5 0 1 5
1 5 0 0 0 1 1 2 4 3 1 4 1 5 2 Af Af Af Af Af = 5 5 5 5 5 2 5 0 1 5
Page 275
We can confirm this result with geometric considerations once we know the location of the plastic hinges (recall Example 19).
ICB
collapse displacement increments
B A 5 C
ICA
ICC
1 1 5 4 Uf = 5 U1 1 5 1 5
collapse plastic deformation increments

1 0.4 0.2
0.2 30
50 0.8
0.4
1 5 0 0 0 2 Vh = U1 5 2 5 0 1 5
Page 276
Upper bound theorem of plastic analysis as linear programming problem (optional) from Lecture 15
c = min
+ Vpl Vpl = A f U f
T + + for Pref U f = Q plT Vpl + Q plT Vpl + and Vpl 0, Vpl 0
We define the plastic moment capacities and the applied force vector
Qpl := ( 150 150 120 120 120 120 150 150 ) Pref := ( 30 0 50 0 0 )
T
positive and negative plastic moment capacities are the same define function to minimize with initial guess values Uf := 0
5
Qplp := Qpl
T
Qpln := Qpl
T
f ( Uf , Vplp , Vpln) := Qplp Vplp + Qpln Vpln Vplp := 0

8
Vpln := 0
8
We then specify the equality and inequality constraints in a "Given" block, as follows Given equality constraints inequality constraints collapse load factor Pref Uf = 1 Vplp 0
T
and Vpln 0
Vplp Vpln = Af Uf solution = 2.229 Sol := Minimize ( f , Uf , Vplp , Vpln)
:= f ( Sol1 , Sol2 , Sol3 )
Displacement increments of collapse mechanisms (values can be scaled at will, one independent dof) Uf := Sol1 scale values to unit translation (dof 1) Uf = ( 14.286 2.857 11.429 2.857 2.857 ) 10 Uf = ( 1 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.2 ) Uf
T
1
positive plastic rotation increments scaled to unit translation at dof 1 Vplp := Sol2 Vplp = ( 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 ) Uf
T
1
negative plastic rotation increments scaled to unit translation at dof 1 Vpln := Sol3 Vpln = ( 0 0 0 0 0.4 0.4 0 0 ) Uf
T
plastic deformation increments scaled to unit translation at dof 1 Vpl := Vplp Vpln Vpl = ( 0.2 0 0 0 0.4 0.4 0 0.2 ) Uf
T
Page 277

% Upper bound theorem of plastic analysis - Portal frame example solution with Matlab functions and FEDEASLab function UpperBound_PLAnalysis

CleanStart % set up compatibility matrix for free dofs Af = [1/5 0 0 0 0; 1/5 1 0 0 0; 0 1 -1/4 0 0; 0 0 -1/4 1 0; 0 0 1/4 1 0; 0 0 1/4 0 1; 1/5 0 0 0 1; 1/5 0 0 0 0]; % applied force vector Pref at free dof's Pref = [ 30; 0; -50; 0; 0]; % specify plastic flexural capacities Qpl = [ 150 150 120 120 120 120 150 150]';
Upper bound theorem of plastic analysis as linear programming problem

[lambdac,DUf,DVpl] = UpperBound_PLAnalysis(Af,Qpl,Pref); % report the collapse load factor disp(['the collapse load factor is ',num2str(lambdac)]); % report the collapse displacement vector scaled by dof 1 disp( 'the collapse displacement vector is'); disp(DUf./DUf(1)) % report the plastic deformation increments scaled by dof 1 disp( 'the plastic deformation increments are'); disp(DVph./DUf(1)); Optimization terminated. the collapse load factor is 2.2286 the collapse displacement vector is 1.0000 -0.2000 -0.8000 0.2000 -0.2000 the plastic deformation increments are 0.2000 0 0 0.4000 0 -0.4000 0 0.2000
Page 278

% Upper bound theorem of plastic analysis - Portal frame example solution entirely with FEDEASLab functions

CleanStart % define XYZ(1,:) XYZ(2,:) XYZ(3,:) XYZ(4,:) XYZ(5,:) model geometry = [ 0 0]; % first node = [ 0 5]; % second node, etc = [ 4 5]; % = [ 8 5]; % = [ 8 0]; %
% element connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 3 4]; CON { 4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [ 1 1 1]; BOUN(5,:) = [ 1 1 1]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('2dFrm'); 0 = free) (specify only restrained
create Model
2 2 3 3 4
define plastic flexural capacity of elements in a column vector

% axial force capacity is "very large" Qpl = [1e5 150 150 1e5 120 120 1e5 120 120 1e5 150 150]';
Page 279
form kinematic (compatibility) matrix A

A = A_matrix(Model); % extract submatrix for free dofs Af = A(:,1:Model.nf);
specify loading
% generate data object Loading Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); % extract vector Pref at free dofs from Loading field Pref Pref = Loading.Pref;

[lambdac,DUf,DVph] = UpperBound_PLAnalysis(Af,Qpl,Pref); % report the collapse load factor disp(['the collapse load factor is ',num2str(lambdac)]); Optimization terminated. the collapse load factor is 2.2286
plot collapse mode

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); % set displacemement increments to zero DU = zeros(Model.nt,1); % put the free dof displacement increments into the first nf components of DU DU(1:Model.nf) = DUf; MAGF = 50; Plot_Model (Model,DU); % use LowerBound_PLAnalysis function to find the basic forces at collapse % note that the static (equilibrium) matrix is the transpose of the kinematic matrix [lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Af',Qpl,Pref); % display plastic hinge locations on collapse mechanism Plot_PlasticHinges (Model,Qpl,Qc,DU); Optimization terminated.
Page 280
Example 23 - Upper bound with partial collapse
Example 23 - Upper Bound Theorem of Plastic Analysis with Partial Collapse

In this example we determine the collapse load factor of the structural model in Example 9 that exhibits a partial collapse mechanism. The geometry, loading and plastic capacities are shown in the following figure.
40 30 4 d
100
e
100
La := 6 Lb := 6
c 150
20
Lc := 8 Ld := 6 Le := 6
100
100
a 6
b 6
Lf :=
6 +8
Lf = 10
The independent free global dofs under the assumption that elements a through e are inextensible are shown in the following figure along with the numbering of the locations where relative displacements and element deformations are determined for the compatibility relations.
dof 1 dof 3 dof 4 6 5 7
4 1 2 dof 2 3
Page 281
We write the compatibility relations and identify the elementary collapse mechanisms.
1 La 1 La 1 Lb 0 Af := 0 1 Ld 1 Le 8 Lf 1 6 1 6 1 6 0 = 0 1 6 1 6 4 5
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 Lc 1 1 Lc 0 1 0 1 6 0 Lf
0 0 0 1 8 1 8 0 0 3 5 0
0
double beam mechanism - negative dof 1 - negative column 1 of compatibility matrix
40 30
sidesway mechanism - dof 3 - column 3 of compatibility matrix

40 30
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
Af
0 0 0 1 1 1 0
Page 282
elementary joint mechanisms = dofs 2 and 4 = columns 2 and 4 of compatibility matrix
We start with the determination of the collapse load factor for the elementary collapse mechanisms. Since there are no applied moments at dofs 2, and 4, the corresponding load factor is infinitely large and a definite upper bound. We look at the double beam mechanism for a negative unit displacement at dof 1 the external plastic work increment is the internal plastic work increment for this mechanism is
Wpe = ( 40) ( 1)
1 1 4 Wpi := 3 100 + 2 ( 100) + ( 20) 6 6 5 Wpi ( 40) ( 1)
note that the plastic deformation increments and the corresponding basic forces have the same sign The collapse load factor for the double beam mechanism is We look at the sidesway mechanism for a unit displacement at dof 3 the external plastic work increment is the internal plastic work increment for this mechanism is
:=
= 2.483
Wpe = ( 30) ( 1)
1 3 Wpi := 2 150 + ( 20) 8 5 Wpi ( 30) ( 1)
note that the plastic deformation increments and the corresponding basic forces have the same sign The collapse load factor for the sidesway mechanism is
:=
= 1.65
Clearly, the sidesway mechanism is more critical. The question now is: can we find a combination of these two elementary collapse mechanisms that will reduce the collapse load factor by minimizing the internal plastic work increment and maximizing the external plastic work increment?
Page 283
We list the columns of the compatibility matrix for the two elementary mechanisms side by side
1 6 1 6 1 6 0 Af1 = 0 1 6 1 6 4 5
0 0 0 1 8 3 = Af 1 8 0 0 3 5
we note that a direct combination of these two elementary collapse mechanisms does not close any plastic hinges. We note, however, that at node 2 there are 3 hinges at 2, 3 and 4. Thus, by including the rotation dof 2 we should be able to close some of these. Similarly, at node 5 there are three hinges open at 5, 6 and 7. Thus, by including the rotation of dof 4 we should be able to close some of these. Either way we note that we should scale the first dof by 3/4 to bring the hinge rotation values to the same magnitude as for dof 3.
With this insight we try the following elementary mechanism combination: (-3/4 x dof 1) + dof 3 + (-1/8 x dof 2) + (-1/8 x dof 4)
The external plastic work increment for this combined mechanism is: Wpe = ( 40) The internal plastic work increment is:
1 8 0 1 4 3 A 1 + 1 A 2 + A 3 + 1 A 4 = 0 f f f f 4 8 8 0 0 1 4 6 5
and indeed we were successful in closing the plastic hinges at 2 and 4, as well as at 5 and 6.
1 1 Wpi := 100 + 2 ( 100) 8 4
3 + ( 30) ( 1) 4 6 + ( 20) 5
Page 284
and the collapse load factor becomes
:=
Wpi 3 ( 40) + ( 30) ( 1) 4
= 1.442
and this agrees with the answer of Example 9 obtained with the lower bound theorem of plastic analysis; we conclude, therefore, that this is the collapse load factor of the model under the given loading. The collapse mechanism is shown in the following figure.
ICC
displacement increments of collapse mechanism
collapse mechanism
1 C 3/4
1 1 8 U f = 3 U1 4 1 8
plastic deformation increments of collapse mechanism
3 4
1
ICA
ICB
1 8 0 1 4 0 V h = U1 0 0 1 4 6 5
We recall that this is a partial collapse mechanism and that there is no unique set of basic forces in elements a, c and d when the collapse load factor is attained (consult Example 9). Can we still hope to determine the displacements and deformations at incipient collapse? Not without a statically indeterminate analysis with basic force Q6 as redundant (recall that we selected Q6 for the homogeneous solution in Example 9). We will return to this after presenting the force method of analysis.
Page 285

% Upper bound theorem of plastic analysis with partial collapse mechanism solution entirely with FEDEASLab functions using inextensible element constraints

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 6 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 12 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 0 8]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 6 8]; % XYZ(6,:) = [ 12 8]; % % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 2 5]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; CON {5} = [ 5 6]; CON {6} = [ 3 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, 0 = free) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(6,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:5}] = deal('2dFrm'); % 2d frame element ElemName{6} = 'Truss'; % truss element % create model Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);

4 4 5

5 6
Page 286
define plastic flexural capacity of elements in a column vector

% axial force capacity is "very large" except for brace element Qpl = [ 1e5 100 100 1e5 100 100 1e5 150 150 1e5 100 100 1e5 100 100 20]';
form kinematic (compatibility) matrix A

A = A_matrix(Model); % extract submatrix for free dofs Af = A(:,1:Model.nf);
define loading
Pe(4,1) = 30; Pe(5,2) = -40; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); % extract vector Pref at free dofs from Loading field Pref Pref = Loading.Pref;

[lambdac,DUf,DVph] = UpperBound_PLAnalysis(Af,Qpl,Pref); % report the collapse load factor disp(['the collapse load factor is ',num2str(lambdac)]); Optimization terminated. the collapse load factor is 1.4417
plot collapse mode

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); % set displacemement increments to zero DU = zeros(Model.nt,1); % put the free dof displacement increments into the first nf components of DU DU(1:Model.nf) = DUf; MAGF = 50; Plot_Model (Model,DU); % use LowerBound_PLAnalysis function to find the basic forces at collapse % note that the static matrix is the transpose of the kinematic matrix [lambdac Qc] = LowerBound_PLAnalysis(Af',Qpl,Pref); % display plastic hinge locations on collapse mechanism Plot_PlasticHinges (Model,Qpl,Qc,DU); Optimization terminated.
Page 287
Deformation-Force Relations
DEFORMATION-FORCE RELATIONS FOR MATERIAL, SECTION, ELEMENT AND STRUCTURE
Objective: cause and effect relation between static and kinematic variables for linear elastic material response; deformation force relation for material; force-deformation for section under Bernoulli assumption; deformation-force for basic element and collection of elements; displacement-force relation for statically determinate structures; force method of analysis and displacement-force relation for indeterminate structures
Page 288
Material strain-stress and stress-strain relation

in general, the behavior at a material point is described by a nonlinear relation between the stress and strain tensor
= (, , )
where we see that the stress tensor may depend not only on the strain, but also on the strain rate and on internal variables Different types of constitutive models are available for the description of the behavior of specific materials: linear elastic, linear viscolelastic, perfectly plastic, viscoplastic, etc... Here we restrict ourselves to the relatively simple case of linear elastic material response. Moreover, we limit ourselves to uniaxial behavior. Thus, both stress and strain are scalars. The most natural way of describing the linear elastic response of a material is in strain-stress form, where we distinguish the mechanical and non-mechanical contribution. An example of the latter is the thermal and shrinkage strain. We write
= m + 0
with
m =
0
the mechanical strain the non-mechanical strain in the special case of thermal strain we have 0 = T where is the material coefficient of thermal expansion (e.g. from construction to service)
T the change in reference temperature

E is the elastic modulus of the material and can be thought of as material stiffness
its inverse 1 E is known as material compliance or flexibility
Thus, the relation
= (1 E ) + 0 is the flexibility relation at the material level
We can invert this relation to obtain the stiffness relation at the material level = E 0
The stiffness relation in this form shows clearly that the stress is proportional to the mechanical strain Less clear is the following common form of the stiffness relation = E + 0 with 0 = E 0 0 is the required initial stress to compensate the non-mechanical strain before the total strain is applied. for a summary of material relations consult chapter 5 in S. Crandall, "An introduction to the Mechanics of Solids", 2nd edition
Page 289
Force-deformation behavior of section

What is the force-deformation behavior of the section under the combined action of axial force and bending moment? The Euler-Bernoulli beam theory of small deformations (1750 AD) with the assumption that plane sections remain plane (Daniel Bernoulli's contribution) results in the following pair of simple relations under the assumption that the x-axis coincides with the centroid of the cross section and that the y-z axes pair coincides with the principal axes of the cross section.
N = EA a a 0
( ) M = EI ( 0 )
where A is the cross sectional area and I is the moment of inertia or second moment of area
a is the axial strain at the reference axis (subscript a)
is the curvature of the beam which is defined as change of tangent rotation per unit length
The axial strain at the reference axis and the curvature are components of the section deformation vector e, which in more advanced applicationsincludes shearing and torsional deformations. This notation will be useful in CE221. Note that we have introduced non-mechanical section deformations by analogy with the stress-strain relation. Note also that the section force-deformation relation comes out of the Euler-Bernoulli theory in stiffness form with EA the axial and EI the flexural section stiffness. We can invert these relations to the flexibility form
a =
=
N + EA a 0
M + 0 EI
with 1 EA
the axial section flexibility
1 EI the flexural section flexibility
We have now expressed the section deformations as the superposition of two effects: the mechanical effect which is proportional to the section (internal) forces, and the non-mechanical effect which we have already studied on page 13 of Part II. We recall the effect of a differential temperature field on the non-mechanical section deformations and introduce now the subscript 0 for the non-mechanical effect
a 0 = Ta
for the thermal strain at the reference axis
0 =
( T )
h
for the thermal curvature
Page 290
Deformation-force behavior of 2d frame element

After having established the force-deformation behavior of the section we use the equilibrium relations of Part I between the internal forces at a section x and the basic force of the frame element (page 18 of Part I) as well as the kinematic relations between the section and element deformations (page 14 of Part II) to derive the relation between basic forces and corresponding deformations for the 2d frame element.
from equilibrium N ( x) = q1
x x M ( x) = 1 q 2 + q 3 + M p ( x) L L
L
where Mp is the moment distribution due to element loading
from kinematics
v1 = a ( x) dx
0
x v 2 = 1 ( x) dx L
note that all element deformations on this v and the following pages correspond to
v3 =
x ( x) dx L N ( x)
for linear elastic material response we use the relations on the preceding page a ( x) = + a 0 ( x) EA( x)
( x) =
M ( x) + 0 ( x) EI ( x)
Substitute the section deformation-force into the kinematic relations and then substitute the internal forces in terms of the basic forces of the element and the element loading. We get
v1 =
N ( x) dx + a 0 ( x) dx = q1 + a 0 ( x) dx EA( x) EA( x)
x M ( x) v2 = 1 + 0 ( x) dx = q 2 L EI ( x)
x L 1 L dx q 3 EI ( x)
0
xx L L 1 L L dx 1 x ( x) dx 1 x M p ( x) dx EI ( x) L 0 L EI ( x)
v3 =
x M ( x) + 0 ( x) dx = q 2 L EI ( x)
x x L 1 L L dx + q 3 EI ( x)
0
x L dx + EI ( x)
x ( x) dx + L 0
x M p ( x) dx L EI ( x)
These relations express the deformation-force behavior of a 2d frame element. For a tapered element with variable section properties along its length (tapered element), the integrals need to be evaluated numerically. We do not pursue this further but write the deformation-force relation in compact form on the following page.
Page 291
Flexibility matrix and initial deformations of 2d frame element

The deformation-force relations can be written in compact form as follows
v = f q + v0
1 EA( x) L with the element flexibility matrix f = 0 0 0
x 1 L EI ( x)
xx 1 L L EI ( x)
xx 1 L L dx EI ( x) 2 x L EI ( x)
0
L a 0 ( x) dx 0 L L x v0 = 1 0 ( x) dx + 1 and the initial deformations L 0 0 L L x x 0 ( x) dx L L 0 0
0 x M p ( x) dx L EI ( x) M p ( x) dx EI ( x)
non-mechanical effects element load effects For a prismatic 2d frame element (uniform properties) under uniform non-mechanical effects and under a uniformly distributed element load these expressions simplify to
L EA element flexibility matrix f = 0 0
0 L 3EI L 6 EI
L 6 EI L 3EI 0
initial deformations
0 L a 0 w L3 1 y v0 = 0 L + 2 24 EI 1 L wy L3 2 0 24 EI
+ other loading effects
Page 292
Summary of deformation-force behavior of prismatic 2d frame element

q1 q1
end i q1
N ( x)
x
N ( x)
+
end j
q1
q1
a ( x)
for uniform EA +
q1 EA
L q EA 1
L v1 EA v2 = 0 v 3 0
0 L 3EI L 6 EI
q L 1 q 6 EI 2 q L 3 3EI 0
q1
L
q1
q2
q2 L q2 L
x
q3
q3 L
x
q2 L
x M ( x) = q 2 1 L
M ( x)
q3 L
q2
q2 L
q2
M ( x)
q3
q3 L
q3 L
M ( x)
M ( x)
q3
M ( x) = q3 x L
q3 EI
q2 EI
( x)
( x)
for uniform EI
for uniform EI
q2
q2 L
L q 3EI 2
L q 6 EI 2
L q 6 EI 3
L q 3EI 3
q3
q3 L
q2 L
L
q3 L
L
Page 293
Summary of deformation-force behavior of prismatic 2d frame element (con'd)
uniform non-mechanical effects

v0
a 0 ( x ) = const=a 0
1
uniformly distributed element load

wy
wy L wy L 2
0 ( x ) = const=0
v0
2
end i
v0
3
x
M ( x)
wy L
V ( x)
end j
wy
wy L 2
wy L2
M ( x)
8
2
parabola
wy L
v0 = a 0 L
1
( x)
wy L
3
8EI
for uniform EI
1 v0 = 0 L 2 2 1 v0 = 0 L 3 2
wy L
24 EI
24 EI
v0 = 0
1
v0
v0
2 wy L3 1 wy L L= = 3 8EI 24 EI 2 wy L3 1 wy L L= = 3 8EI 24 EI
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Deformation-force behavior of prismatic 2d frame element with end moment release

y
q1
q1
q2 L
L
q2 q2 L
end i
end j
deformation-force relations in compact form
v = f q + v0
element flexibility matrix
L EA f = 0
0 L 3EI
+
a0 L 0 + 3 v0 = 1 L wy L 2 0 24 EI
3 0 L wy L L strain dependent deformation at release (for hinge rotation determination) v = q + + 3 6 EI 2 2 24 EI
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Deformation-force behavior for collection of elements in structural model

(a ) ( b) (c) (a ) (a )
q
Combine the deformation-force relations for all elements in the structural model v
=f =f
+ v0
(a ) ( b)
v v
( b) ( b)
q
+ v0 + v0
=f q =f
( c) ( c)
(c) ( ne )
( ne )
( ne ) ( ne )
q
+ v0
or, in compact form
v ( a ) f ( a ) (b) v 0 (c) = v 0 0 ( ne ) v 0
0 f
0 0 f
0 0 0 0
( b)
0 0 0
(c)
0 0
(a ) (a ) 0 q v0 (b) (b) 0 q v0 ( c) + (c) 0 q v0 0 ( ne ) ( ne ) v ( ne ) f q 0 0 f 0 0 f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ( ne ) f
v(a ) q (a ) f ( a ) ( b) (b) v q 0 ( c ) and Q = ( c ) we get V = F Q +V where F = with V = s s 0 v q 0 0 ( ne ) ( ne ) v q 0
( b)
0 0 0
(c)
0 0
block-diagonal
V = Fs Q +V0
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Displacement-force behavior of structures

Statically determinate structures Equilibrium
Pf = B f Q + Pfw
for stable, statically determinate structures solve directly for Q Q = B Pf Pfw
1 where B is the force influence matrix B = B f
Compatibility V = A fU f
T 1 for stable, statically determinate structures solve for Uf U f = A f V or U f = B V since Af = Bf
T
Deformation-force relation for linear elastic material response
V = Fs Q +V0
Combine U f = BTV
{Fs Q +V0 } T = B {Fs B ( Pf Pfw ) +V0 }

=B
T
U f = BT Fs B Pf BT Fs B Pfw + BTV0
U f = FPf +U 0
with
F = B Fs B
the structure flexibility matrix, and
U 0 = FPfw + BTV0
the initial displacement vector
Consult examples 24, 25 and 26
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Ex. 24 - Force-displacement of two beams
Example 24 - Force-displacement relations for two beams with overhang

A - Simply supported beam with cantilever We consider a relatively simple structural model. The model is subjected to a concentrated force of 15 units at the tip of the cantilever.
15 1 a 15 2 b 5 3
The structure is statically determinate: there are 2 free global dofs (or equilibrium equations) and 2 unknown basic forces, as shown in the following figure.
dof 1
dof 2
Q1
Q2
The equilibrium equations are relatively simple:
P1 = Q 1 + Q 2 P2 = Q2 5
with
P1 = 0 P2 = 15
We solve with ease and obtain
Q2 := 75
Q1 := 75
The following figure shows node and element equilibrium and the bending moment diagram.
5 5
5 75 5
15
15
15 20 75 M(x)
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We wish to calculate the vertical translation under the applied force at the tip of the cantilever. To this end we use the compatibility relations (we can use the transpose of the above equilibrium equations, or simply write them down directly). We have
V1 = U1 V2 = U1 U2 5
from which we conclude that
U2 = 5 ( V1 V2)
The following figure gives a geometric interpretation of this relation. Note that the deformation is measured from the element chord to the tangent at each end.
15
V 1
V2
5( V1 V2 )
We determine the element deformations from the element deformation-force relation of each element, i.e.
v = f q
where
f=
L 2 1 6 EI 1 2
instead of worrying about specifying a stiffness value EI, we will assume that both elements have the same section stiffness EI. We will then calculate the EI-fold element deformations. We have:
15 ( 2 Q1 ) 6 5 EIV2 := ( 2 Q2 ) 6 EIV1 :=
EIV1 = 375 EIV2 = 125
With the EI-fold deformation values we can get the EI-fold translation value.
EIU2 := 5 ( EIV1 EIV2)
EIU2 = 2500
negative means downward (in negative Y-direction)
If we know the value of the stiffness EI, we can obtain the actual vertical translation value at the end. Since EI is a very large number (e.g. in the range of 20,000 to 100,000 for consistent units of force and length), it is clearly better to leave this division to the end and not divide every element deformation by EI, since it is error prone dealing with very small numbers in hand calculations. The computer by contrast does not mind at all. What would be a reasonable value of stiffness EI for this structure? The tip of the cantilever may deflect 1/200 of the cantilever length. This means that the vertical translation is 0.025 in consistent units. For this to be true, the stiffness EI should be 100,000 consistent units. We will see numbers in this range for the flexural stiffness EI in this course.
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Let us now try to determine the midspan deflection in element a under the given applied force of 15 units at the tip of the cantilever. How do we proceed? First, we draw the moment diagram in element a. Since we wish to determine the translation at midspan we insert a node m into the middle of element a, as shown in the following figure. This splits the element into two elements a1 and a2. We denote the degrees of freedom at the new node with m1 and m2.
15 1 7.5 m1 m2 1 a1 m a2 2 75 a 7.5 2 b 5 3
We write the compatibility relations
vja1 = Um2 via2 = Um2 +
Um1 7.5 Um1 7.5
where ja1 stands for end j of element a1 and ia2 stands for end i of element a2. We can see clearly from the above two equations that the vertical translation can be obtained by subtracting the first equation from the second. We get
37.5
Um1 =
7.5 ( via2 vja1) 2
To determine via2 and vja1 we use the end moments in element a1 and a2. We obtain:
EIvia2 :=
7.5 [ 2 37.5 ( 75) ] 6 EIUm1 :=
EIvja1 :=
7.5 [ 2 ( 37.5) ] 6 EIUm1 = 1054.688
With this we get:
7.5 ( EIvia2 EIvja1) 2
and we observe that the translation is positive, which means that the point moves upward under the applied force of 15 units at the tip of the cantilever. The following figure shows a different geometric interpretation for the determination of the translation Um1
via1
via
7.5
EIvia := 15 [ ( 75) ] 6
via is the deformation at end i of element a via1 is the deformation at end i of element a1
7.5
EIvia1 := 7.5 [ ( 37.5) ] 6
According to this figure
EIUm1 := 7.5 ( EIvia EIvia1)
EIUm1 = 1054.688
same as above!
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We move now to consider the case of a uniform distributed load.
w=10 1 a 15
b 5
P1 = Q 1 + Q 2 P2 = Q2 5
with
P1 = 0 P2 = 0
+ 25
We solve with ease and obtain
Q2 := 125
Q1 := 125
The following figure shows node and element equilibrium and the bending moment diagram.
83.33 125 66.67 66.67 83.33 133.33
50
50
wL2 8 = 281.25
125
218.75
M(x)
We can repeat the previous calculations for the vertical translation at the tip of the cantilever and the midspan of element a noting, however, the that force-deformation relation for each element needs to include the effect of the distributed load according to
v = f q + v0
where
L 2 1 f= and 6 EI 1 2
3
w L 1 v0 = 24 EI 1
for a downward uniform load
We demonstrate for the tip of the cantilever.
15 10 15 EIV1 := ( 2 Q1 ) + 6 24 3 5 10 5 EIV2 := ( 2 Q2 ) 6 24 EIU2 := 5 ( EIV1 EIV2)
EIV1 = 781.25 EIV2 = 156.25 EIU2 = 3125

positive means upward (in positive Y-direction)
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The geometric interpretation of this calculation is shown in the following figure of the deformed shape of the beam
via
V1
V2
5( V1 V2 )
via1
7.5
v ja1 via2
7.5 5
Um1 = 7.5 ( via2 vja1) 2
The vertical translation at midspan of element a can again be obtained from with
10 7.5 7.5 EIvia2 := [ 2 ( 218.75) ( 125) ] 6 24 EIvja1 := 10 7.5 7.5 ( 2 218.75) + 6 24 EIUm1 :=
3
With this we get:
7.5 ( EIvia2 EIvja1) 2
EIUm1 = 4833.984
negative, i.e. downward
Alternatively, by the direct geometric method we have used before
10 15 15 EIvia := [ ( 125) ] 6 24
According to the figure
10 7.5 7.5 EIvia1 := ( 218.75) 6 24
EIUm1 := 7.5 ( EIvia EIvia1)
EIUm1 = 4833.984
same result!!
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B - Propped cantilever We consider a relatively simple structure, known as a propped cantilever beam. The structure is subjected to a concentrated force of 5 units at the tip of the cantilever.
5 1 a 30 2 b 10 3
The structure is statically indeterminate. Can you tell why? There are 2 free global dofs (or equilibrium equations) and 3 unknown basic forces, as shown in the following figure.
dof 1 1 a 2 b 3
dof 2
NOS=1
Q1
Q2
Q3
P1 = Q 2 + Q 3 Q3 P2 = 10
with
P1 = 0 P2 = 5
There is something very interesting going on here! There are two equations, and only two unknown basic forces appear in these. Thus, given the applied forces it is possible to solve for the two unknown basic forces and we get:
Q3 := 50
and
Q2 := 50
We have seen a similar case in the reduction of the free dofs in Example 3 (see page 3-4 and 3-5). How are we supposed to determine the basic force Q1 ? By looking at the deformations of element a. Recall from the force-deformation relations of the beam element that
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V1 = Q1
L L Q2 3 EI 6 EI
since V1 is equal to zero at the fixed end of element a we conclude that
V1 = 0
Q1 :=
Q2 2
Q1 = 25
Thus, the moment at the fixed-end of a prismatic beam element is equal to 1/2 the moment acting at the opposite end. This is known as carry-over moment and the factor 1/2 is known as carry-over factor (tapered elements have different carry-over factors). The following figure displays this fact
0.5 M
We wish to calculate the vertical translation at the tip of the cantilever under the applied force of 5 units. Let us first calculate the element deformations from the basic forces. To this end we use the element deformation-force relation, i.e.
v = f q
where
f=
L 2 1 6 EI 1 2
instead of worrying about specifying a stiffness value EI, we will assume that both elements have the same section stiffness EI. We will then calculate the EI-fold element deformations. We have:
30 ( 2Q1 Q2) 6 30 EIV2 := ( 2Q2 Q1) 6 EIV1 := EIV3 := 10 ( 2 Q3 ) 6
EIV1 = 0 EIV2 = 375
of course, we knew this so we should not have bothered
EIV3 = 166.67
In order to calculate the vertical translation at the tip of the cantilever we write the compatibility relations (we can use the transpose of the above equilibrium equations, or simply write them down directly).
V2 = U1 V3 = U1 U2 10
thus, we can determine the translation U2 from the second compatibility relation after substituting U1 from the first into the second. We get
U2 = 10( V2 V3 )
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Since we have the EI-fold deformation values we can only get the EI-fold translation value.
EIU2 := 10 ( EIV2 EIV3)
EIU2 = 5416.67
If we know the value of the stiffness EI, we can obtain the actual vertical translation value at the end. Since EI is a very large number (e.g. in the range of 20,000 to 100,000 for consistent units of force and length), it is clearly better to leave this division to the end and not divide every element deformation by EI, since it is error prone dealing with very small numbers in hand calculations. The computer by contrast does not mind at all. There is some important information in the final result that we would like to bring to light. We have determined the vertical translation at the tip of the cantilever under a force of 5 units. We now ask the following question: what is the vertical translation value under a unit force? It is easy to see that the basic forces are proportional to the applied force and would therefore be equal to 1/5 the values above. The deformations would then also be equal to 1/5 the above values and the final translation would also be equal to 1/5 of the above value. Assuming that the unit force acts in the positive direction (i.e. upward), the translation would also be positive (i.e. upward) and have the value of 5416.67/5 = 1083.33/EI. Thus, under a unit force at the tip of the cantilever the vertical translation is equal to 1083.33/EI. This is known as the flexibility coefficient F22 of the propped cantilever. Why are there two subscripts for the flexibility coefficient? The first subscript denotes the dof where the effect is measured and the second subscript denotes the dof where the cause acts. Thus, F22 indicates the translation at dof 2 under a unit force acting at dof 2. If this is the only dof where forces act in this structure (i.e. there is never a concentrated moment acting at dof 1), then we will not be interested in any flexibility coefficients with second subscript equal to 1. How about if we are interested in the effect of a force at dof 2 on the rotation at dof 1. We have this value already from the above analysis. It is equal to U1 for a force of -5 units.
EIU1 := EIV2
EIU1 = 375
thus, the rotation at dof 1 under a unit positive force acting at dof 2 will be equal to 375/5 = 75/EI. Therefore, the flexibility coefficient F12 of this structure is 75/EI. Flexibility coefficients play an important role in condition assessment of structures (think for example that the propped cantilever is a bridge, that you place a truck at the tip and are able to measure the tip translation and the rotation at the free support; this allows you to determine the stiffness of the bridge; by comparing with the ideal stiffness value you may be able to determine how much damage the bridge has sustained (note that stiffness reduction is a common damage measure in structures). Let us now think of another interesting application of the flexibility coefficient. Say that we want to estimate the vibration frequency of the propped cantilever under the assumption that the vibratory mass is located at the tip. In this case we need the spring stiffness under the mass. This means that we only care about the cause-effect (force-displacement) relation at dof 2. This is supplied by flexibility coefficient F22. The inverse of this coefficient is the spring stiffness K. Given the mass M we may recall from Physics that the frequency of vibration of this single dof spring-mass system is
EI 30
EI 10 single dof M
K M
K = EI/1083
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Let us now try to determine the midspan deflection in element a under the given applied force of 5 units at the tip of the cantilever. How do we proceed? First, we draw the moment diagram in element a. Since we wish to determine the translation at midspan we insert a node m into the middle of element a, as shown in the following figure. This splits the element into two elements a1 and a2. We denote the degrees of freedom at the new node with m1 and m2.
5 1 a 30 m1 m2 1 a1 m 30 a2 2 2 b 10 3
We write the compatibility relations
vja1 = Um2 via2 = Um2 +
Um1 15 Um1 15
where ja1 stands for end j of element a1 and ia2 stands for end i of element a2. We can see clearly from the above two equations that the vertical translation can be obtained by subtracting the first equation from the second. We get
50 12.5 25
Um1 =
15 ( via2 vja1) 2
To determine via2 and vja1 we use the end moments in element a1 and a2. We obtain:
15 [ 2 12.5 ( 50) ] 6 15 EIvja1 := [ 2 12.5 ( 25) ] 6 EIvia2 :=

With this we get:
EIUm1 :=
15 ( EIvia2 EIvja1) 2
EIUm1 = 1406.25
and we observe that the translation is positive, which means that the point moves upward under the applied force of 5 units at the tip of the cantilever. If we were interested in the flexibility coefficient between the vertical translation dof m1 and the applied force dof 2, we can obtain it from
Fm1.2 =
1406.25 281.35 = 5 EI EI
we reiterate that this is the translation at dof m1 under a unit force at dof 1; the negative sign means that the translation is downward for a unit force acting upward at dof 1
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% statically determinate simply supported beam with overhang

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 7.5 0]; XYZ(3,:) = [ 15 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 20 0]; % % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); 0 = free)
% 2d linear frame element
% create model Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);

Define element properties

ne = Model.ne; % % Modulus, area and for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.E = ElemData{el}.A = ElemData{el}.I = end number of elements in structural model moment of inertia 1000; 10; 100; % value is not used, it is thus irrelevant
define loading
% 1. Load case: vertical nodal force at tip of overhang Pe(4,2) = -15; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); % nodal forces at free dofs Pf = Loading.Pref;
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set up equilibrium matrix

B = B_matrix(Model); % extract free dofs Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:); % determine force influence matrix Bbar = inv(Bf);
solution
% determine basic forces from equilibrium equations Q = Bf\Pf; % display basic forces disp('the basic forces are') disp(Q) the basic forces are 0 0 -37.5000 0 37.5000 -75.0000 0 75.0000 0
plotting
% open window and plot moment diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); % observe that the second argument is empty [] in the following function call Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Q);
set up collection of flexibility matrices

Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData);
determine element deformations due to Q

V = Fs*Q;
determine global dof displacements

% free global dof displacements Uf = Bbar'*V; disp('the free dof displacements are') disp(Uf) the free dof displacements are 0.0019 0 0.0105 0.0005
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0 -0.0038 0 -0.0250 -0.0056

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 50; % magnification factor for deformed configuration Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U); clear Pe; % 2. Load case: uniformly distributed element load w=-10 % use equivalent nodal forces to determine the basic forces Pe(1,2) = -10*7.5/2; Pe(2,2) = -10*7.5; Pe(3,2) = -10*7.5/2 - 10*5/2; Pe(4,2) = -10*5/2; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); % nodal forces at free dofs Pf = Loading.Pref;
specify distributed load value in ElemData

for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.w = [0;-10]; end
solution
% determine basic forces from equilibrium equations Q = Bf\Pf; % display basic forces disp('the basic forces under distributed element loading are') disp(Q) the basic forces under distributed element loading are 0 0 218.7500 0 -218.7500 -125.0000 0
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125.0000 0
plotting
% open window and plot moment diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); % observe that the second argument is ElemData in this case Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Q);
determine element deformations due to Q

% set up first initial deformations due to w V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % element deformations V = Fs*Q + V0;

% free global dof displacements Uf = Bbar'*V; disp('the free dof displacements are') disp(Uf) the free dof displacements are -0.0109 0 -0.0483 0.0008 0 0.0078 0 0.0313 0.0057

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 50; % magnification factor for deformed configuration Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,ElemData,U);
Page 310
Ex 25 - Force-displacement for determinate truss
Example 25- Force-displacement for statically determinate truss

In this example we will set up the relation between applied forces at the free dofs of a statically determinate structural model and the corresponding displacements. To this end we will go through the entire process of structural analysis: equilibrium equations, compatibility relations, and force-deformation relations for each element. The following figure shows the simple truss model with the numbering of the free dofs and basic forces.
3 2
d 15
Q4
5 4
Q2
Q5
Q3
Q1
8
The axial stiffness of all truss elements is the same: Length of truss elements Equilibrium equations
EA := 10000 Lc := 6 Ld := 8 Le := 10
La := 8
Lb := 6
P1 = Q1 + 0.8 Q5 P2 = Q4 0.8 Q5 P3 = Q2 + 0.6 Q5 P4 = Q 4 P5 = Q 3
corresponding equilibrium matrix
1 0 Bf := 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0.8 0.6 0 0
0.8
Generic solution of equilibrium equations (i.e. for a force at any dof) yields the force influence matrix Bbar
Bbar := Bf 1
Bbar
1 1 0 1 0 0.75 1 0.75 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1.25 0 1.25

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0 0
1 0 0
The force influence matrix identifies the most highly stressed elements and plays important role in optimization, system identification, damage detection, etc. We have already encountered this matrix in the first example of this course. Typically, in homework problems we solve for a specific load case , while we may be interested in several load cases in practice. In this example the applied loading consists of a force of 15 units at dof 4. Having the force influence matrix Bbar we can obtain the corresponding truss element forces by multiplication. For a single load case it is more expedient to solve the equilibrium equations "by hand" and obtain Q directly. However, the force influence matrix plays an important role in the determination of the flexibility matrix for the structure, so we keep it under consideration for a little longer.
for the applied force vector
0 0 Pf := 0 15 0
we get the basic forces
Q := Bbar Pf Q
15 11.25 = 0 15 18.75
Note that the basic forces for this load case are equal to the 4th column of the force influence matrix multiplied by 15. We reiterate that the columns of the force influence matrix represent the effect of a unit force at the corresponding dof on the basic forces of the structural model. Element deformations With all basic force values established we obtain the corresponding element deformations from the force-deformation relation of each element. We can do this "long hand" or we can write it in compact form, as we will see in a moment. For reasons of computational convenience in hand calculations we determine the EA-fold value of the element deformations and delay the division by EA until the end. Applying the force-deformation relation element by element means:
V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 =
Q1 EA Q2 EA Q3 EA Q4 EA Q5 EA
La Lb Lc Ld Le
if we have a matrix toolbox at our disposal we organize these relations in compact form as follows
La 0 0 0 0 EA V 1 0 Lb 0 0 0 Q 1 EA Q2 V2 Lc V = V3 = 0 0 0 0 Q3 = EA Q V4 4 0 0 0 Ld 0 Q5 V5 EA Le 0 0 0 0 EA
Fs Q
Since each truss element deformation only depends on the corresponding basic force, the resulting matrix is diagonal. We call this matrix Fs . It represents the collection of element flexibilities f = L/EA for the truss elements of the entire structural model.
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We can see from the above relations that it is convenient to factor out EA from the Fs matrix and write it as
La 0 1 Fs = 0 EA 0 0
0 0
Lb 0 0 0 0
Lc 0 0 Ld 0 0
0 0 0 Le
if the truss elements have different axial stiffness values, we can still factor out a reference value (e.g. the highest value or the one common to most elements), and then include the axial stiffness ratio in the diagonal terms. The advantage of this for hand calculations is significant. We are dealing with "normal" numerical values that we can handle easier.
This leads to the idea of determining the EA-fold element deformations, i.e. the EA-fold matrix F s . We have:
EAV1 = Q1 La EAV2 = Q2 Lb EAV3 = Q3 Lc EAV4 = Q4 Ld EAV5 = Q5 Le

Let us get some numerical values. or in compact form, EAV = EAFs Q with
La 0 EAFs = 0 0 0
0 0
Lb 0 0 0 0
0 0
Lc 0
0 Ld 0 0 0 Le
Q1 Q2 Q3 := Q4 Q5
EAV1 := Q1 La EAV2 := Q2 Lb EAV3 := Q3 Lc EAV4 := Q4 Ld EAV5 := Q5 Le
EAV1 = 120 EAV2 = 67.5 EAV3 = 0 EAV4 = 120 EAV5 = 187.5
Note: Mathcad has a nice feature that allows us to express any numerical value in terms of any variable (just like units). If we have Mathcad around for all our calculations, we can therefore proceed as follows:
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Define the collection of element flexibility matrices for the entire structure
La 0 Fs := 0 0 0
0 0
Lb 0 0 0 0
Lc 0
1 0 EA 0 Ld 0 0 0 Le
V := F s Q
the element deformations under a force of 15 units at dof 4 become
we can express their numerical values directly
12 6.75 3 V = 0 10 12 18.75 120 67.5 1 V = 0 120 EA 187.5
note that we factored out 10 -3
or, in terms of the axial stiffness EA
in which case we obtain the EA-fold values of the element deformations in the vector (compare with the values in the preceding page).
Page 314
Global dof displacements - Compatibility relations We write the compatibility relations for the structural model. We can do this directly, or simply use the transpose of the equilibrium relations. We have:
dof 3 dof 2
d
dof 5 dof 4
V1 = U1 V2 = U3 V3 = U5
V 4 = U 2 + U 4 V5 = 0.8 U1 0.8 U2 + 0.6 U3

or, V = Af Uf with
dof 1
1 0 0 0 Af := 0 0 0 1 0.8 0.8
0 0 1 0 1 0 0.6 0 0
1 0 0
0 0
and we observe again that the compatibility matrix is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix to solve for the displacements in terms of the element deformations we need to solve the system of the compatibility relations; we do this by hand and in the process obtain the inverse of the compatibility matrix
U1 = V1 U3 = V2 U5 = V3 U2 = U1 + 0.75 U3 1.25 V5 = V1 + 0.75 V2 1.25 V5 U4 = U2 + V4 = V1 + 0.75 V2 + V4 1.25 V5
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we compare with the inverse of the compatibility matrix
thus,
1 0 0 0 0 1 0.75 0 0 1.25 Uf := 0 1 0 0 0 V 1 0.75 0 1 1.25 0 0 1 0 0
Af
1 0 0 0 0 1 0.75 0 0 1.25 = 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.75 0 1 1.25 0 0 1 0 0
and we get, of course, the same answer, which means that we can compete with Mathcad for this small problem. For a larger one, we are unfortunately completely outmatched. We also note that the inverse of the compatibility matrix is equal to the transpose of the force influence matrix Bbar.
Bbar
1 0 0 0 0 1 0.75 0 0 1.25 = 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.75 0 1 1.25 0 0 1 0 0
this is to be expected of course, since Bbar is the inverse of the equilibrium matrix which is the transpose of the compatibility matrix. You may recall from linear algebra that the inverse and transpose operations are interchangeable, i.e. we can take them in any order.
We write therefore from now on:
T Uf = Bbar V
and note that we have obtained this relations from the solution of the compatibility relations. T We can explain the relation Uf = Bbar V directly with the principle of virtual forces. Given the element deformations V we seek a system of virtual basic forces in equilibrium with a unit virtual force at the dof whose displacement we wish to determine. For a unit force at dof 1 the virtual basic force values are equal to the first column of the force influence matrix (after all we reiterate that the entries of that column represent the basic forces in the structure under a unit force at dof 1). For a unit force at dof 2 we get the second column, etc, etc. If we are interested in the displacement of a particular dof only, this may be for some a slightly faster way of getting the answer than solving the compatibility relations. Let us demonstrate for dof 2. The equilibrium equations to solve with a unit force at dof 2 are:
0 = Q1 + 0.8 Q5 1 = Q4 0.8 Q5 0 = Q2 + 0.6 Q5 0 = Q4 0 = Q3
These equations are relatively easy to solve: the last two give immediately Q4 and Q3 , then the second gives Q5 and then the other two give directly the values for Q2 , Q1 . The complete vector of virtual basic forces is Q
1 0.75 := 0 0 1.25
Page 316
Thus, the horizontal translation at dof 2 is by the principle of virtual forces T U2 := Q V 3 U2 = 40.5 10 or in terms of EA U2 = 405
1 EA
for hand calculations we would use
EAU2 := EAV1 + 0.75 EAV2 1.25 EAV5 EAU2 = 405

same as above
Since we have obtained the complete force influence matrix, we can determine all dof displacements. We get
T Uf := Bbar V
Uf
12 40.5 3 = 6.75 10 52.5 0
or, in EA-fold form
Uf
120 405 1 = 67.5 525 EA 0
This leads to the following generalization: we have obtained the displacements at all dofs under a force of 15 units at dof 4. If there was only a unit force acting at dof 4, then the displacements would be 15 times smaller. Let us calculate these for later reference
1 Uf 15
8 27 1 = 4.5 35 EA 0
we reiterate that these are the displacements at all five dofs under a unit force at dof 4. Let us summarize how we determined them: (a) a unit force at dof 4 gives basic force values Q equal to the 4th column of the force influence matrix Bbar; (b) with these values we calculate the deformations in all elements by Fs *Q, (c) finally, T we obtain the displacements at all dofs by the relation Bbar V. Putting the whole process together we conclude that the displacements under a unit force at dof 4 are given by
8 27 1 T Bbar F s Bbar 4 = 4.5 35 EA 0
which gives the same result, of course
Repeating the process for a unit force at dof 1 will give another 5 displacement values, and another 5 for dof 2 and so on. Thus, for a unit force acting at any one of the 5 free global dofs of the structural model we get
T F := Bbar Fs Bbar
0.8 0.8 = 0 0.8 0
0.8
0.8
0 0 0 10 0 0.6
2.7 0.45 2.7 0.45 0.6 0.45 2.7 0.45 3.5 0 0 0
or, F
8 8 = 0 8 0
27 4.5 27 0 4.5 0 27 4.5 35 0 0 0 6 6 4.5 0
1
EA
this matrix is known as the flexibility matrix of the structural model.
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Flexibility matrix of structural model As the name suggests, the typical term (i,j) of the flexibility matrix of the structural model represents the displacement at dof i under a unit force acting at dof j. This matrix is, therefore, a representation of the deformation-force behavior of the entire structure and can be considered a material property of the structural model much like 1/E is the material flexibility or compliance and f is the element flexibility matrix. The inverse of the flexibility matrix of the structural model gives the stiffness matrix of the structural model (we have seen this process in action at the element level between element flexibility and stiffness matrix). The entry (i,j) of the stiffness matrix represents the force at dof i under a unit displacement of dof j. This means that only the particular dof j is activated with a unit value, while the other dofs are equal to zero. To accomplish this feat forces are typically required at the dofs, both the activated one and those held fixed. If we are interested in the stiffness matrix for all dofs, we have Complete stiffness matrix of structural model
K := F
1.89 0.64 = 0.48 0 0
1.89 0.48 1.25 0 3 0.48 2.027 0 0 10 1.25 0 1.25 0 0 0 0 1.667

0.64 0.48 0 0
The usefulness of the flexibility matrix comes into full play, however, if we are interested in the interaction between a few specific dofs among the many dofs of the structural model. Let us say, for example, that we are only interested in the interaction between dofs 2 and 3 (e.g. when forces are applied only at these dofs of the structural model). To extract the corresponding flexibility matrix all we have to do is extract the terms at the intersection of the second and third row and column. We have flexibility matrix for dofs 2 and 3
F2 , 2 F23 := F3 , 2
F F
2,3
3,3
F23 =
2.7 0.45 3 10 0.45 0.6
F23 =
27 4.5 1 4.5 6 EA
Now, the inverse of the flexibility matrix for dofs 2 and 3 is known as the condensed stiffness matrix of the structural model for dofs 2 and 3. We obtain Condensed stiffness matrix for specific dofs condensed stiffness matrix for dofs 2 and 3 1 K23 := F 23 K23 =
0.423 0.317 3 10 0.317 1.905
We note that the stiffness coefficients are very different from those at the intersection of the second and third row and column of the complete stiffness matrix. Why? Let us explain with the help of the entry at the intersection of the third row and third column. In the complete stiffness matrix this coefficient (2027) represents the force at dof 3 necessary to impose a unit displacement at the same dof 3, while all other dofs are held fixed. In the condensed stiffness matrix, this coefficient (1905) represents the force at dof 3 necessary to impose a unit displacement at the same dof 3, while dof 2 is held fixed, but all other dofs are relaxed to assume the values that satisfy force equilibrium at dofs 1, 4 and 5. Consequently, the stiffness coefficient on the diagonal of the condensed stiffness matrix is smaller. Conclusion: Static condensation of a stiffness matrix is very conveniently performed with access to the flexibility matrix of the structural model.
Page 318

% Solution for statically determinate truss

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node XYZ(1,:) = [ XYZ(2,:) = [ XYZ(3,:) = [ XYZ(4,:) = [ coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) 0 0]; % first node 8 0]; % second node, etc 0 6]; % 8 6]; %
% connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 1 3]; CON {3} = [ 2 4]; CON {4} = [ 3 4]; CON {5} = [ 2 3]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(2,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:5}] = deal('Truss'); % 0 = free)
linear truss element
% create model Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);

3 4 4

ne = Model.ne; % number of elements in structural model % Modulus and area for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 10; end
Page 319
define loading
% horizontal force at node 4 Pe(4,1) = 15; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); % nodal forces at free dofs Pf = Loading.Pref;
set up equilibrium matrix

B = B_matrix(Model); % extract free dofs Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:); % invert Bf to obtain Bbar Bbar = inv(Bf);
solution
determine basic forces from equilibrium equations Q = Bbar*Pf; % display result disp('truss forces Q under applied horizontal force') disp(Q); truss forces Q under applied horizontal force 15.0000 11.2500 0 15.0000 -18.7500
plotting
open window and plot axial force diagram Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_AxialForces (Model,Q);

Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); V = Fs*Q;

% free global dof displacements
Page 320
Uf = Bbar'*V; disp('the free dof displacements are') disp(Uf) the free dof displacements are 0.0120 0.0405 0.0067 0.0525 0

put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 20; % magnification factor for deformed configuration Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U);
determine flexibility matrix (gives global dof displacement to applied force relation)
F = Bbar'*Fs*Bbar; % display flexibility matrix disp('flexibility matrix of truss (x 1000)') disp(F.*1000); % determine displacements at free dofs for this particular loading (should be the same as above) Uf = F*Pf; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal force') disp(Uf); flexibility matrix of truss (x 1000) 0.8000 0.8000 0 0.8000 0 0.8000 2.7000 0.4500 2.7000 0 0 0.4500 0.6000 0.4500 0 0.8000 2.7000 0.4500 3.5000 0 0 0 0 0 0.6000 free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal force 0.0120 0.0405 0.0067 0.0525 0
Page 321
Ex 26 - Force-displacement for frame with hinge
Example 26 - Force-displacement relations for frame with hinge

In this example we investigate the force-displacement relations for the simple portal frame with hinge whose equilibrium we studied in Example 4 and whose compatibility relations we studied in Example 12. We seek to determine the translations and rotations at the nodes of the frame in the following figure under the given loading.
5 2 b 3 c 4 5
12
d a
10
5 1 8 8
Length of elements
La := 12
Lb := 8
Lc := 8
Ld := 10
Under the assumption that axial deformations can be neglected in all elements, we have the independent free global dofs in the following figure.
4 3 2 b 5 c 6
d a
7 1
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The compatibility relations are (the numbering of the locations for these is shown in the following figure)
V1 = U1 + V2 = U2 La
U2 La
(*)
2 3 b 4 c 5 6
+ U3 U4 Lb + U5 (*)
a d
V3 = U3 V4 = U4
Lb U4 V5 = + U6 Lc U2 V6 = + U6 Ld U2 V7 = + U7 Ld
7 1
(*)
The structural compatibility matrix Af for these dofs and deformations is
1 0 0 Af := 0 0 0 0
1 0 La 1 1 La 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 Lb 1 1 0 Lb 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 Lc 0 0
1 0 Ld 1 0 Ld
0 0 0 0 0 1
Af
1 0 0 = 0 0 0 0
1 0 12 1 1 12 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0 8 1 1 0 8 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 8 0 0
1 0 10 1 0 10
0 0 0 0 0 1
Page 323
The equilibrium matrix Bf for the corresponding dofs and basic forces is the transpose of the structural compatibility matrix Af.
T Bf := Af
Bf
1 1 12 0 = 0 0 0 0
0 1 12 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 1 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 8 8 8 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0
and the equilibrium equations can be written out as follows
P1 = Q 1 P2 = Q1 La + Q2 La + Q6 Ld + Q7 Ld
for the given loading the applied force vector is
P3 = Q 2 + Q 3 Q3 Q4 Q5 P4 = + Lb Lb Lc P5 = Q 4 P6 = Q 5 + Q 6 P7 = Q 7
0 5 0 Pf := 0 0 0 0
Pfw
0 0 0 := 20 0 0 0
there are three uncoupled equations above, namely #1, #5 and #7, which we solved by inspection in Example 4, concluding that the corresponding basic forces are zero in the absence of applied moments at the corresponding dofs. This led us in Example 4 to a system of 4 equations in 4 unknowns which could be readily solved. Here we do not bother with this simplification and let Mathcad's lsolve function do the work. With the system of linear equilibrium equations to be solved we obtain the solution for the basic forces Q with Pf = Bf Q + Pfw
Q := lsolve [ Bf , ( Pf Pfw ) ]
and we list the transpose of the basic force vector Q to save space T Q = ( 0 60 60 0 100 100 0 ) which gives the same answers as Example 4, of course
Page 324
With these basic forces we can determine the corresponding deformations by the deformation-force relation of each element. We have under the assumption that the flexural stiffness is EI = 50,000
EI := 50000 V1 := 6 EI ( 6 EI ( 6 EI ( 6 EI ( 6 EI ( Ld 6 EI Ld Lc Lb Lb La La
w := 5 2 Q Q
1 2) 1) 4)
V1 = 120
1 EI 1 EI V3 = 3.2 10
3
V2 :=
2 Q Q
2
V2 = 240
V3 :=
2 Q Q
3
V3 = 160
1 EI 1 EI 1 EI
V4 :=
2 Q Q
4
)
3
V4 = 80
V5 :=
2 Q
+ 5) 24 EI
w Lc
V5 = 160
V6 :=
2 Q Q
6
1 V6 = 333.33 EI V7 = 166.67 1 EI
or, in a vector
V7 :=
6 EI (
2 Q Q
7
6)
V1 V2 V3 V := V 4 V5 V6 V7
A couple of observations are in order: 1. In this example every element has one end with zero moment. In the absence of a distributed element load the deformation at the end with no moment is -1/2 of the deformation value at the other element end. 2. It is very useful to factor out the stiffness EI and not bother dividing every deformation by this large value. In Mathcad this can be done by inserting the 1/EI term like a unit at the end of the result. If we are interested to see the actual numerical value, we can leave this out, as shown for V3 . 3. We should not forget to include the effect of the distributed element load on the element deformations. This is the case with V 5 , which belongs to end j of element c.
Page 325
With the element deformation values we can use the compatibility relation to determine the global dof displacement values. We can do this by hand, working carefully to isolate individual dofs by elimination of the others, but we will do this later when we work with the smaller set of dofs, and so here we just use the capabilities of Mathcad to give us the result.
from
V = Af Uf
we get
Uf
77.58 509.09 282.42 1 = 3539.39 EI 522.42 282.42 217.58
We can express the whole process in very compact form noting that we solved a system of linear equations involving Bf or its transpose Af twice (once for the equilibrium equations and the second time for the compatibility equations). Recalling from Example 2 that the inverse of the equilibrium matrix Bf is the force influence matrix Bbar we can write the process in very compact form as follows. for the solution of the equilibrium equations for the deformation-force relations of all elements we write and for the solution of the compatibility relations we write T T 1 Uf = Af 1 V = Bf V = Bf 1 V = BbarT V Q = Bbar ( Pf Pfw ) V = Fs Q + Vo
( )
T Uf = Bbar V
we combine these three steps and get
T T Uf = Bbar Fs Bbar ( Pf Pfw ) + Bbar Vo
the expression
T Bbar F s Bbar represents the flexibility matrix F of the structural model T F = Bbar F s Bbar
with it we can write compactly
T Uf = F ( Pf Pfw ) + Bbar Vo Bbar := Bf 1
So, let us see how this flexibility matrix looks. For this let us first get Bbar
Page 326
We also need to set up the collection of element flexibility matrices Fs
La La 0 0 0 0 3 6 0 La La 0 0 0 0 0 6 3 Lb Lb 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 Lb Lb 1 Fs := 0 0 0 0 0 EI 6 3 Lc 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Ld Ld 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 Ld Ld 0 0 0 0 0 6 3
and here comes the flexibility matrix !
T F := Bbar Fs Bbar
8.44 42.31 0.29 = 12.03 2.11 2.72 4.99
42.31 0.29 12.03 2.11 376.86 9.59 39.67 9.59 39.67 12.23 2.98 1.16 14.15 31.6 2.09 14.15 206.28 12.23 1.16 31.6 7.34 0.47
2.72 0.56 16.09 2.74 3.47 1.19
4.99 1.72 2.09 0.47 1.19 8.92
19.5 46.78
19.5 0.56 16.09 2.74 46.78 1.72
1 EI
What do all these numbers mean? A matrix is a doubly subscripted array. In the case of the flexibility matrix both subscripts correspond to dof numbers: the first subscript corresponds to the displacement dof and the second subscript to the force dof. Thus, the flexibility coefficient Fij expresses the effect of a unit force at dof j on the displacement at dof i. The larger this number the "softer" is the corresponding interaction, i.e. the larger the effect under a unit force at dof j. Studying the above matrix we note that the diagonal terms are positive and this is always the case. A unit force at a certain dof causes a translation in the direction of the unit force. By contrast, off diagonal terms can be either positive or negative. We also note that a few terms are a lot larger than others, e.g. the second and 4th diagonal term. These correspond to the translation dofs and they are larger because translations have units of length, while rotations are dimensionless (i.e. length/length). So, while rotations can be scaled from a structure of one size to another, translations always carry the dimensions of the structure which makes for the discrepancy in the magnitude of the flexibility coefficients. We have already noted this difference in magnitude when commenting on the values of the free dof displacement vector.
Page 327
The most important property of the flexibility matrix is, of course, its symmetry! This means that a unit force at dof i produces the same effect at dof j, as a unit force at dof j produces at dof i. This is known as Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem (this is the same James Clerk Maxwell of electro-magnetic fame). Another interesting property of the flexibility matrix is that we can isolate the effect of dofs of interest by simply extracting them from the matrix. As an example let us say that we are not interested in the effect of moments on the portal frame (e.g. because there will not be such actions ever). In this case we are only interested in the effect of forces at the translation dofs. We can set up a reduced force influence matrix Bbar' that contains only the second and fourth column, since the other columns are irrelevant and will never be of use. Let us see what this looks like
0 5.45 5.45 2 = 0 Bbar 5.45 5.45 0
these are the forces Q due a unit force at dof 2
0 4.36 4.36 4 = 0 Bbar 3.64 3.64 0
these are the forces Q due a unit force at dof 4
Thus, the reduced force influence matrix Bbar' becomes
Bbar' 1 := Bbar 2 Bbar' 2 := Bbar 4
now we can calculated the flexibility matrix for the effects of interest. We denote this flexibility matrix F', since it does not involve all dofs of the structural model. We have T F' := Bbar' F s Bbar' F' =
376.86 39.67 1 39.67 206.28 EI
and we observe that it corresponds exactly to the coefficients (2,2), (2,4), (4,2) and (4,4) of the complete flexibility matrix. If had known from the beginning that applied moments at dofs 1, 3, 5, 6 and 7 were of no interest, we would have set up just the flexibility matrix F' (and of course just the reduced force influence matrix Bbar'). Having focused attention on just the dofs of interest we can study the flexibility coefficients for dofs 2 and 4 more carefully. We observe two things: 1. Dof 2 is more flexible than dof 4, i.e. a unit force a dof 2 causes a larger translation in that direction than is the case with a unit force at dof 4 (in fact, a little more than 1.5 times larger as we can tell from the flexibility coefficients 376.86 and 206.28). 2. The "coupling" between dofs 2 and 4 is not particularly strong, i.e. a unit force at dof 2 causes a relatively small effect on dof 4 and vice versa. Interestingly, if the column on the right (i.e. element d) were as tall as the column on the left, there would be no coupling on account of symmetry and anti-symmetry (more on the subject later in the course).
Page 328
Solution with reduced number of degrees of freedom We have done a lot of work with large vectors and matrices above without really taking advantage of the fact that the basic forces Q1 , Q4 and Q7 are always equal to zero, when no forces are applied at dofs 1, 5 and 7. While this may not be important with matrix software, it is always more insightful, and also more economic when solving the problem "by hand". Let us therefore show the solution The following figure shows the set of reduced free dofs (consult also Examples 4 and 12).
dof 2 dof 1 dof 3 dof 4
Q3
Q2
Q1
Q4
d a
The equilibrium equations are
P1 =
Q1 La
Q4 Ld
with
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2 Q2 Q3 P3 = + Lb Lc P4 = Q 3 + Q 4
5 0 Pf := 0 0
Pfw
0 0 := 20 0
for the given loading
1 0 0 1 Ld La 1 1 0 0 Bf := 0 1 1 0 Lb Lc 0 0 1 1
or, numerically
Bf
1 12 1 = 0 0
0 1
0 0
1 10 0
1 1 8 8 0 1
0 1
Page 329
The compatibility equations are
V1 =
U1 La
+ U2 U3 Lb
V3 = V4 =
U3 Lc U1 Ld
+ U4 + U4
V2 = U2
and the compatibility matrix is
1 La 0 Af := 0 1 Ld
1 1 0 Lb 1 0 1 Lc 0 0 1
0
and we note, of course, that the transpose of the compatibility matrix is equal to the equilibrium matrix
T Af
1 0 0 12 1 1 0 = 0 1 1 8 8 0 0 1
1 10 0
0 1
We determine the basic forces for the given loading. "By hand" we have
5=
Q1 12
Q4 10
0 = Q1 + Q2 Q2 Q3 0= + + 20 8 8 0 = Q3 + Q4
substitute Q2 and Q3 in terms of Q1 and Q4
20 =
Q1 8
Q4 8
from equations #1 and #3 solve for Q1 and Q4 so that
Q1 := 60 Q2 := Q1
Q4 := 100 Q3 := Q4
and the basic force vector becomes
Q1 Q2 Q := Q3 Q4
Page 330
the corresponding element deformations now are
V1 := V2 :=
6 EI ( 6 EI ( 6 EI ( 6 EI ( Ld Lc Lb
La
2 Q 2 Q
1) 2)
V1 = 240 V2 = 160 w Lc
3
1 EI
1 EI 1 EI 1 EI
V3 :=
2 Q
+ 3) 24 EI
4)
V3 = 160
V4 :=
2 Q
V4 = 333.33
If we are interested in the horizontal translation at dof 1 and vertical translation at dof 3 we can obtain these from the compatibility relations
V1 =
U1 12
+ U2 U3 8
V3 = V4 =
U3 8 U1 10
+ U4 + U4 V1 V2 = V3 V4 = U1 12 U3 8 + U3 8 U1 10
V2 = U2
subtracting the first two and the last two we get
and after subtracting the second from the first we get
V1 V2 ( V3 V4) =
U1 12
U1 10
and finally
U1 :=
120 ( V1 V2 V3 + V4) 22 1 EI
same as before
U1 = 509.09
and we can obtain in similar fashion U3 or simpler
U3 := 8 ( V1 V2 )
8 U1 12
U3 = 3539.394
1 EI
Returning to the four original compatibility relations we can then obtain U2 and U4 , if interested.
Page 331
How can we determine the node rotations that have not been included in the free dofs? By geometry The following figure shows the deformed shape of the structural model under the given loading. We can see that the rotation of an "unrestrained" node, i.e. a node with only one continuous element connection can always be determined from the chord rotation of the element with the continuous connection to the node and the element deformation (i.e. the node rotation is equal to the tangent rotation of the element)
1
Thus, for rotation of node 1: chord rotation of element a + deformation at end i of element a
for rotation of node 3
U1 La
( Q 1 ) La
6 EI
= 77.58
1 EI
compare with value on page 5
chord rotation of element b + deformation at end j of element b
U3 Lb
for rotation of node 5
( Q 2 ) Lb
6 EI
= 522.42
1 EI
chord rotation of element d+ deformation at end j of element d
U1 Ld
( Q 4 ) Ld
6 EI
= 217.58
1 EI
The hinge rotation at node 3 can be determined from the difference of the angles of the tangent to the deformed shape of element c and the tangent to the deformed shape of element b (the latter is equal to the rotation of node 3).
Page 332

%statically determinate portal frame (three hinge frame) % use input data of Example 4 Example_4_mod the basic forces are -7.5000 0 -60.0000 -10.0000 60.0000 0 -10.0000 0 -100.0000 -32.5000 100.0000 0

ne = Model.ne; % % Modulus, area and for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.E = ElemData{el}.A = ElemData{el}.I = end number of elements in structural model moment of inertia 1000; 1e6; 100; % very large value to exclude axial deformations

Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); % set up first initial deformations due to w V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % determine element deformations V = Fs*Q + V0;

% free global dof displacements Bbar = inv(Bf); % use deformations at iq locations, since Bbar is set up for iq basic forces Uf = Bbar'*V(iq); disp('the free dof displacements are') disp(Uf) the free dof displacements are 0.0008 0.0051 -0.0000 -0.0028 0.0051 -0.0354 -0.0052 0.0051 -0.0000 0.0028 -0.0022
Page 333

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 80; % magnification factor for deformed configuration Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); % it is necessary to insert V in the argument list for the hinge discontinuity Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,ElemData,U,V);
determine flexibility matrix (gives global dof displacement to applied force relation)
F = Bbar'*Fs(iq,iq)*Bbar; % display flexibility matrix disp('flexibility matrix of truss (x 1000)') disp(F.*1000); flexibility matrix of truss (x 1000) 0.0844 -0.4231 -0.0000 -0.0029 -0.4231 0.0000 0.0272 0.0499 -0.4231 3.7686 0.0000 -0.0959 3.7686 -0.0000 -0.1950 -0.4678 -0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 -0.0000 -0.0029 -0.0959 -0.0000 0.0298 -0.0959 0.0000 -0.0056 0.0172 -0.4231 3.7686 0.0000 -0.0959 3.7686 -0.0000 -0.1950 -0.4678 -0.1203 0.3967 0.0000 0.1415 0.3967 0.0000 -0.1609 0.0209 -0.0211 0.1223 -0.0000 0.0116 0.1223 0.0000 -0.0274 -0.0047 -0.4231 3.7686 0.0000 -0.0959 3.7686 -0.0000 -0.1950 -0.4678 0.0000 -0.0000 0 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0272 -0.1950 -0.0000 -0.0056 -0.1950 0.0000 0.0347 0.0119 0.0499 -0.4678 -0.0000 0.0172 -0.4678 0.0000 0.0119 0.0892
-0.1203 0.3967 0.0000 0.1415 0.3967 2.0628 0.3160 0.3967 0.0000 -0.1609 0.0209
-0.0211 0.1223 -0.0000 0.0116 0.1223 0.3160 0.0734 0.1223 0.0000 -0.0274 -0.0047
-0.4231 3.7686 0.0000 -0.0959 3.7686 0.3967 0.1223 3.7686 -0.0000 -0.1950 -0.4678
Page 334
Displacements at incipient collapse

Case of full collapse mechanism Just before the last hinge forms the structure is statically determinate if a full collapse mechanism forms. Thus, all basic forces can be determined from the equilibrium equations (page 26 of Part I). With all basic forces known we can determine the corresponding strain dependent element deformations. In determining the global dof displacements we can only use the compatibility equations in the locations without a plastic hinge, because at the NOS plactic hinge locations there are unknown plastic hinge deformations at the instant just before the last hinge forms. Denoting the locations without plastic hinge including the last hinge to form with subscript i, as we have done in Example 18, we have
Vi = Ai U f
with
Vi = Fsi Qi +Vi0
solving for the displacements at the free dofs we obtain
U f = BiTVi
since
AiT = Bi and
Bi = Bi 1
Since the location of the last hinge to form is not known from the lower or upper bound theorem of plastic analysis, trial and error is required: we guess the location of the last plastic hinge to form and then determine the plastic deformations and the free global dof displacements. The correct guess for the last plastic hinge to form corresponds to the case with no contradiction between the sign of the plastic deformations and the corresponding basic forces, which also results in the largest value for the translation dofs. consult examples 27 and 28. Case of partial collapse mechanism In this case the structure is still statically indeterminate before the last plastic hinge forms. Recall that there are less than NOS+1 hinges at collapse, thus less than NOS hinges before the last plastic hinge forms. Let us call the number of plastic hinges at collapse NP. Before the last plastic hinge forms there are, therefore, NOS+1 - NP redundant basic forces and a statically indeterminate analysis, as discussed in the preceding page is required to determine the redundant values and then all basic forces just before the last plastic hinge forms. Following this we can follow the same procedure as for the case of the full collapse mechanism above to determine the displacements at incipient collapse. consult example 33
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Ex. 27 - Displacements at incipient collapse of truss
Example 27 - Displacements at incipient collapse of simple truss

Objectives: (a) determine the displacements at incipient collapse of truss: trial and error approach of guessing location of last hinge to form
(10) (10) a
L1 := 8
b c 6
L2 := 10 L3 := 6
We investigate the collapse load determination of this simple truss by the lower bound theorem of plastic analysis in Example 7. Here we determine the displacements at incipient collapse by guessing the location of the last hinge to form. We state the equilibrium and compatibility relations
P1 = Q1 + 0.8Q2 P2 = 0.6 Q2 + Q3
V1 = U1 V2 = 0.8 U1 + 0.6 U2 V3 = U2
In example 7 we determined the collapse load factor as and the corresponding axial forces as
c := 1.6 Q2 := 10 Q3 := 10
Q1 := 8
with hinges forming at elements b and c; we do not know which of the two is the last hinge to form, and we plan to determine this along with the corresponding global dof displacement values in this example. We assume now that the behavior of the material is linear elastic-perfectly plastic and that the axial stiffness of all truss elements is equal to EA = 10,000.
EA := 10000
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We assume first that the last hinge to form is in element c. If this is the case, then element c is still elastic at the instant the last hinge forms and we can use the deformation-force relations for elements a and c to determine the deformations from the given forces. We have:
V1 := Q1 V3 := Q3
L1 EA L3 EA
V1 = 6.4 10 V3 = 6 10
V1h := 0 V3h := 0
V1 := V1 + V1h V3 := V3 + V3h
we use the first and third compatibility relation to determine the global dof displacements
U1 := V1 U2 := V3
U1 = 6.4 10 U2 = 6 10
now we substitute into the second compatibility relation to determine the plastic deformation first we determine the elastic deformation of element b
V2 := Q2
3
L2 EA
V2 = 10 10
V2h := ( 0.8 U1 + 0.6 U2) V2
V2h = 1.28 10
and the plastic deformation in element b is negative, which contradicts the fact that the corresponding basic force in element b is positive (tension). We conclude that the guess of the last hinge forming in c is not physically correct. We assume then that the last hinge forms in b. We use now the first two compatibility relations to determine the global dof displacements, since we know the deformations V1 and V2 . We have now:
V2h := 0 U1 := V1 U2 := V2 0.8 U1 0.6
V2 := V2 + V2h U1 = 6.4 10
3 3 from the first compatibility relation from the second compatibility relation
U2 = 8.133 10
substituting into the third compatibility relation we get the plastic deformation in c
V3h := U2 V3
V3h = 2.133 10
and it is positive, in agreement with the sign of the basic force
Since there are only two plastic hinges forming in this example, we know now the complete sequence: element c reaches its capacity first, followed by element b. Once element b reaches its capacity, the entire structure has reached its capacity under the given loading.
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We like to demonstrate now that the relative axial stiffness of the elements affects the hinge sequence, while it does not affect the collapse load factor, which obviously depends only on the plastic capacities (we assume here that we can change the stiffness of a member without changing its capacity). We make element b twice as stiff axially as the other two, i.e.
EAb := 20000
Using the solution from the last case with the last hinge forming in element b we get
V2 := Q2 V2h := 0 U1 := V1 U2 :=
L2 EAb
V2 = 5 10
V2 := V2 + V2h U1 = 6.4 10
3 3 from the first compatibility relation from the second compatibility relation, which is already suspect, since the point moves down rather than up
V2 0.8 U1 0.6
U2 = 0.2 10
substituting into the third compatibility relation we get the plastic deformation in c
V3h := U2 V3
V3h = 6.2 10
and it contradicts the sign of the basic force in c
Thus, in this case the last hinge forms in c and not in b. We determine the global dof displacements and the plastic deformation in c. We get
V3h := 0
V3 := V3 + V3h
3
we use the first and third compatibility relation to determine the global dof displacements
U1 := V1 U2 := V3
U1 = 6.4 10 U2 = 6 10
same answer as the wrong guess of the first case, of course
now we substitute into the second compatibility relation to determine the plastic deformation in b
V2h := ( 0.8 U1 + 0.6 U2) V2
V2h = 3.72 10
and this time it is positive in agreement with the sign of the basic force in element b. Conclusion: if we make element b stiffer, it "attracts" a larger portion of the applied loads and yields before element c.
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Ex. 28 - Displacements at incipient collapse of portal frame
Example 28 - Displacements at Incipient Collapse of Portal Frame

this is the continuation of Example 22; instead of repeating the calculations we insert a link to the file
Reference:C:\Drive D\COURSES\CE220\Classnotes\Mathcad files\Example 22_Upper Bound Theorem.xmcd(R)
Determination of displacements and deformations at incipient collapse With the collapse mechanism we can determine the displacement increments at all dofs of the structural model in terms of a single independent dof (in this case U1 ). Note that for perfectly plastic behavior the basic forces do not change once the collapse mechanism has formed, so that there are no element deformation increments during the collapse "motion". The only deformation increments occur at the plastic hinge locations. So far, we have not made any assumptions about the material behavior other than that it needs to be perfectly plastic once it reaches its plastic capacity. We now ask the question: is it possible to determine the deformed shape of the structural model at incipient collapse, i.e. just before the collapse mechanism forms? The answer is yes, as long as we know the material behavior before reaching its plastic capacity. As an example we use the simplest material behavior for this: linear elastic. Thus, the material behavior for the following calculations is assumed to be linear elastic, perfectly plastic (note that under "material" we understand the axial and flexural behavior; we will see in the Nonlinear Analysis course that a linear elastic, perfectly plastic material does not result in a linear elastic-perfectly plastic moment-curvature relation, but that it can be approximated as such in many cases). To determine the displacements at incipient collapse we make the following observations: 1. As the load factor increases the plastic hinges form one after another in the structural model. 2. We are not interested here in the plastic hinge formation sequence, but we need to know which is the last plastic hinge to form. The reason for this is that just before the last plastic hinge forms, i.e. at incipient collapse, the structure is statically determinate, if we assume a complete collapse mechanism (we will discuss a partial collapse mechanism later). This means that there are enough compatibility relations with known deformations on the left hand side that a unique solution for the global dof displacements can be obtained. Note that the latter can be readily determined from the deformation-force relations, since we know all basic forces at incipient collapse. 3. How do we "find" the last plastic hinge to form? By trial and error, as shown in the following. Let us first supply a value for the flexural stiffness of the elements of the portal frame We have the following basic forces at incipient collapse: EI := 50000
Q1 Q2 Q 3 Q4 := Q5 Q6 Q7 Q 8
150 85.71 85.71 120 120 120 120 150
Q1 Q2 Q 3 Q4 Q := Q5 Q6 Q7 Q 8
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Given are also the following element lengths
La := 5
Lb := 4
Lc := 4
Ld := 5
We have the following element deformations at incipient collapse V1 := La 6 EI La 6 EI Lb 6 EI Lb 6 EI Lc 6 EI Lc 6 EI Ld 6 EI Ld 6 EI ( 2 Q1 Q2) ( 2 Q2 Q1) ( 2 Q3 Q4) ( 2 Q4 Q3) ( 2 Q5 Q6) ( 2 Q6 Q5) V1 = 321.43 1 EI 1 EI
V2 :=
V2 = 267.85 1 EI
V3 :=
V3 = 34.28
V4 :=
V4 = 102.86 1 EI 1 EI
1 EI
V5 :=
V5 = 80
V6 :=
V6 = 80
V7 :=
( 2 Q7 Q8)
V7 = 75
1 EI 1 EI
V8 :=
( 2 Q8 Q7)
V8 = 150
We recall that the collapse mechanism involves plastic hinges at locations 1, 5, 6 and 8. Let us assume that the last hinge to form is at 6, meaning that there is no hinge deformation at this location. With this assumption we have the following deformations V2h := 0 V3h := 0 V4h := 0 V6h := 0 V7h := 0 V2 := V2 + V2h V3 := V3 + V3h V4 := V4 + V4h V6 := V6 + V6h V7 := V7 + V7h
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V2 =
1 5
U1 + U2 1 4 U3
these are 5 equations in the five unknown global dof displacements and we can solve them relatively easily. Let us focus on the translations subtract equation #2 from #1 to get subtract equation #4 from #5 to get V2 V3 = V7 V6 = 1 5 1 5 U1 + U1 1 4 1 4 U3 U3 1 EI
V3 = U2
1 V4 = U3 + U4 4 V6 = V7 = 1 4 1 5 U3 + U5 U1 + U5
then we obtain
U1 := 2.5 ( V2 V3 + V7 V6)
U1 = 367.825
which clearly does not make sense, since it moves opposite to the applied force; this is not a good guess therefore 1 4
replacing the equation #4 by the equation at location 5, i.e. by and the assumption that V5h := 0 V5 := V5 + V5h V5 V4 = 1 2 U3
V5 =
U3 + U4
gives us the following quick result for U3 : and then the following result for U1
U3 := 2 ( V5 V4) 5 4 U3
U3 = 365.72 U1 = 1053.5
1 EI 1 EI
U1 := 5 ( V2 V3)
again not possible because of the sign of U1 opposite to the applied force We, therefore, concentrate now on the two easiest choices, i.e. 1 or 8 that we should have looked at first from the beginning (they give us directly the displacement at dof 1). We have the following continuity relations from before V2 = 1 5 U1 + U2 1 4 U3 and we need to add either one of V1 = V8 = 1 5 1 5 U1 U1
V3 = U2
1 V4 = U3 + U4 4 V7 = 1 5 U1 + U5
If we add the first one we get if we add the second one we get
U1 = 5 V1 U1 = 5 V8
with the assumption with the assumption
V1h := 0 V8h := 0
V1 := V1 + V1h V8 := V8 + V8h
which value is the right one? the one resulting in a larger displacement for dof 1
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1 EI why do we select the larger value? because in the opposite case, the hinge rotation at node 1 would be negative, while the corresponding moment is positive and this does not make sense. in this case the larger value is V1 and thus U1 := 5 V1 U1 = 1607.125 with the dof 1 displacement determined we can use the other four continuity relations to get the other dof displacement values. We get U2 := V2 1 U1 5 U2 = 589.275 1 EI U3 = 2494.22 U4 := V4 + U5 := V7 1 U1 5 U5 = 246.425 1 EI 1 EI U4 = 520.695 1 EI
U3 := 4 ( U2 V3)
1 U3 4
With these values we have the following summary at incipient collapse:
element deformations
V1 V2 V 3 V4 V := global dof displacements V5 V6 V7 V 8
U1 U2 Uf := U3 U4 U 5
32.14 11.79 3 Uf = 49.88 10 10.41 4.93
and the plastic deformations at incipient collapse are given by
Vh := Af Uf V
0 0 0 0 3 Vh = 10 21.29 15.8 0 3.43
and we know that we have the right displacements because the corresponding basic forces have the same sign as the plastic deformations
150 85.71 85.71 120 Q= 120 120 120 150
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Remark: the quick solution with matrices gives (see Example 18 and page Part II-48) compatibility matrix for deformations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 where no hinges have formed and corresponding deformation vector
1 5 1 5 Ai := 0 0 1 5
0 1
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 0
1 0 0
1 1 4 0
0 0 Vi := 0 1
V1 + V1h V2 + V2h V3 + V3h solve for displacements V4 + V4h Uf := lsolve ( Ai , Vi) Uf = V + V 7h 7
32.14 11.79 3 49.88 10 10.41 4.93
if we had selected the smaller displacement value for dof 1, we would have U2 := V2 1 5 U1 U2 = 417.85 1 EI U3 = 1808.52 U4 := V4 + U5 := V7 1 5 U1 U5 = 75 1 EI 1 4 1 EI
U1 := 5 V8
U1 = 750
1 EI
U3 := 4 ( U2 V3)
U3
U4 = 349.27
1 EI
U1 U2 U'f := U3 U4 U 5
15 8.36 3 U'f = 36.17 10 6.99 1.5
V'h := Af U'f V
3.43 0 0 0 3 V'h = 10 14.43 8.94 0 0
and this result does not make sense, because the first plastic deformation is of opposite sign relative to the corresponding basic force at incipient collapse
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The following figure shows the deformed shape of the portal frame at incipient collapse.
it is worth observing that the hinge at 1 is about to form and that the element tangent is still vertical. It is also worth observing that the hinge rotations dominate the deformations of the rest of the structure so that the element deformations are almost indistinguishable from the chord, even though the magnification factor is 25. Determination of displacements and deformations of collapse mechanism After the last hinge forms the portal frame displaces incrementally with the collapse displacement vector that we have established earlier. During this process the lateral load remains constant under the assumption that displacements and deformations are small and that the equilibrium is satisfied in the original, undeformed configuration. The latter is not true, of course, and as the lateral displacements increase it is necessary to consider the equilibrium in the deformed configuration, which leads to a nonlinear geometric analysis (we will postpone this discussion until the Nonlinear Analysis course). Let us say that we would like to determine the displacements and deformations of the portal frame at a horizontal displacement of 0.1 units. How do we proceed? In two stages: first we know from above what happens until incipient collapse. We restate
32.14 11.79 3 Uf = 49.88 10 10.41 4.93
0 0 0 0 3 Vh = 10 21.29 15.8 0 3.43
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Then from the horizontal displacement of 0.032143 to the displacement of 0.1 the portal frame displaces according to the collapse displacement vector. We have U1 := 0.1 Uf U1 = 67.858 10
3
the other free dof displacement increments are
and the plastic deformation increments are
1 1 5 4 Uf := 5 U1 1 5 1 5 1 5 0 0 0 2 Vh := U1 5 2 5 0 1 5
67.86 13.57 3 Uf = 54.29 10 13.57 13.57
13.57 0 0 0 3 Vh = 10 27.14 27.14 0 13.57
Thus, the total displacements and plastic deformations become
Ufinal := Uf + Uf
Ufinal
100 25.36 3 and = 104.17 10 23.99 or, 18.5
Vhfinal := Af Ufinal V Vhfinal := Vh + Vh
13.57 0 0 0 3 Vhfinal = 10 48.43 42.94 0 17
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% free dof displacements of portal frame at incipient collapse % use data of Example 22b with lower and upper bound solution of portal frame Example_22b Optimization terminated. the collapse load factor is 2.2286 Optimization terminated.
elastic element property data

for el=1:Model.ne ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1e6; ElemData{el}.I = 50; end % very high axial stiffness
form collection of element flexibility matrices

Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); % index of plastic hinge locations under the assumption that last hinge to form % is at base of left column, i.e. the latter it is still elastic ih = [8 9 12]; % index of plastic hinge locations ii = setdiff(1:12,ih); % index of locations with only elastic deformations at incipient collapse % determine elastic element deformations Ve = Fs*Qc;
free dof displacements at incipient collapse

% extract rows for locations with only elastic deformations and determine free dof displacements at incipient collapse (statically determinate structure) Uf = Af(ii,:)\Ve(ii); disp('the free dof displacements at incipient collapse are') disp(Uf)
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the free dof displacements at incipient collapse are 0.0321 -0.0000 -0.0118 0.0321 -0.0499 -0.0104 0.0321 -0.0000 -0.0049
plastic deformations at incipient collapse

V = Af*Uf; % element deformations Vh = Af*Uf - Ve; % hinge deformations disp('the plastic deformations at incipient collapse are') disp(Vh(ih)) the plastic deformations at incipient collapse are -0.0213 -0.0158 0.0034
plot deformed shape with plastic hinge locations

MAGF = 20; % put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); % plot element chords for reference Plot_Model(Model,U); % it is necessary to insert Ve in the argument list for the plastic hinge discontinuities Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U,Ve); Plot_PlasticHinges(Model,Qpl,Qc,U);
determine the plastic hinge rotations at a specific value of the horizontal translation
index of plastic hinge locations
ih = [2 8 9 12]; % index of plastic hinge locations ie = setdiff(1:12,ih); % extract the rows of the compatibility matrix with elastic deformations only Ae = Af(ie,:); % set displacement increment for horizontal translation to 1 and solve for the other displacements % (constrained motion of collapse mechanism) % dof index for horizontal translation ir = Model.DOF(2,1); % index for dependent dofs of collapse mechanism id = setdiff(1:Model.nf,1); % compatibility matrix (vector) of collapse mechanism Acp = zeros(Model.nf,1); Acp(ir) = 1; Acp(id) = Ae(:,id)\-Ae(:,ir);
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displacements and plastic deformations at specific value of horizontal translation

% assume a specific value of the horizontal translation is given, say 0.1 units factor displacement increments by the difference between 0.1 and its value at incipient collapse DUf = Acp.*(0.1-Uf(ir)); % total displacements at a horizontal translation of 0.1 are Uft = Uf + DUf; % total deformations at a horizontal translation of 0.1 are DV = Af*Acp.*(0.1-Uf(ir)); Vt = V + DV; % plastic (hinge) deformations at a horizontal translation of 0.1 are DVh = Af*Acp.*(0.1-Uf(ir)); Vht = Vh + DVh; disp('the free dof displacements at a horizontal translation of 0.1 are') disp(Uft) disp('the plastic deformations at a horizontal translation of 0.1 are') disp(Vht(ih)) the free dof displacements at a horizontal translation of 0.1 are 0.1000 -0.0000 -0.0254 0.1000 -0.1042 -0.0240 0.1000 -0.0000 -0.0185 the plastic deformations at a horizontal translation of 0.1 are 0.0136 -0.0484 -0.0429 0.0170
plot deformed shape with plastic hinge locations at a horizontal translation of 0.1
% use the same plotting window for comparison put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uft; % it is necessary to insert Ve in the argument list for the plastic hinge discontinuities Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U,Ve);
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FORCE OR COMPATIBILITY METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Equilibrium Compatibility
Pf = B f Q + Pfw
Bf = A fT
V = Af Uf
for general load case
Q = Bi ( Pf Pfw ) + B x Q x
NOS redundants NOS equations
BT V = 0 x
Element deformation-force
V = FsQ + V0
Vgp + Fxx Q x = 0

Equilibrium equations in undeformed configuration (linear)
Pf = B f Q + Pfw
Q = B i ( Pf Pfw ) + B x Q x
(1)
solve for general load case

Compatibility relations for small displacements/deformations (linear)
V = Af Uf
BT V = 0 x
(2)
Element deformation-force for linear elastic material
V = FsQ + V0
(3)
In the force method of analysis the unknowns of the problem are the redundant basic forces from (1) and (3) from (2) and (3*)
Qx
V = Fs Bi ( Pf Pfw ) + B x Q x + V0
BT ( Fs Bi ( Pf Pfw ) + B x Q x + V0 ) = 0 x
(3*)
B T Fs Bi ( Pf Pfw ) + V0 + B T Fs B x Q x = 0 x x
Vgp + Fxx Q x = 0
with
Fxx = B T Fs B x x
Vgp = B T FsBi ( Pf Pfw ) + V0 x
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Compatibility
Equilibrium
Pf = B f Q + Pfw
B f = A fT
V = Af Uf
for specific load case
Q = Qp + Bx Qx
NOS redundants
NOS equations
BT V = 0 x
Element deformation-force
V = FsQ + V0
Vgp + Fxx Q x = 0

Pf = B f Q + Pfw
Q = Qp + Bx Qx
(1)
solve for specific load case

V = Af Uf
BT V = 0 x
(2)
Element deformation-force for linear elastic material
V = Fs Q + V0
(3)
In the force method of analysis the unknowns of the problem are the redundant basic forces from (1) and (3) from (2) and (3*)
Qx
V = Fs ( Q p + B x Q x ) + V0
(3*)
BT Fs ( Q p + B x Q x ) + V0 = 0 x
BT ( FsQ p + V0 ) + B T Fs B x Q x = 0 x x
Vgp + Fxx Q x = 0
with
Fxx = B T Fs B x x
Vgp = BT ( FsQ p + V0 ) x
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Solution steps for force method of analysis "by hand" Step 1: write equilibrium relations and establish structure equilibrium matrix for free dof's
Bf
or
Af
with constraints
Step 2: identify redundants making sure that primary structure is stable (primary structure = structure with redundants equal to zero) Step 3: solve equilibrium equations under the given loading with redundants set equal to zero --> particular solution Step 4: solve equilibrium equations for general homogeneous solution
Qp
Bx
B x FsQ p + V0
T
Step 5: determine compatibility errors under particular and homogeneous solution Step 6: solve compatibility conditions for redundant basic forces
and
Fxx = B x Fs B x
BT Fs Q p + V0 + Fxx Q x = 0 x
Q = Qp + B xQ x
Step 7: determine basic forces under given loading by superposition of NOS+1 stress states
Step 8: with Q determine other element forces by equilibrium (forces in inextensible or inflexible elements, shear forces) Step 9: with Q determine support reactions from equilibrium at restrained dof's Step 10: with support reactions and applied forces check global equilibrium on complete structure free body Step 11: (if necessary) determine element deformations
V = FsQ + V0 U f = Bi V
T
Step 12: (if necessary) determine displacements by compatibility or principle of virtual forces
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Displacement-force behavior of structures

Statically indeterminate structures Equilibrium
Pf = Bf Q + Pfw
express basic forces in terms of applied loads and NOS redundants Q = Bi Pf Pfw + B x Qx Compatibility V = A fU f element deformations need to be compatible; this leads to NOS compatibility conditions
0 = Bx V
Deformation-force relation for linear elastic material response
V = Fs Q +V0
use compatibility conditions to obtain unique solution for redundant basic forces
0 = Bx V
T = B x Fs Q +V0
} )
0 = B x Fs Bi Pf Pfw + B xV0 + B x Fs B x Qx
or, more compact 0 = Fxi Pf Pfw + B xV0 + Fxx Qx with
T
= BT Fs Bi Pf Pfw + B x Qx +V0 x
Fxi = BT Fs Bi x
Fxx = B x Fs B x
solve for redundant basic forces Qx = Fxx
T Fxi Pf Pfw + B xV0
return to equilibrium equations and substitute for the redundant basic forces
( ) 1 = Bi ( Pf Pfw ) B x Fxx Fxi ( Pf Pfw ) + BTV0 x 1 1 T = ( Bi B x Fxx Fxi ) ( Pf Pfw ) B x Fxx B xV0
1 1 B V = B x Fxx BT x
we recognize the force influence matrix for a statically indeterminate structure B = Bi B x Fxx Fxi and can express the basic forces in compact form in terms of the applied loading
1 Q = B Pf Pfw B x Fxx BTV0 x
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Q = B Pf Pfw + B VV0
Displacement-force behavior of structures (cont'd)

the displacements at the free dof's can be obtained from the same relation as for statically determinate structures (think of the principle of virtual forces!)
U f = BTV
substitute the deformation-force relation for linear elastic material response and the basic force expression
U f = BTV =B
T
{Fs Q +V0} T 1 T = B {Fs B ( Pf Pfw ) B x Fxx B xV0 +V0 }
after collecting terms we get
1 U f = F Pf Pfw + BT I Fs B x Fxx BT V0 x
with
F = BT Fs B
the structure flexibility matrix with
1 B = Bi B x Fxx Fxi
and
U 0 = FPfw + B
(I F B F
s
1 T x xx B x
)V
the initial displacement vector
Consult examples 29, 30, 31 and 32
Note that
B Fs B x Fxx B x = 0
1 T
so that the last expression becomes
U 0 = FPfw + BTV0
which gives the following relation for the structure

1 BT Fs B x Fxx BT = 0 x 1
U f = F Pf Pfw + BTV0
Proof: to show that Recall that Thus,
B = Bi B x Fxx Fxi
T 1 T
consequently
T T 1 T T
T BT = Bi T Fxi T Fxx B x T
1 T x xx B x T 1 T
B Fs B x Fxx B x = Bi Fxi Fxx B x

T T 1 T T 1 T
)F B F
s T T
= Bi Fs B x Fxx B x Fxi Fxx B x Fs B x Fxx B x = Fxi Fxx B x Fxi Fxx Fxx Fxx B x = Fxi Fxx B x Fxi Fxx B x = 0 q.e.d
where we have used the earlier definitions and as well as the symmetry of
T T T T T 1 T
Fxi = BT Fs Bi x Fxx = B x Fs B x Fxx

T
and thus
Fxi = Bi Fs B x
and its inverse
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Ex 29 - Force method: indeterminate truss
Example 29 - Force method: statically indeterminate truss

We return to complete the analysis of a structure whose equilibrium equations we studied in Example 5, and whose compatibility relations we studied in Example 13. After adding the linear deformation-force relation for the elements of the structural model, we will be able to obtain the unique solution of the structural response that satisfies all three requirements: (a) equilibrium, (b) compatibility, and (c) linear elastic material response. For the solution in this example we will use the force method of analysis. In this method the unknowns of the problem are the redundant basic forces of the equilibrium equations. Using the compatibility condition on the element deformations we will be able to determine these redundant basic forces so as to satisfy these conditions. The following figure shows the truss model with the numbering of the free dofs and basic forces.
3
3
2
d
Q4
5 4
15
Q2
Q5
Q6
Q3
Q1
8
The axial stiffness of all truss elements is the same: Length of truss elements
EA := 10000 Lc := 6 Ld := 8 Le := 10 Lf := 10
La := 8
Lb := 6
Solution of equilibrium equations Recall from Example 5 that there are 5 equilibrium equations and 6 unknown basic forces. The degree of static indeterminacy of this structure is NOS=1. In such case, we can select one of the unknown basic forces as redundant and express the general solution of the equilibrium equations as the sum of a particular solution that satisfies equilibrium with the applied forces, and a homogeneous self-stress state that depends on the unknown redundant basic force value. The latter is, therefore, a free parameter as far as the solution of the equilibrium equations is concerned. We summarize the findings from Example 5 in the following:
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Particular solution of equilibrium equations

d
Pf
as given
Q6 = 0
15
e 6 b
Q6 = 0
15 11.25 0 Qp := 15 18.75 0
15
11.25
a 8
11.25
Homogeneous solution of equilibrium equations

d
Q6 = 1
and
Pf = 0
e 6 b
Q6 = 1
Bbarx
f
0.8 0.6 0.6 := 0.8 1 1
a 8
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The general solution of the equilibrium equations is a one parameter expression of the form
15 0.8 11.25 0.6 0 0.6 Q= + Q6 15 0.8 18.75 1 0 1

Compatibility relations
for equilibrium alone any value of Q6 is suitable note that in this expression Q6 carries the units, while the force influence matrix (vector in this case) has units of force per unit of force
In a statically indeterminate structure there are more compatibility relations than available displacements at the free global dofs of the structural model. As we have seen in Example 13, the compatibility relations only T have a unique solution when the element deformations satisfy the condition Bbarx V = 0 The element deformations are dependent on the basic element forces, and these depend for the case at hand on the unknown value of the redundant basic force Q6 . There is one unknown redundant force and one equation that needs to be satisfied for the element deformations. This completes the loop and allows the determination of the unique value of Q6 that satisfies the compatibility condition. We write this condition out in detail
15 0.8 11.25 0.6 0 0.6 V = Fs Q = F s ( Qp + Bbarx Qx) = F s + Q6 15 0.8 18.75 1 0 1 La 0 1 0 Fs := EA 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lb 0 0 0 0 0
with
Lc 0
0 Ld 0 0 0 0 Le 0 0 0 0 Lf
0
Page 356
then the compatibility condition gives T T T T Bbarx V = Bbarx [ Fs ( Qp + Bbarx Qx) ] = Bbarx Fs Qp + Bbarx Fs Bbarx Qx = 0 or, spelled out we get
15 0.8 11.25 0.6 0 0.6 ( 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.8 1 1 ) Fs + Q6 = 0 15 0.8 18.75 1 0 1
we identify two contributions, one for the applied forces, and one for the redundant. We write them out
15 0.8 11.25 0.6 0 0.6 ( 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.8 1 1 ) Fs + ( 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.8 1 1 ) Fs Q6 = 0 15 0.8 18.75 1 0 1
Because Fs is diagonal in this case, the evaluation of these expressions is relatively straightforward by hand: we multiply the six corresponding terms of the row and column and then add them up. We demonstrate
0.8 La EA
La EA
15 0.6
2
Lb EA
11.25 0.8
2
Ld EA
15 + 1
2
Le EA
( 18.75) = 420
2
1 EA Lf
2
for the first term
( 0.8) +
Lb EA
( 0.6) +
Lc EA
( 0.6) +
Ld EA
( 0.8) +
Le EA
1 +
EA
1 = 34.56
1 EA
for the second
we note that all contributions of the second term are positive! in compact form, we can also write with matrix software
1 T Bbarx Fs Qp = 420
EA
for the first term, and
1 T Bbarx Fs Bbarx = 34.56
EA
for the second
Page 357
The compatibility condition for the element deformations is a scalar equation for the case at hand T T Bbarx Fs Qp + Bbarx Fs Bbarx Q 6 = 0 and solving for Q6 we get
Q6 :=
T Bbarx F s Qp Bbarx Fs Bbarx T
Q6 = 12.15
with this result the final forces in the truss elements under the applied force of 15 units are
15 0.8 11.25 0.6 0 0.6 Q := + Q6 15 0.8 18.75 1 0 1

and the element deformations V are
5.28 3.96 7.29 = 5.28 6.6 12.15

V := F s Q
we confirm that
T Bbarx V = 0
42.22 23.75 43.75 1 V = 42.22 EA 65.97 121.53
and we can use any five of the six compatibility relations to determine the displacements at the free global dofs Recall e.g. from Example 13 that
U1 := V
1 1 2 1 3 2 4 5 2 5
U2 := V + 0.75 V 1.25 V U3 := V
1 EA 1 U2 = 142.5 EA U1 = 42.22 1 EA 1 U4 = 184.72 EA 1 U5 = 43.75 EA U3 = 23.75
U4 := V + 0.75 V + V 1.25 V U5 := V
Note: the value of the redundant force Q6 does not depend on the axial stiffness value EA, since the latter appears both in the numerator and in the denominator of the expression for Q6 . This is a general result for statically indeterminate structures. The force distribution does not depend on the absolute, but only on the relative stiffness value, i.e. the relation of the axial stiffness values of the different elements. In this case they are all the same and we could have left out EA from the intermediate terms leading to the determination of Q6 . We demonstrate this once more
Page 358
La 0 0 EAFs := 0 0 0
or, by hand
0 0
0 0 0
Lb 0 0 0 0 0
Lc 0
0 Ld 0 0 0 0 Le 0 0 0 0 Lf
0
0
T Bbarx EAFs Qp = 420 T Bbarx EAFs Bbarx = 34.56
0.8 La 15 0.6 Lb 11.25 0.8 Ld 15 + 1 Le ( 18.75) = 420 La ( 0.8) + Lb ( 0.6) + Lc ( 0.6) + Ld ( 0.8) + Le 1 + Lf 1 = 34.56
2 2 2 2 2 2
for the first term for the second
to solve for the redundant we divide the negative value of the first term by the second
Q6 :=
420 34.56
Q6 = 12.15
for hand calculations this approach is a lot more convenient, since we do not need to bother about division through a very large number like EA=10,000. Physical interpretation of results It remains to discuss the meaning of the results for the compatibility condition. We recall that the general solution of the equilibrium equations is a one parameter expression of the form
15 0.8 11.25 0.6 0 0.6 Q = Qp + Bbarx Qx = + Q6 15 0.8 18.75 1 0 1

La EA Lb EA
for equilibrium alone any value of Q6 is suitable
Let us investigate the effect of the forces Qp on the deformations V and then on compatibility. We have
V1 := 15
V2 := 11.25
V3 := 0
V4 := 15
Ld EA
V5 := ( 18.75)
Le EA
V6 := 0
Recall from Example 13 that after solving the first five compatibility relations for the unknown displacements at the free global dofs we obtain
Page 359
U1 = V1 U2 = V1 + 0.75 V2 1.25 V5 U3 = V2 U4 = V1 + 0.75 V2 + V4 1.25 V5 U5 = V3

the sixth compatibility relation reads
V6 = 0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5
let us then determine the two displacement values needed for the sixth compatibility relation
U4 := 15 U5 := 0
Lb Ld Le + 0.75 11.25 + 15 1.25 18.75 EA EA EA EA
La
U4 = 525
1 EA
thus, the right hand side of the sixth compatibility relation reads
0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5 = 420
1 EA
this is the necessary deformation for element f so that it fits exactly between nodes 1 and 4. However, element f does not deform under the forces Qp and this creates a gap or release deformation V6h equal to the difference between the distance of nodes 1 and 4 and the element deformation (consult pages Part I 182-183 for Example 13). This release deformation is equal to 420 We conclude that
1 T Bbarx Fs Qp = 420
3
1 under the applied force. EA
EA
represents the opposite of the release deformation or the gap closing value under the forces Qp
4
the state of deformation and the global dof displacements under the forces Qp are shown in this figure
420
1 EA
Page 360
Now we investigate the state of deformation and the global dof displacements under the self-stress state that results under a unit value of the redundant basic force Q6
V1 := ( 0.8) V4 := ( 0.8)
La EA Ld EA
V2 := ( 0.6) V5 := ( 1) Le
Lb EA
V3 := ( 0.6) V6 := ( 1) Lf
Lc EA
EA
EA 1 EA
We determine again the displacement values for the sixth compatibility relation
U4 := ( 0.8) U5 := ( 0.6)
La EA Lc EA
+ 0.75 ( 0.6)
Ld Le + ( 0.8) 1.25( 1) EA EA EA Lb
U4 = 28
thus, the right hand side of the sixth compatibility relation reads
0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5 = 24.56 V6 = 10 1 EA
1 EA
the left hand side of the equation is not equal to zero this time. We have
subtracting the deformation of element f from the distance between the nodes 1 and 4 gives again the gap between the end of element f and node 4.
( 0.8 U4 + 0.6 U5) V6 = 34.56 EA

We conclude that
EA
represents the gap closing value under the self-stress state represented by vector Bbarx
1 24.56 EA
10
1 EA
the state of deformation and the global dof displacements under the self-stress state are shown in this figure
Page 361
We, therefore, conclude that the compatibility condition furnishes an equation for determining the value of the redundant basic force Q6 that will close the gap between the end of element f and node 4. Note: in the compatibility equations we have used the sixth equation because the redundant of the problem is Q6 , but this is not really necessary, just convenient. Support reactions and global equilibrium Since the self-stress state does not produce any support reactions for the problem at hand, the support reactions are those of the particular solution.
15
horizontal and vertical force equilibrium is obviously satisfied sum of moments about left support
11.25 8 15 6 = 0
ok!
15
11.25 8
11.25
Page 362
Load Case 2: thermal expansion of element e Assume now that the only loading on the structure is of thermal type, i.e. assume that member e is heated up experiencing a positive thermal strain of 0.005 (extension) In this case the particular solution is zero, since there are no applied forces at the free dofs of the structure (note that Q 6 = 0 for the particular solution)
0 0 0 Qp := 0 0 0
The general solution of the equilibrium equations is in this case
0.8 0.6 0.6 Q= Q6 0.8 1 1

Element deformations and compatibility relations Under the particular solution (i.e. the applied loading) the only deformation present is the non-mechanical deformation of element e. We, therefore, have
V = V0
with
0 0 0 V0 := 0 0.005 Le 0
V0
0 0 0 = 0 0.05 0
The solution of the compatibility relations for this deformation vector gives the following gap between element f and node 4 (see earlier discussion) T Bbarx V0 = 0.05 in fact, in this case the gap is equal to the amount of element e deformation ! can you explain why geometrically?
note that in this case the axial stiffness EA does not enter into the expression (it only appears for mechanical deformations!). Thus, we need to be careful when calculating the redundant basic force!
Page 363
The self-stress state due to a unit value of the redundant basic force Q6 produces the same deformations and the same gap between element f and node 4 as before. Thus, we determine the value of Q6 to satisfy the compatibility condition that there is no gap between element f and node 4, i.e. T T Bbarx V0 + Bbarx F s Bbarx Qx = 0 solving the above scalar equation for Q6 we get
Q6 :=
T Bbarx V0 T Bbarx Fs Bbarx
Q6 = 14.47
The final stress state in this structure under the effect of a thermal deformation of element e are
0.8 0.6 0.6 Q := Q6 0.8 1 1
11.57 8.68 8.68 = 11.57 14.47 14.47
Support reactions and global equilibrium Recall that the support reactions are zero for the self-stress state. Since this is the only stress state for this loading case, the support reactions are zero and global equilibrium with the zero applied forces is, of course, satisfied. Note that if we determined the EA-fold deformations for the denominator for computational convenience, we need to remember to multiply the result by EA. We demonstrate T Bbarx V0 T Bbarx EAFs Bbarx
Q6 :=
Q6 = 14.47
1 EA
This means that in a statically indeterminate structure the self-stress state induced by non-mechanical element deformations (i.e. thermal, shrinkage etc) is proportional to the stiffness of the elements. It is worth noting that the final force in element f is a compression of 14.47 units. We will discuss this further in the following, but it is worth remembering that the deformation-force relation for any element is
v = f q + vo
which implies that we may have a positive total deformation with a negative force in the element; the latter is proportional to the mechanical deformation only!
Page 364
Commentary on prestressing and prestressed structures The last load case consists of an initial deformation of 0.05 units in element f. This may arise from non-mechanical effects, like temperature, hydro-expansion, or from the fact that the element is fabricated longer than required by the undeformed geometry (thus, the fabricated element length would be 10.05 in this case). How is the installation of this element supposed to take place in the field? Let us assume that the rest of the structure is assembled, i.e. elements a through e are in place. It is worth noting that the elements are all undeformed, so that the assembly looks like the undeformed configuration of the structural model without element f. Then, the process of installing element f can be described as follows: the element f is pre-compressed to a value compensating the initial deformation, i.e. necessary to bring the element to its required length of 10 units according to the undeformed geometry; the element is then installed into position and the jacks that pre-compress it are removed. The force in element f is then released into the structure giving rise to the stress-state that we have calculated above. What is the necessary pre-compression force? set v = 0 in the above deformation-force relation and solve for q with given vo . You will get For the case at hand this is
vo
0.05
10000 = 50 Lf
EA L
units of force
Upon release this force drops to -14.47 according to our analysis. For the example at hand this is a very large loss of initial prestressing force. How can we assess how much force we will loose during installation? Look at the contribution of the prestressed element and the rest of the structure to the gap caused by the self-stress state.
24.56 1 EA
10
1 EA
Element f contributes
4
10
1 EA
The rest of the structure contributes
24.56
1 EA
i.e. about 2.5 times as much
This explains the prestress drop to the value of
10 ( 50) = 14.47 10 + 24.56

Alternatively, we can say that the prestress loss is dependent on the ratio of the flexibility of the rest of the structure to the total flexibility. Can you apply this concept to a prestressed concrete beam? i.e. very close to 70%
prestress loss during installation
24.56 ( 50) = 35.53 10 + 24.56
In typical structures the prestressing element is very flexible relative to the rest of the structure and prestress loss amounts to 3-5%.
Page 365

% Solution for statically indeterminate truss with Matlab functions
continuation of Example 5
Example_5 the rank of the equilibrium matrix of the primary structure is 5 Qp = 15.0000 11.2500 0 15.0000 -18.7500 0 Bbarx = -0.8000 -0.6000 -0.6000 -0.8000 1.0000 1.0000 % define element properties and set up Fs matrix for structure EA = 10000; % axial stiffness L = [8 6 6 8 10 10]; % element lengths for el=1:6 f{el} = L(el)/EA; end % set up Fs matrix Fs = blkdiag (f{:}); % determine indetermediate term for compatibility equation Fxx = Bbarx'*Fs*Bbarx;
First load case: applied horizontal forces of 15 units (Example 5)

% solve for redundant basic force under the loading Qx = -Fxx\(Bbarx'*Fs*Qp); % display redundant basic forces disp('redundant force Qx under applied horizontal force') disp(Qx); % determine final forces in truss Q = Qp+Bbarx*Qx; % display final forces disp('truss forces Q under applied horizontal force') disp(Q); redundant force Qx under applied horizontal force 12.1528 truss forces Q under applied horizontal force 5.2778 3.9583 -7.2917 5.2778 -6.5972 12.1528
Page 366
Second load case: initial deformation

% define initial deformation vector for second load case (prestress) V0 = zeros(6,1); V0(5) = 0.05; % solve for redundant basic force under the loading of Example 5 (concentrated force) Qx = -Fxx\(Bbarx'*V0); % display redundant basic forces disp('redundant force Qx under initial deformation') disp(Qx); % determine final forces in truss Q = Bbarx*Qx; % display final forces disp('truss forces Q under initial deformation') disp(Q); redundant force Qx under initial deformation -14.4676 truss forces Q under initial deformation 11.5741 8.6806 8.6806 11.5741 -14.4676 -14.4676
Page 367

% Solution for indeterminate truss with FEDEASLab functions (step-by-step)

CleanStart
Model and element property data from file Example_29_Data

Example_29_Data

3 4

4
5 2 6 3
functions for force method of analysis

% set up equilibrium matrix B = B_matrix(Model); % extract free dofs Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:); % determine force influence matrix [Bbari,Bbarx] = ForceInfl_matrix(Bf); % set up collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); % determine indetermediate term for compatibility equation Fxx = Bbarx'*Fs*Bbarx;

% specify nodal forces Pe(4,1) = 15; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); Pf = Loading.Pref; % solve for redundant basic force under the loading Qx = -Fxx\(Bbarx'*Fs*Bbari*Pf); % display redundant basic forces disp('redundant force Qx under applied horizontal force') disp(Qx); % determine final forces in truss Q = Bbari*Pf+Bbarx*Qx; % display final forces disp('truss forces Q under applied horizontal force') disp(Q); redundant force Qx under applied horizontal force 12.1528
Page 368
truss forces Q under applied horizontal force 5.2778 3.9583 -7.2917 5.2778 -6.5972 12.1528

% define initial deformation vector for second load case (prestress) V0 = zeros(6,1); V0(5) = 0.05; % solve for redundant basic force under the loading of Example 5 (concentrated force) Qx = -Fxx\(Bbarx'*V0); % display redundant basic forces disp('redundant force Qx under initial deformation') disp(Qx); % determine final forces in truss Q = Bbarx*Qx; % display final forces disp('truss forces Q under initial deformation') disp(Q); redundant force Qx under initial deformation -14.4676 truss forces Q under initial deformation 11.5741 8.6806 8.6806 11.5741 -14.4676 -14.4676
Page 369

% Solution for indeterminate truss with FEDEASLab functions (one step)

CleanStart
Model and element property data from file Example_29_Data

Example_29_Data

3 4 4
5 2 6 3
force method of analysis

% set up equilibrium matrix B = B_matrix(Model); % extract free dofs Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:); % set up collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); % invoke single function for force method of analysis [Bbar,Bvbar,F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs);

% specify nodal forces Pe(4,1) = 15; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); Pf = Loading.Pref; % determine final forces in truss Q = Bbar*Pf; % display final forces disp('truss forces Q under applied horizontal force') disp(Q); % determine displacements Uf = F*Pf; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied horizontal force') disp(Uf); truss forces Q under applied horizontal force 5.2778 3.9583 -7.2917 5.2778
Page 370
-6.5972 12.1528 free dof displacements Uf under applied horizontal force 0.0042 0.0143 0.0024 0.0185 -0.0044
plot axial force distribution

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_AxialForces(Model,Q);
plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); % put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; Plot_Model(Model,U);

% define initial deformation vector for second load case (prestress) V0 = zeros(6,1); V0(5) = 0.05; % determine final forces in truss Q = Bvbar*V0;
Page 371
% display final forces disp('truss forces Q under initial deformation') disp(Q); % determine displacements Uf = Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under initial deformation') disp(Uf); truss forces Q under initial deformation 11.5741 8.6806 8.6806 11.5741 -14.4676 -14.4676 free dof displacements Uf under initial deformation 0.0093 -0.0313 0.0052 -0.0220 0.0052
plot axial force distribution

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Plot_AxialForces(Model,Q);
plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); % put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; Plot_Model(Model,U);
Page 372
Ex 30 - Force method: indeterminate braced frame
Example 30 - Force method: indeterminate braced frame

In this example we analyze the braced frame that we have already studied from the equilibrium and compatibility standpoint in Examples 6 and 14, respectively. We will summarize the key equations in this analysis, so that we collect the entire solution process in one place, particularly, since the loading involves several cases. The following figure shows the geometry of the frame.
b c
La := 6
6
Lb := 4 Lc := 4 Ld := 8 +6
2 2
Under the assumption that elements a, b and c are inextensible, there are four independent free global dofs, as shown in the following figure.
dof 2 dof 1 b dof 3 dof 4 c
The equilibrium and compatibility equations are the same as in Examples 6 and 14, respectively.
Reference:C:\Drive D\COURSES\CE220\Classnotes\Mathcad files\Example 6_Equilibrium for Hyperstatic Braced Frame.xmcd(R)
Reference:C:\Drive D\COURSES\CE220\Classnotes\Mathcad files\Example 14_Compatibility 4 Hyperstatic Braced Frame.xmcd(R)
Page 373
Equilibrium equations at free dofs (from example 6)
Compatibility relations (from example 14)
P1 =
Q1 + Q2 6
+ 0.8 Q6
V1 = V2 =
U1 6 U1 6
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 Q3 + Q4 Q5 P3 = + 4 4 P4 = Q 4 + Q 5
+ U2 U3 4 + U4
V3 = U2 V4 = V5 = U3 4
U3 4
+ U4
V6 = 0.8 U1
We note that there are four equilibrium equations and 6 unknown basic forces. The degree of static indeterminacy of the structural model is therefore NOS=2. Correspondingly, there are NOS more compatibility relations to satisfy than available displacement values at the free dofs. Such a problem will not have a solution unless NOS linearly independent constraints are imposed on the deformations. These furnish NOS compatibility conditions for determining the NOS redundant basic forces. We select the basic forces Q1 and Q4 as redundants. We establish three equilibrium states: one equilibrium state is known as the particular solution and satisfies equilibrium with the applied forces while the redundants are equal to zero; the other two equilibrium states are homogeneous solutions with no applied loading and each redundant set equal to a unit value in turn. First loading case
30
b
20
c
We state here the results since the answers are the same as those of example 6 (note that the equivalent nodal forces at nodes 2 and 4 from the distributed load of example 6 do not affect the basic forces of interest).
Page 374
Particular solution under given loading set
Q1 = 0
Q4 = 0
30
20
We solve the following equilibrium equations
30 =
Q2 6
+ 0.8 Q6
0 = Q2 + Q3 20 = 0 = Q5 Q3 4 + Q5 4
0 80 80 Qp := 0 0 30 80 + 0.8 4.8
Homogeneous solution for each redundant; no loading is present set and then separately set
Q1 = 1 Q1 = 0
Q4 = 0 Q4 = 1
Bbarx
0 1 2 0 0 2 := 0 1 0 1 5 5 24 12
The general homogeneous solution of the equilibrium equations is
Q1 Bbarx Q4 0 0 = 0 0
0 0 0 0
and we confirm that we have obtained the right self-stress states by
Bf Bbarx
thus, the general solution of the equilibrium equations consists of the linear combination of three stress-states that satisfy equilibrium: the particular solution and two homogeneous solutions with unknown parameters We can write therefore Q = Qp + Bbarx
Q1 Q4
Q = Qp + Bbarx Qx
we denote the vector of redundant basic forces by Qx and can write more generally
Page 375
For each of the equilibrium states we proceed to calculate the element deformations and try to check the compatibility conditions. We assume that the flexural and axial stiffness values are given. Let us say
EI := 50000
for elements a, b and c
and
EA := 10000
for element d
Let us first proceed to solve the problem by matrix operations following Example 29 while providing commentary on the physical meaning of the terms. We will return subsequently and repeat the process "by hand" so that we can see the terms one by one.
the collection of element flexibility matrices is
La La 0 0 0 0 3 6 La La 0 0 0 0 6 3 Lb Lb 0 0 0 0 3 6 1 Fs := EI Lb Lb 0 0 0 0 6 3 Lc 0 0 0 0 0 3 EI 0 0 0 0 0 Ld EA
We note that we have factored out 1/EI on the right hand side, so that only relative stiffness values appear in the matrix. This is quite convenient for hand calculations, as we have already discussed.
The deformations under the particular solution are
80 160 106.67 1 F s Qp = 53.33 EI 0 2708.33

T Bbarx Fs Qp =
and the compatibility conditions are not satisfied, because
484.24 1 1715.14 EI
In fact, the above expression represents the angle between node tangent and element tangent at locations 1 and 4 in the structural model. This angles need to be zero for tangent continuity at locations 1 and 4.
Page 376
The deformations under each homogeneous solution are:
Fs Bbarx
2 1 0 = 0 0 10.42
4 3.33 1 2.67 EI 1.33 20.83
note that we obtain two sets of deformations, of course, one for each homogeneous solution or self-stress state. The first column represents the element deformations for Q1 = 1 and the second for Q4 = 1 each of these deformation states does not satisfy compatibility either as we can tell immediately from T Bbarx Fs Bbarx =
4.17 2.34 1 2.34 27.347 EI
We now obtain a 2 x 2 matrix. The first column corresponds to the compatibility error at locations 1 and 4 for the deformations caused by the first self-stress state (Q1 = 1), and the second column represents the compatibility error at locations 1 and 4 for the deformations caused by the second self-stress state (Q4 = 1) The above expression appears in every analysis by the force method and we give it a special name. T Fxx := Bbarx Fs Bbarx we note that it is a flexibility matrix, since it represents the compatibility error at locations 1 and 4 under the self-stress states, i.e. a unit value of the redundant force. Like every flexibility matrix it is symmetric, as can be readily seen from its definition. Thus, in hand calculations only the diagonal and the upper or lower half of the matrix needs to be determined.
The compatibility conditions require that there be no compatibility error at locations 1 and 4 under the final stress state. This means that T Bbarx Fs Qp + Fxx Qx = 0 T Bbarx Fs Qp and Vhp := BbarxT F s Qp and these are exactly two equations for the two unknown redundants the compatibility error under the particular solution the hinge deformation if a hinge were inserted at 1 or 4 Qx := lsolve ( F xx , Vhp) Qx =
we get from the solution of the system of equations
85.01 55.44
We can see from the above solution that the value of the redundant basic forces is selected so that it eliminates the release deformation at locations 1 and 4 under the given loading. Note that the values for the redundants do not change if we change EI and EA, but keep the ratio the same. This has important ramifications in preliminary design. During this stage we may not know the exact sizes of the different structural elements, but we may have an idea about their relative sizes.
Page 377
We can approach this problem also in a more step by step fashion. To this end let us find the element deformations under the particular solution. We have
V1p V2p V 3p := V4p V5p V 6p
F s Qp
V1p = 80
1 EI 1 EI
V3p = 106.67 V4p = 53.33
1 EI 1 EI
V5p = 0
1 EI 1 EI
V2p = 160
V6p = 2708.33
We recall the compatibility relations from above noting that these cannot be satisfied, in general, for which reason we insert a hinge or release at locations 1 and 4.
V1 = V2 =
U1 6 U1 6
V3 = U2 + U2 V4 = U3 4
U3 4 + U4
V5 =
U3 4
+ U4
V6 = 0.8 U1
We solve the four compatibility equations without a release deformation, namely at 2, 3, 5 and 6
U1p := 1.25 V6p U2p := V2p U1p 6
U3p := 4 ( U2p V3p) U4p := V5p U3p 4
1 EI 1 U2p = 724.24 EI 1 U3p = 3323.61 EI 1 U4p = 830.9 EI U1p = 3385.42 1 EI 1 EI

we note that the values are the same
We now determine the release deformations at 1 and 4 from the first and fourth compatibility relations.
V1hp :=
U1p 6
V1p
V1hp = 484.24
V4hp :=
U3p + U4p V4p 4
V4hp = 1715.14
When we compare the above answers with
Vhp =
484.24 1 1715.14 EI
Thus, the compatibility conditions furnish the necessary values for the redundant basic forces to close the hinges at locations 1 and 4.
Page 378
The following figures show the bending moment distribution and the deformed shape of the structural model for the particular solution with the release deformations at 1 and 4.
80
80
moment diagram for particular solution
deformed shape for particular solution (magnification factor = 15)
Page 379
We can continue this process for each homogeneous solution and obtain release deformations at locations 1 and 4 for each self-stress state with unit redundant value. As we have mentioned earlier, these are the columns of the flexibility matrix Fxx. Finally, we scale the redundant values so that the release deformations at 1 and 4 are zero, since there are physically no such releases at these locations. This means T Bbarx Fs Qp + Fxx Qx = 0 We can now determine the unique set of basic forces that satisfies equilibrium and compatibility under the given linear elastic deformation-force relation of the elements. With the given values for the redundant basic forces we obtain
Q := Qp + Bbarx Qx
85.01 30.89 30.89 = 55.44 55.44 13.36
and this results in the following moment diagram
30.89 30.89 55.44
85.01
Page 380
With the final basic forces we can determine the element deformations
V := F s Q
139.13 23.23 78.14 1 V = 94.51 EI 73.92 667.8
for hand calculations it is better to proceed element by element, i.e.
Q1 Q2 Q 3 := Q4 Q5 Q 6
V1 La 2 1 Q 1 := 6 EI 1 2 Q2 V2
or,
V1 := V2 :=
La 6 EI La 6 EI Lb 6 EI Lb 6 EI
( 2 Q1 Q2) ( 2 Q2 Q1) ( 2 Q3 Q4) ( 2 Q4 Q3)
V1 = 139.13 V2 = 23.23
1 EI 1 EI 1 EI
V3 Lb 2 1 Q 3 := V4 6 EI 1 2 Q4
or,
V3 := V4 :=
V3 = 78.14 V4 = 94.51
1 EI 1 EI
V5 :=
Lc 3 EI Ld EA
Q5
V5 = 73.92
V6 :=
Q6
V6 = 667.8
1 EI
It is worth noting that the deformation of the brace, which is a change of length is several times larger than the deformations of the beam elements, since the latter are angles, i.e. have units of length over length. It is good to think of the element lengths as a rough estimate of this scaling.
Page 381
With the element deformations we can determine the global dof displacements as we have done earlier. We can use the same four compatibility relations as before
U1 := 1.25 V6 U2 := V2 U1 6
U3 := 4 ( U2 V3 ) U4 := V5 U3 4
1 EI 1 U2 = 162.36 EI 1 U3 = 336.87 EI 1 U4 = 10.3 EI U1 = 834.75
and we can check the other two compatibility relations
U1 6
V1 = 0
1 EI
and conclude that they are, of course, satisfied!
U3 1 + U 4 V 4 = 0 EI 4
The deformed shape of the structure with a magnification factor of 50 is shown in the following figure.
Page 382
How do we draw the deformed shape? In three steps: 1. locate the nodes with the determined translations (just show points, no black squares yet!). Make sure to respect the scale, e.g. in the drawing above horizontal translation should be a bit more than twice than vertical translation. 2. draw the chords and using the element deformations sketch the deformed shape of each element noting that the angles at the nodes must be respected (e.g. right angle at node 2, continuous tangent at node 3, etc). 3. after step 2 it should be easy to draw the little black squares according to the determined joint rotations (in an ideal case, the black squares should "fall in place" respecting the element tangents, but checking the determined rotation values (if we have bothered to calculate these!) is extra security. Second load case: prestressing of brace We would like to investigate now the case that the brace is prestressed or prestrained. We treat this as an initial deformation problem in the force method of analysis, since it is much easier to understand it this way. We assume, thus, that the brace will be delivered longer or shorter than its required length of 10 units. Since we would like to customize the amount of prestressing so as to control either the final moment distribution or the deformed shape of the structure under the earlier loading, we assume a unit value of prestrain at the start. The basic forces of the particular solution are all zero, since there is no external forces at the global dofs.
0 0 0 Qp := 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vo := 0 0 0.01
but the deformations are not all zero, because of the prestrain of element d. We have
we use a value of 1/100 as a "unit" value for the initial prestrain, since a value of 1 would produce extremely large forces and displacements.
The release deformation at locations 1 and 4 on account of the initial deformation is
BbarxT ( F s Qp + Vo) =
104.17 1 208.33 EI
but, of course, it is easier to write BbarxT Vo =
104.17 1 208.33 EI
Page 383
this result is very easy to interpret from the compatibility relations, since all element deformations except V6 are zero. We recall
V1 = V2 =
U1 6 U1 6
V3 = U2 + U2 V4 = U3 4
U3 4 + U4
V5 =
U3 4
+ U4
V6 = 0.8 U1
and get
U1o := 1.25 0.01 U2o := U1o 6
U1o = 625
1 EI
U3o := 4 U2o U4o := U3o 4
1 EI 1 U3o = 416.67 EI 1 U4o = 104.17 EI U2o = 104.17 U1o 6 U3o 4 = 104.17 1 EI 1 EI
and the relations at locations 1 and 4 become
+ U4o = 208.33
but we could have obtained these answers much faster from the geometry of the deformed shape
Page 384
We denote the release deformation due to prestressing (or, initial deformation) with Vho T Vho := Bbarx Vo Vho =
104.17 1 208.33 EI
In reality there is no release; to reduce the deformation at the release to zero we need the following redundant force values
Vho + Fxx Qx = 0
Qx := lsolve ( F xx , Vho)
Qx =
21.75 5.76
We conclude that initial deformations produce a self-stress state in a statically indeterminate structure. The basic force values of the structure for an initial deformation value of 0.01 in the brace are
Q := Bbarx Qx
21.75 11.51 11.51 = 5.76 5.76 6.93
The bending moment diagram in the structure under an initial deformation value of 0.01 in the brace is
11.51 11.51 5.76
21.75
Note that support reactions arise under the load case of initial deformation. These are self-equilibrating. You should determine these and check global equilibrium for practice. It is worth noting that F xx in the compatibility equation depends on the absolute value of the stiffness. By contrast, Vho does not ! Thus, the redundant basic forces and the resulting self-stress state are directly proportional to the absolute value of the stiffness. Conclusion: In a statically indeterminate structure self stress-states generated by initial deformations are proportional to the absolute value of the stiffness ! The element deformations, however, only depend on the relative stiffness and not on the absolute stiffness value. The same is then true for the displacements!
Page 385
There is another aspect that if of some interest in prestressed structures. Even though the initial deformation is positive (0.01 units), the axial force in the brace is compressive. We should think of this as the necessary force to "push back" the brace to fit into the frame, which at the same time gets "pushed out" at the location of the brace to meet the end of it. This is synergy at work!! Interestingly the final deformation of the brace element is
V6 :=
Ld EA
Q + 0.01
6
V6 = 0.0031
i.e. only 31% of its initial value
this "recoiling" of the brace from its initial deformation value is known as "prestress loss during installation". It depends on the ratio EI/EA since this ratio controls the contribution of the frame vs. the brace in the gap closing operation. Calibration of prestressing (prestraining) value Let us determine how much is the horizontal translation for the initial deformation case. This is rather straightforward. from
V6 =
4 U1 5
we get
U1 := 1.25 V6
U1 = 191.9
1 EI 834.75 1 EI
We recall that the horizontal translation for the loading of the first load case was
this means that if we selected the prestressing (prestraining) value just right we could eliminate the horizontal translation under the applied forces of 30 units at dof 4 and 20 units at dof 2. Let us summarize first under the applied forces the horizontal translation is
834.75
1 EI 191.9 1 EI
under an initial deformation value of 0.01 in the brace the horizontal translation is thus, if we select an initial deformation of
834.75 0.01 = 0.0435 191.9
we can cancel out the horizontal translation under the applied forces. We determine the corresponding forces by superposition of the basic forces from the two load cases, i.e.
85.01 21.75 9.6 30.89 11.51 19.18 30.89 11.51 19.18 + ( 4.35) = 55.44 5.76 30.38 55.44 5.76 30.38 13.36 6.93 43.51
Page 386
The corresponding moment diagram is shown in the following figure
19.18
30.38
9.6
We observe now a better balance between positive and negative bending moment values in the girder (note that the maximum value is now 30.38 in the girder and 19.18 in the column, while it was 55.44 in the girder and 85.01 in the column under the applied forces alone. Thus, prestressing allows us to fine tune the moment distribution to our heart's content and achieve more economical values and, thus, smaller and lighter cross sections. We also noted that it helps control the displacements. Not only is the horizontal translation eliminated, but the vertical translation at girder midspan is -336.87 1/EI without prestress and -136.5 1/EI with prestress (value from computer analysis, since it was not obtained above).
Page 387
Load case of distributed load on girder We would like to investigate the load case of a uniformly distributed element load acting on the girder of the braced frame. The following figure shows the loading
w=5
The following figure represents schematically the equivalent nodal forces for the distributed element load, as well as the effect of the distributed element load on the element deformations.
w=5
Equilibrium equations at free dofs

10 10 10 10 20 10 10
0=
Q1 + Q2 6
+ 0.8 Q6
0 = Q2 + Q3 0= Q3 + Q4 4 + Q5 4 + 20
0 = Q4 + Q5
a d 6
or,
0=
Q1 + Q2 6
+ 0.8 Q6
0 = Q2 + Q3 Q3 + Q4 Q5 20 = + 4 4 0 = Q4 + Q5
Page 388
The particular solution is now (compare also Example 6)
0 = Q2 + Q3 20 = Q3 + ( 0) 4 + Q5 4 Q5 = 0 + 0.8 Q6 Q3 = 80
Q2 = 80
0 = ( 0) + Q5 0= ( 0) + Q2 6
Q6 =
100 6
0 80 80 Qp := 0 0 100 6
We check the solution:
0 0 Bf Qp = 20 0
and it is correct.
the following figure shows the moment diagram under the particular solution
80 80
In determining the deformations under the particular solution we should make sure to include the deformations under the distributed element load in vector Vo. This effect is indicated with the gray hatched area in the moment diagram above.
Page 389
the element deformations for the particular solution are
w := 5
0 0 3 w Lb 24 1 Vo := w Lb 3 EI 24 3 w Lc 24 0
Vo
0 0 13.33 1 = 13.33 EI 13.33 0
and
Fs Qp + Vo
80 160 93.33 1 = 40 EI 13.33 833.33
note that Vo is caused by the curvatures due to the gray hatched area in the moment diagram above release deformations due to particular solution these are shown in the following figure
BbarxT ( F s Qp + Vo) =
93.61 1 880.56 EI
Page 390
with Vhp := BbarxT ( F s Qp + Vo) we get from the solution of the system of equations Qx := lsolve ( F xx , Vhp) Qx =
4.6 31.81
the final forces under the uniformly distributed element load are the superposition of NOS+1 stress states
Q := Qp + Bbarx Qx
4.6 16.39 16.39 = 31.81 31.81 2.46
the following figure shows the moment diagram under the uniformly distributed load
16.39
31.81
4.6
the maximum moment occurs in element c the shear force at end j of element c is and the moment becomes
Vj := Vj
2
w Lc 2
Lc
Vj = 17.95
maxM :=
2 w
maxM = 32.23
all that remains is to determine the support reactions and check global equilibrium. Take it as exercise!
Page 391

% frame with single brace under horizontal and vertical force with static matrix

CleanStart

La = 6; Lb = 4; Lc = 4; Ld = 10; % static (equilibrium) matrix (from Example 6) Bf = [1/La 1/La 0 0 0 (Lb+Lc)/Ld; 0 1 1 0 0 0 ; 0 0 -1/Lb -1/Lb 1/Lc 0 ; 0 0 0 1 1 0]; % set up collection of element flexibility matrices EI = 50000; EA = 10000; % for column and girder elements f{1} = La/(6*EI).*[2 -1; -1 2]; f{2} = Lb/(6*EI).*[2 -1; -1 2]; f{3} = Lc/(3*EI); % for brace element f{4} = Ld/EA; % collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = blkdiag (f{:}); % invoke single function for force method of analysis [Bbar,Bvbar,F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs);
First load case: applied nodal forces

Pf = [30;0;-20;0]; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*Pf; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under applied nodal forces') disp(Q); basic forces Q under applied nodal forces 8.5006e+001 3.0885e+001 -3.0885e+001 5.5443e+001 -5.5443e+001 1.3356e+001
determine displacements
Uf = F*Pf; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces') disp(Uf); % store displacement value at first dof for later use U1_1 = Uf(1); free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces 1.6695e-002 -3.2472e-003 -6.7375e-003 2.0590e-004
Page 392

% define initial deformation vector for second load case (prestress) V0 = zeros(6,1); V0(6) = 0.01; % determine final forces Q = Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under initial deformation') disp(Q); basic forces Q under initial deformation 2.1748e+001 1.1514e+001 -1.1514e+001 5.7569e+000 -5.7569e+000 -6.9296e+000
Uf = Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under initial deformation') disp(Uf); % select displacement value of first dof U1_2 = Uf(1); free dof displacements Uf under initial deformation 3.8380e-003 -6.1407e-004 -9.2111e-004 7.6759e-005
Third load case: applied nodal forces and prestressing

% determine prestressing force so as to cancel horizontal translation under applied nodal forces V0(6) = -U1_1/U1_2*0.01; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*Pf+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under applied nodal forces and prestressing') disp(Q); basic forces Q under applied nodal forces and prestressing -9.6000e+000 -1.9200e+001 1.9200e+001 3.0400e+001 -3.0400e+001 4.3500e+001
Uf = F*Pf + Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces and prestressing') disp(Uf);
Page 393
free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces and prestressing 0 -5.7600e-004 -2.7307e-003 -1.2800e-004
Fourth load case: distributed load on girder

w = 5; V0 = [0;0;-w*Lb^3/(24*EI);w*Lb^3/(24*EI);-w*Lc^3/(24*EI);0]; Pf = zeros(4,1); Pfw = [0;0;20;0]; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*(Pf-Pfw)+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under distributed girder load') disp(Q); % determine displacements Uf = F*(Pf-Pfw) + Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load') disp(Uf); basic forces Q under distributed girder load 4.5987e+000 -1.6389e+001 1.6389e+001 3.1806e+001 -3.1806e+001 2.4563e+000 free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load 3.0704e-003 -1.2593e-003 -4.0222e-003 -1.0926e-004
Page 394

% frame with single brace under horizontal and vertical force with full set of basic forces

CleanStart
define model geometry and element types

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 6]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 4 6]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 8 6]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 1 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(4,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:3}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); ElemName{4} = 'LinTruss'; 0 = free)
% 2d linear beam element % linear truss element
create Model
element properties
for el=1:3 ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1e6; ElemData{el}.I = 50; end ElemData{4}.E = 1000; ElemData{4}.A = 10; % "inextensible"
% area for brace element

static(equilibrium) matrix at free dofs
B = B_matrix(Model); Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:); % collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); % invoke single function for force method of analysis [Bbar,Bvbar,F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs);

% specify nodal forces Pe(2,1) = 30; Pe(3,2) = -20;
Page 395
Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); Pf = Loading.Pref; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*Pf; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under applied nodal forces') disp(Q); basic forces Q under applied nodal forces -6.1393e+000 8.5006e+001 3.0885e+001 -1.0685e+001 -3.0885e+001 5.5443e+001 -1.0685e+001 -5.5443e+001 0 1.3356e+001
plot bending moment diagram

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Q,2);
Uf = F*Pf; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces 1.6695e-002 -3.6836e-008 -3.2472e-003 1.6695e-002 -6.7375e-003 2.0591e-004 1.6695e-002 2.4236e-003
open window and plot chords and then deformed shape

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector
Page 396
U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); MAGF = 100; Plot_Model (Model,U); Plot_DeformedStructure (Model,[],U); % store displacement value at first dof for later use U1_1 = Uf(1);

define initial deformation vector for second load case (prestress)
ElemData{4}.e0 = 1e-3; V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % determine final forces Q = Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under initial deformation') disp(Q); basic forces Q under initial deformation 1.4392e+000 2.1748e+001 1.1514e+001 5.5437e+000 -1.1514e+001 5.7569e+000 5.5437e+000 -5.7569e+000 0 -6.9296e+000

Page 397
Uf = Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under initial deformation') disp(Uf); % select displacement value of first dof U1_2 = Uf(1); free dof displacements Uf under initial deformation 3.8379e-003 8.6354e-009 -6.1407e-004 3.8380e-003 -9.2110e-004 7.6758e-005 3.8380e-003 3.0703e-004

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,U); Plot_DeformedStructure (Model,[],U);
Page 398
Third load case: applied nodal forces and prestressing

determine prestressing force so as to cancel horizontal translation under applied nodal forces
ElemData{4}.e0 = -U1_1/U1_2*1e-3; V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % determine final forces Q = Bbar*Pf+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under applied nodal forces and prestressing') disp(Q); basic forces Q under applied nodal forces and prestressing -1.2400e+001 -9.5999e+000 -1.9200e+001 -3.4800e+001 1.9200e+001 3.0400e+001 -3.4800e+001 -3.0400e+001 0 4.3500e+001

Uf = F*Pf + Bbar'*V0; disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces and prestressing') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces and prestressing 0 -7.4400e-008 -5.7600e-004 -1.3920e-007 -2.7307e-003 -1.2799e-004 -2.7840e-007 1.0880e-003
Page 399
plot deformed shape

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; % open window and plot chords and then deformed shape Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,U); Plot_DeformedStructure (Model,[],U);
Fourth load case: distributed load on girder

ElemData{4}.e0 = 0; % clear prestressing ElemData{2}.w = [0;-5]; ElemData{3}.w = [0;-5]; V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); Pf = zeros(Model.nf,1); clear Pe; % specify equivalent nodal forces for distributed element loading Pe(2,2) = 10; Pe(3,2) = 20; Pe(4,2) = 10; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); Pfw = Loading.Pref; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*(Pf-Pfw)+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under distributed girder load') disp(Q); basic forces Q under distributed girder load -2.2049e+001 4.5987e+000 -1.6389e+001 -1.9650e+000 1.6389e+001 3.1806e+001 -1.9650e+000 -3.1806e+001 0 2.4563e+000

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model);
Page 400
Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Q,2);
Uf = F*(Pf-Pfw) + Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load 3.0703e-003 -1.3229e-007 -1.2592e-003 3.0703e-003 -4.0223e-003 -1.0924e-004 3.0703e-003 1.6963e-003
plot deformed shape

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; % open window and plot chords and then deformed shape Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,U); Plot_DeformedStructure (Model,ElemData,U);
Page 401
Ex 31 - Force method for continuous beam on flexible support
Example 31 - Force Method for Continuous Beam on Flexible Support

We consider the following model of a continuous beam over two spans with flexible middle support. The beam carries a uniformly distributed load over both spans, as shown in the following figure.
w=10
w=10
2 4
18
Geometric and material properties are as follows: beam flexural stiffness
15
La := 18 Lb := 15 k := 5000
EI := 100000
middle support axial stiffness
There are two free dofs or equilibrium equations and three basic forces, as shown in the following figure
Q1
a
Q2
b 4
15
Q3
18
The degree of static indeterminacy is thus NOS=1. The equilibrium equations are
P1 =
Q1 La
Q2 Lb
+ Q3
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2
We select Q1 as redundant basic force.
Page 402
Particular solution of equilibrium equations for primary system We set Q1 = 0 and solve the equilibrium equations for the other basic forces under the given loading The following figure represents schematically the equivalent nodal forces for the distributed element load, as well as the effect of the distributed element load on the element deformations.
w=10
90 90
75 165
75
18
15
0=
Q2 0 + + Q3 + 165 La Lb
165 =
or
Q2 Lb
+ Q3
0 = ( 0) + Q2
0 = Q2
0 Qp := 0 165
In determining the deformations under the particular solution we should make sure to include the deformations under the distributed element load in vector Vo.
w La3 24 1 w := 10 Vo := w L 3 b EI 24 0
The compatibility equations are
La 0 3 Lb 1 Fs := 0 EI 3 0 0
V1 = + U2 La U1 V2 = + U2 Lb V3 = U1 U1
0 EI k
0
V := F s Qp + Vo
2430 1 V = 1406.25 3300 EI
We use the last two to solve for the displacements and substitute into the first to find the compatibility error or discontinuity under the applied loading. We get
Page 403
U1 := V
U1 = 3300 U1 Lb
1 EI 1 EI U1 La + U2 V = 3432.92
1
U2 := V
2
U2 = 1186.25
and from the first compatibility relation we get
1 EI
which is the hinge rotation at location 1. The compatibility error is the negative value of the hinge rotation (or the hinge closing value), and we will confirm this later. This hinge closing value is shown in the following figure which shows the moment diagram and the deformed shape of the continuous beam.
M(x)
3432.9
1 EI
Homogeneous solution of equilibrium equations for primary system (self-stress state) Determine the basic element forces for Q 1 = 1 without applied loading (homogeneous solution)
Q1 = 1
1 a 4
18
bending moment distribution
Q2
Q3
2 b
15
Fxx
1 a
2 b 3
Page 404
The equilibrium equations are now:
0=
Q1 La
Q2 Lb
+ Q3 Q 2 = 1
Q3 =
1 1 + La Lb
0 = Q1 + Q2
and thus,
Bbarx
1 1 := 1 1 + L L b a
Bbarx
1 = 1 0.122
the compatibility error under the self-stress state is

V := F s Bbarx
EI
which is also easy to confirm from the compatibility relations with
U1 := V
U2 := V
2
U1 Lb
1 EI 1 U2 = 5.163 EI U1 = 2.444 U1 La + U2 V = 11.3

1
1 EI
which gives again the hinge rotation; the compatibility error is the negative value of the hinge rotation defining T Fxx := Bbarx Fs Bbarx T Bbarx ( Fs Qp + Vo) + F xx Qx = 0 we obtain the value of the redundant
we can solve the compatibility condition T Bbarx ( F s Qp + Vo) F xx
Qx :=
Qx = 303.83
the final forces under the uniformly distributed element load are the superposition of NOS+1 stress states
Q := Qp + Bbarx Qx
303.83 = 303.83 202.13

V := F s Q + Vo
and the final deformations are
607.01 1 V = 112.91 4042.7 EI
Page 405
with these we can obtain the displacements at the free dof's from the compatibility relations
U1 := V
U2 := V
2
U1 Lb
1 EI 1 U2 = 382.42 EI U1 = 4042.7 U1 La + U2 V = 0
1
1 EI
which means that we have a compatible set of deformations, as expected!
the following figure shows the bending moment diagram and the deformed shape
303.8
405
281.25
IP
IP
the moment at midspan can be obtained from
w La 8 w Lb 8
303.83 = 253.09 2
for span a
303.83 = 129.34 for span b 2

2
the maximum moment, however, occurs closer to the outer supports and have the following value shear at left support
Vl :=
w La 2
303.83 La 303.83 Lb
maxMa :=
Vl
2 w Vr
2
maxMa = 267.33 @
Vl w Vr w
= 7.31
shear at right support
Vr :=
w Lb 2
maxMb :=
2 w
maxMb = 149.85 @
= 5.47
Page 406
Determination of vertical deflection at midspan of element a We wish to determine the vertical deflection at midspan of element a. To this end we insert a node at that location in element a. We have the following compatibility relations from the following figure.
m1 m2 a1 a2 2
18
Um1 9 9
15
vja1 = via2 =
+ Um2 U1 9 U1 9
3 3 subtract the first equation from the second to get
Um1
+ Um2 Um1 9
via2 vja1 = 2
with
( 253.09) ( 9) w 9 vja1 := + 3 EI 24 EI Um1 := U1 9 ( via2 vja1) + 2 2
( 253.09) ( 9) ( 303.83) ( 9) w 9 via2 := 3 EI 6 EI 24 EI Um1 = 9537.68 1 EI
and finally
the effect of the flexible middle support on the midspan deflection is clear from the following figure
with the given flexural stiffness value the vertical deflection is as compared with the displacement at dof 1
Um1 = 95.38 10 U1 = 40.43 10
Page 407

% continuous beam on flexible middle support with static matrix

CleanStart
define span lengths

La = 18; Lb = 15;

static (equilibrium) matrix
Bf = [-1/La 1/Lb 1; 1 1 0]; % set up collection of element flexibility matrices EI = 100000; k = 5000; % for beam elements f{1} = La/3/EI; f{2} = Lb/3/EI; % for spring element f{3} = 1/k; % collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = blkdiag (f{:}); % invoke single function for force method of analysis [Bbar,Bvbar,F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs);
Load case: distributed load on girder

w V0 Pf Pfw = = = = 10; [w*La^3/(24*EI);-w*Lb^3/(24*EI);0]; zeros(2,1); [165;0];
determine final forces

Q = Bbar*(Pf-Pfw)+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under distributed load') disp(Q); basic forces Q under distributed load -3.0383e+002 3.0383e+002 -2.0213e+002
Uf = F*(Pf-Pfw) + Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under distributed load') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under distributed load -4.0427e-002 3.8242e-003
Page 408

% continuous beam on flexible middle support (with full set of basic forces)

CleanStart

La = 18; Lb = 15; % specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ La 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ La+Lb 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ La -1]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 2 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [1 1 1]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:2}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); ElemName{3} = 'LinTruss'; 0 = free)
create Model
element properties
for el=1:2 ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1e6; ElemData{el}.I = 100; end ElemData{3}.E = 1000; ElemData{3}.A = 5; % "inextensible"
% "area" for spring element to get k=EA

% static(equilibrium) matrix at free dofs B = B_matrix(Model); Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:); % collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); % invoke single function for force method of analysis [Bbar,Bvbar,F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs);
Load case: distributed load on continuous beam

ElemData{1}.w = [0;-10]; ElemData{2}.w = [0;-10]; V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); Pf = zeros(Model.nf,1);
Page 409
% specify equivalent nodal forces for distributed element loading Pe(1,2) = 90; Pe(2,2) = 165; Pe(3,2) = 75; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); Pfw = Loading.Pref; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*(Pf-Pfw)+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under distributed girder load') disp(Q); basic forces Q under distributed girder load 0 0 -3.0383e+002 0 3.0383e+002 0 -2.0213e+002

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Q);
Uf = F*(Pf-Pfw) + Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load -1.7431e-002 0 -4.0427e-002 3.8242e-003 0 9.1619e-003
Page 410
plot deformed shape

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; % open window and plot chords and then deformed shape MAGF = 30; Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,U); Plot_DeformedStructure (Model,ElemData,U);
Page 411
Example 32 - Frame with inextensible elements
Example 32 - Force method for frame with inextensible elements and brace
Problem description In this example we will analyze the frame with inextensible elements and a brace in the following figure. It is assumed that elements a through d are inextensible and have flexural stiffness EI, while the brace element e has axial stiffness EA.
3 b c 4
6
La := 6 Lb := 10 Lc := 10
10
Ld := 10 Le := 16
5
6 8 8
Under the assumption that the elements a through d are inextensible, their axial flexibility is zero. This means that axial forces do not cause axial deformations, so that the latter have no contribution to the compatibility conditions of the force method. It is, therefore, advisable to avoid solving for the axial forces with the equilibrium equations. To this end we make use of the principle of virtual displacements: we use virtual displacement fields with inextensible elements a through d in setting up the equilibrium equations. We have four equilibrium equations in 6 unknown basic forces as shown in the following figures.
2
4 3
Q1
Q2
Q3 Q6
Q4
Q5
Page 412
for the translation dofs we have the following relation between global dof displacements, chord rotations and relative displacements between nodes or between node tangents and chords.
dof 2
a :=
2 6
1 8 1 c := 8 b := d := 0
2
ICa
a
ICc ICb
10
a b c Af 2 := d d 0
1
ICc
b c
6
4 3 6 1 b := 6 a := c := 0
4/3
ICa
a
ICb
dof 3
d :=
10
1 10
IC
6 8 8
a b c Af 3 := d d 1
Page 413
with the following values of the compatibility matrix for the translation dofs we can write all equilibrium equations
1 3 1 8 Af 2 = 1 8 0 0 0
2 9 1 6 0 Af 3 = 1 10 1 10 1
Q1
Q2
Q3 Q6
Q4
Q5
P1 = Q 1 + Q 2 P2 = P3 = Q1 3 9 + Q2 8 6 + Q3 8 Q4 10 + Q5 10 + Q6
2Q1
Q2
P4 = Q 3 + Q 4
We select Q2 and Q5 as redundant basic forces and obtain first the homogeneous solution (thus making also sure that the selection results in a primary structure that is stable)
3
Qx1
1 a 2
c 4
Qx 2
Page 414
Homogeneous solution of equilibrium equations (self-stress states) we solve P= 0
Q2 = 1
Q5 = 0 Q 1 = 1 Q3 = 11 3 Q6 = Q4 = 11 3 34 45
0 = Q1 + ( 1) 0= 0= Q1 3 9 + 1 Q3 + 8 8 1 Q4 0 + + + Q6 6 10 10
2Q1
0 = Q3 + Q4
then we solve
P= 0
Q2 = 0
Q5 = 1 Q1 = 0 Q3 = 0 Q6 = Q4 = 0 1 10
0 = Q1 + ( 0) 0= 0= Q1 3 9 + 0 Q3 + 8 8 0 Q4 1 + + + Q6 6 10 10
2Q1
0 = Q3 + Q4
The general homogeneous solution of the equilibrium equations is therefore
Bbarx
with the equilibrium matrix we confirm the answer
1 1 3 Bf := 2 9 0
1 0 1 1 8 8
0 0
0 0
1 1 1 0 6 10 10 0 1 1 0
0 1 0
Bf Bbarx
0 0 = 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 11 0 3 := 11 0 3 0 1 34 1 45 10
good!
Page 415
We will now solve for two load cases by determining the particular solution of the equilibrium equations and satisfying the compatibility conditions for the element deformations. 1. Load case: concentrated force
20
3 b c 4
6
10
5
6 8 8
particular solution for applied loading
Q2 = 0 0 = Q1 + ( 0) 20 = 0= Q1 3 +
Q5 = 0 Q1 = 0 0 Q3 + 8 8 Q3 = 160 Q6 = 16 Q4 = 160
2Q1 9
0 Q4 0 + + + Q6 6 10 10
0 = Q3 + Q4
0 0 160 Qp := 160 0 16
with this we are ready to determine the element deformations and then set up the compatibility conditions to determine the values of the redundant basic forces. We have
EI := 40000
EA := 10000
Page 416
set up collection of element flexibility matrices
La 0 0 3 0 0 0 Lb 0 0 0 3 0 0 Lc 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 Fs := EI 0 0 0 Ld Ld 0 3 6 Ld Ld 0 0 0 0 6 3 EI 0 0 0 0 0 Le EA 0 0 533.33 1 F s Qp = 533.33 EI 266.67 1024

T Bbarx Fs Qp =
and the compatibility conditions are not satisfied, because
4684.8 1 164.27 EI
The deformations under each homogeneous solution are:
Fs Bbarx
0 2 0 3.33 12.22 0 1 = 12.22 1.67 EI 6.11 3.33 48.36 6.4
each of these deformation states does not satisfy compatibility either as we can tell immediately from T Bbarx Fs Bbarx =
131.498 1.276 1 1.276 3.973 EI
Page 417
with the definitions
T Vhp := Bbarx F s Qp
T Fxx := Bbarx Fs Bbarx Qx := lsolve ( F xx , Vhp) Qx =
35.34 30
the final stress state is the superposition of NOS+1 stress states (one particular and NOS homogeneous)
Q := Qp + Bbarx Qx
35.34 35.34 30.44 = 30.44 30 7.7
the following figure shows the resulting moment diagram under the applied force of 20 units
30.44
35.34
30
Page 418
the element deformations are
V := F s Q
70.67 117.78 101.46 1 V = 51.46 EI 49.27 492.67
and we can use the compatibility relations to determine the two translations and then draw the deformed shape of the structural model under the applied force of 20 units. We have
T Bf
1 1 0 = 0 0 0
1 2 0 3 9 1 6 0 1 10 1 10 1
V1 = U1 V2 = U1 + V3 = V4 = V5 = U2 8 U3 10 U3 10
U2 3 U2 8
2 +
U3 9
1 8 1 8 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
U3 6
+ U4 + U4
V6 = U3 U3 := V
6
from the above relations it is very straightforward to conclude that
U3 = 492.67
1 EI 1 EI
and from equations 3 and 4
V3 V4 =
U2 8
U3 10
U2 := 8 V V
3
+ 0.8 U3 4)
U2 = 829.2
and with this information and the given element deformations we should be able to draw the deformed shape of the structure. Note: the horizontal translation of node 3 can be found from U2 and U3 according to the earlier derivations for the compatibility matrix
Uhor :=
3 U2 + U3 4
Uhor = 129.23
1 EI
it moves about 1/6.5 of the vertical translation to the left!
the vertical translation of node 2 is
Uver := 2 U2 +
4 U3 3
Uver = 1001.5
1 EI
downward
Page 419
the deformed shape is shown in the following figure; it is clear from the tangent continuity that node 2 rotates clockwise (CW) and node 3 counter clockwise (CCW). The rotation of node 4 is so small that it is not possible to make out from the deformed shape. Indeed, numerical calculations reveal that it is roughly 50 times smaller than the rotation at the other nodes and thus, insignificant in the scale of the figure.
CCW
?
CW
Page 420
2. Load case: uniformly distributed load in element b
w := 5
w=5
3 b c 4
6
10
5
6 8 8
Equivalent nodal forces (on the left hand side of equilibrium equations)
20 15
equivalent nodal forces for constrained translation dofs

6
3 b
20 15
c 4
dof 2:
( 20) 2 + ( 20) 1 + 15
dof 3:
10
3 = 48.75 4
( 20)
thus,
4 + 15 1 = 11.67 3
5
6 8 8
0 48.75 Pf := 11.667 0
Page 421
particular solution for applied loading
Q2 = 0 0 = Q1 + ( 0) 48.75 = 11.67 =
Q5 = 0 Q1 = 0 + 0 Q3 + 8 8 0 Q4 0 + + + Q6 6 10 10 Q4 = 390 Q3 = 390 Q6 = 50.667
Q1 3 9
2Q1
0 = Q3 + Q4
0 0 390 Qp := 390 0 50.667
0 3 w Lb 24 EI Vo := 0 0 0 0
V := F s Qp + Vo
0 208.33 1300 1 V = 1300 EI 650 3242.69
with the definitions
T Vhp := Bbarx ( F s Qp + Vo)
T Fxx := Bbarx Fs Bbarx Qx := lsolve ( F xx , Vhp) Qx =
89.03 53.4
the final stress state is the superposition of NOS+1 stress states (one particular and NOS homogeneous)
Q := Qp + Bbarx Qx
89.03 89.03 63.57 = 63.57 53.4 11.26

V := F s Q + Vo
the element deformations are
178.05 505.09 211.89 1 V = 122.89 EI 72.05 720.52
Page 422
the following figure shows the moment diagram; can you determine the maximum moment in element b?
63.57
89.03
53.4
Page 423
We determine again the values for the translation dofs from the compatibility relations
U3 := V U2 := 8 V V
3
U3 = 720.52
1 EI 1 EI
+ 0.8 U3 4)
U2 = 2101.84
and derive the other translation values from the constraints used in setting up the compatibility matrix for the horizontal translation of node 3 we have the vertical translation of node 2 is
Uhor := 4 U3 3
3 U2 + U3 4 Uver = 3243
Uhor = 855.87 1 EI
1 EI
Uver := 2 U2 +
downward
CCW
CCW
CW
the effect of the distributed load on the deformation V2 and the deformed shape of element b is very pronounced. can you determine the deflection (horizontal and vertical translation) of element b at its midspan?
Page 424

% frame with inextensible elements and brace using constraint transformation for inextensibility

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 6 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 14 6]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 22 0]; XYZ(5,:) = [ 22 -10]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; CON {5} = [ 2 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 1]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); ElemName{5} = 'LinTruss'; 0 = free)
create Model
element properties
for el=1:4 ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1; ElemData{el}.I = 40; end ElemData{5}.E = 1000; ElemData{5}.A = 10; % any value, since it will be constrained
% area for brace element
force method of analysis with inextensible constraints

% set up compatibility matrix A = A_matrix(Model); % set up constraint conditions LC_Eqs = LinConEqs(Model,1:4); % re-order dofs to select translation dofs in specific order pick_dof = [Model.DOF(3,2), Model.DOF(4,1)]; dof_reord = [setdiff(1:Model.nt,pick_dof) pick_dof]; Ac = Ac_matrix (LC_Eqs,dof_reord); % compatibility matrix under inextensible constraints Aftild = A*Ac; % specify release location for subsequent index of deformations ElemData{2}.Release = ['n';'y']; % select deformation modes only
Page 425
Id = Idef_index(Model,ElemData,1:4); % retain only deformation modes in compatibility matrix Aftild = Aftild(Id,:); % equilibrium matrix w/o axial forces is the transpose of the compatibility matrix Bf = Aftild'; % remove Release field from ElemData before setting up flexibility matrix ElemData{2} = rmfield(ElemData{2},'Release'); % collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); Fs = Fs(Id,Id); % invoke single function for force method of analysis [Bbar,Bvbar,F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs);

% specify nodal forces Pe(3,2) = -20; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe); % make sure to define applied force vector at constrained dofs (remove restrained dofs from Ac matrix) Pf = Ac(1:Model.nf,:)'*Loading.Pref; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*Pf; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under applied nodal forces') disp(Q); basic forces Q under applied nodal forces 0 3.5335e+001 -3.5335e+001 0 -3.0437e+001 3.0437e+001 2.9999e+001 7.6979e+000
Uf = F*Pf; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces -5.0563e-003 -2.4062e-003 -2.0730e-002 3.8595e-003 1.2317e-002 5.4813e-005
Second load case: distributed load on girder

ElemData{2}.w = [0;-5]; V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); V0 = V0(Id); Pf = zeros(Model.nf,1); clear Pe; % specify equivalent nodal forces for distributed element loading Pe(2,1) = -15;
Page 426
Pe(2,2) = 20; Pe(3,1) = -15; Pe(3,2) = 20; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); Pfw = Loading.Pref; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*(Ac(1:Model.nf,:)'*(Pf-Pfw))+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under distributed girder load') disp(Q); % determine displacements Uf = F*(Ac(1:Model.nf,:)'*(Pf-Pfw)) + Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load') disp(Uf); basic forces Q under distributed girder load 0 8.9027e+001 -8.9027e+001 0 -6.3568e+001 6.3568e+001 5.3400e+001 1.1258e+001 free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load -1.5738e-002 -9.0612e-003 -5.2546e-002 9.2169e-003 1.8013e-002 1.2710e-003
Page 427

% frame with inextensible elements and brace using large axial stiffness for inextensibility

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 6 0]; % second node, XYZ(3,:) = [ 14 6]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 22 0]; XYZ(5,:) = [ 22 -10]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; CON {5} = [ 2 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 1]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); ElemName{5} = 'LinTruss'; specify non-zero terms) etc
0 = free)
create Model
element properties
for el=1:4 ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1e6; % "inextensible" ElemData{el}.I = 40; end ElemData{5}.E = 1000; ElemData{5}.A = 10; % area for brace element ElemData{2}.Release = ['n';'y'];

% static(equilibrium) matrix at free dofs B = B_matrix(Model); % extract hinge locations from static matrix Id = Idef_index(Model,ElemData); Bf = B(1:Model.nf,Id); % collection of element flexibility matrices Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); % invoke single function for force method of analysis [Bbar,Bvbar,F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs);

% specify nodal forces Pe(3,2) = -20; Loading = Create_Loading (Model,Pe);
Page 428
Pf = Loading.Pref; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*Pf; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under applied nodal forces') disp(Q); basic forces Q under applied nodal forces -6.0436e+000 0 3.5335e+001 -1.4527e+001 -3.5335e+001 -1.9459e+001 0 -3.0437e+001 -1.4111e+001 3.0437e+001 2.9999e+001 7.6979e+000

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); % put basic forces back into complete vector that includes hinge Id index Qf = zeros(sum(Model.nq)); Qf(Id) = Q; Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,[],Qf,0.75);
Uf = F*Pf; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces -5.0563e-003 -3.6261e-008 -2.5038e-002 -2.4062e-003 -3.2307e-003 -2.0730e-002 3.8595e-003 1.2317e-002 -1.4111e-007 5.4825e-005
Page 429

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); MAGF = 60; Plot_Model (Model,U); Plot_DeformedStructure (Model,[],U);
Second load case: distributed load on element b

ElemData{2}.w = [0;-5]; V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); Pf = zeros(Model.nf,1); clear Pe; % specify equivalent nodal forces for distributed element loading Pe(2,1) = -15; Pe(2,2) = 20; Pe(3,1) = -15; Pe(3,2) = 20; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); Pfw = Loading.Pref; % determine final forces Q = Bbar*(Pf-Pfw)+ Bvbar*V0; % display final forces disp('basic forces Q under distributed girder load') disp(Q); basic forces Q under distributed girder load 1.8303e+001 0 8.9027e+001 -3.2672e+000 -8.9027e+001 -3.3461e+001 0 -6.3568e+001 -2.5162e+001 6.3568e+001 5.3400e+001 1.1258e+001

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model);
Page 430
% put basic forces back into complete vector that includes hinge Id index Qf = zeros(sum(Model.nq)); Qf(Id) = Q; Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Qf,0.75);
Uf = F*(Pf-Pfw) + Bbar'*V0; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under distributed girder load -1.5738e-002 1.0982e-007 -8.1075e-002 -9.0612e-003 -2.1396e-002 -5.2547e-002 9.2169e-003 1.8013e-002 -2.5162e-007 1.2710e-003
plot deformed shape

% put free dof displacement values in complete displacement vector U = zeros(Model.nt,1); U(1:Model.nf) = Uf; MAGF = 30; Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_Model (Model,U); Plot_DeformedStructure (Model,ElemData,U);
Page 431
Displacements at incipient collapse

Case of full collapse mechanism Just before the last hinge forms the structure is statically determinate if a full collapse mechanism forms. Thus, all basic forces can be determined from the equilibrium equations (page 26 of Part I). With all basic forces known we can determine the corresponding strain dependent element deformations. In determining the global dof displacements we can only use the compatibility equations in the locations without a plastic hinge, because at the NOS plactic hinge locations there are unknown plastic hinge deformations at the instant just before the last hinge forms. Denoting the locations without plastic hinge including the last hinge to form with subscript i, as we have done in Example 18, we have
Vi = Ai U f
with
Vi = Fsi Qi +Vi0
solving for the displacements at the free dofs we obtain
U f = BiTVi
since
AiT = Bi and
Bi = Bi 1
Since the location of the last hinge to form is not known from the lower or upper bound theorem of plastic analysis, trial and error is required: we guess the location of the last plastic hinge to form and then determine the plastic deformations and the free global dof displacements. The correct guess for the last plastic hinge to form corresponds to the case with no contradiction between the sign of the plastic deformations and the corresponding basic forces, which also results in the largest value for the translation dofs. consult examples 27 and 28. Case of partial collapse mechanism In this case the structure is still statically indeterminate before the last plastic hinge forms. Recall that there are less than NOS+1 hinges at collapse, thus less than NOS hinges before the last plastic hinge forms. Let us call the number of plastic hinges at collapse NP. Before the last plastic hinge forms there are, therefore, NOS+1 - NP redundant basic forces and a statically indeterminate analysis, as discussed in the preceding page is required to determine the redundant values and then all basic forces just before the last plastic hinge forms. Following this we can follow the same procedure as for the case of the full collapse mechanism above to determine the displacements at incipient collapse. consult example 33
Page 432
Example 33 - Force method for partial collapse
Example 33 - Force method for partial collapse mechanism

We tackle now a problem that we addressed partially in Examples 9 and 18, the partial collapse mechanism of the structural model in the following figures
La := 6 Lb := 6 Lc := 8 Ld := 6 Le := 6 Lf := 10
1 3 4
Q7 Q6
Q5
Q8
Q4
2
Q1
Q2
Q3
We recall from Example 9 that we obtained the following basic forces at incipient collapse
Q2 Q4 = Q5 Q6
Qei + Bbarxe Q 6
with
50 150 Qei := 100 0
and
1 1 Bbarxe := 1 1
A unique solution was not possible, because there were four unknown basic forces with three independent equilibrium equations, as is typical of a partial collapse mechanism (review discussion of Example 9).
Page 433
A unique solution of this problem is only possible if we introduce a deformation-force relation for the elements and then seek to satisfy the compatibility relations. Let us assume the following stiffness values elements a through e are inextensible and have flexural stiffness EI the brace element has axial stiffness EA
EI := 50000 EA := 10000
we need the element deformations at locations 2, 4, 5 and 6; we note that the element deformation at 2 also depends on the basic force Q1 We recall from Example 9 that
Q1 := 100
we introduce the collection of flexibility matrices for elements a, c, and d only (note that we are not interested in the deformation at 1, which is why the flexibility matrix for element a has only one row)
La 0 0 0 3 EI Lc Lc 0 0 3 EI 6 EI Fse := Lc Lc 0 0 6 EI 3 EI Ld 0 0 0 3 EI
and the element deformations at the locations of interest for the particular solution are (do not forget to include the deformation at 2 due to Q1 = 100)
100 La 50 6 EI 150 + 0 Vei := F se 100 0 0 0
Vei
200 266.67 1 = 66.67 EI 0
@2 @4 @5 @6
the compatibility error at location 6 due to the particular solution is
1 T Bbarxe Vei = 400
EI
we determine the discontinuity at location 6 due to the homogeneous solution (i.e. Q6 = 1)
1 T Bbarxe F se Bbarxe = 12
EI
thus, to satisfy the compatibility relation at 6 we need to select the value of Q6 from the relation and we get
400
1 1 + 12 Q6 = 0 EI EI
Q6 :=
400 12
Q6 = 33.333
and the basic forces at the elastic locations become
Q2 Q4 := Q5 Q6
Qei + Bbarxe Q 6
Q2 16.67 Q4 116.67 = Q5 133.33 Q6 33.33
Page 434
and we note that the forces satisfy the yield condition since Q2 and Q6 do not exceed 100 and Q4 and Q5 do not exceed 150. We have, therefore, obtained a unique solution under the assumption that the material is linear elastic. It turns out that the value of the flexural stiffness EI does not affect the result, since it appears in both terms of the compatibility condition (note that the axial stiffness does not appear because the brace has yielded). With the unique solution for the basic forces, we can now determine the element deformations and then proceed to determine the displacements at incipient collapse. For the given stiffness values the last hinge forms at location 1 in element a, as an event-to-event analysis reveals (note that the sequence of plastic hinge formation depends on the relative stiffness value EI/EA, while the plastic hinge location and collapse load factor does not; to prove this use the upper and lower bound theorem of plastic analysis). Recalling the compatibility matrix from Example 18 we write and there are no hinge deformations at locations 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6
1 La 1 La 1 Lb 0 Af := 0 1 Ld 1 Le 8 Lf
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 Lc 1 1 Lc 0 1 0 1 6 0 Lf
Af
1 6 1 6 1 6 0 = 0 1 6 1 6 4 5
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 8 1 8 0 0 3 5
0 0 0 1 1 1 0
V1 = V2 =
U1 6 U1 6
+ U2
V4 = U2 + V5 = U3
U3 8
+ U4 8 U1 V6 = + U4 6
we know, of course, that even though we have 5 compatibility relations only 4 are linearly independent. We can, therefore, obtain a unique solution for the global dof displacements from these equations. We have from 1 from 2 from 6
U1 = 6 V1 U2 = V2 + U4 = V6 + U1 6 U1 6 = V2 V1 = V6 V1
Page 435
from 5
U3 = 8 ( V5 U4) = 8 ( V5 V6 + V1 ) V4 = V2 V1 + V5 V6 + V1
and we can check that 4 is satisfied
which gives V 4 V 2 V 5 + V 6 = 0 to be satisfied; but it is satisfied if we recall that
1 1 Bbarxe := 1 1
therefore, the given continuity relations result in a unique set of global dof displacements that we now determine; to this end we need to determine the deformations recall that
Q1 := 100 Q2 = 16.67 Q4 = 116.67 Q5 = 133.33 Q6 = 33.33
V1 := V2 := V4 := V5 := V6 :=
La 6 EI La 6 EI Lc 6 EI Lc 6 EI Ld 3 EI
( 2 Q1 Q2) ( 2 Q2 Q1) ( 2 Q4 Q5) ( 2 Q5 Q4) Q6
V1 = 216.67
1 EI 1 EI
V2 = 133.33 V4 = 133.33 V5 = 200 1 EI
1 EI
V6 = 66.67
1 EI
the global dof displacements at incipient collapse become
U1 := 6 V1 U2 := V2 V1 U3 := 8 ( V5 V6 + V1) U4 := V6 V1
U1 = 1300 U2 = 350
1 EI
U1 = 0.026 U2 = 7 10
3
1 EI 1 EI 1 EI
U3 = 3866.67 U4 = 283.33
U3 = 77.33 10
U4 = 5.667 10
Page 436
and we can determine the plastic deformations at incipient collapse from the relation
Vh = Af Uf V
relevant are only the deformations at 3, 7 and 8 (since the other locations are all continuous) recall from Example 9
Q3 := 100 Q7 := 100
V3 := V7 := V8 :=
Q 3 Lb 3 EI Q 7 Le 3 EI Q 8 Lf EA
V3 = 200 V7 = 200
1 EI 1 EI 1 EI
Q8 := 20
V8 = 1000
then
1 1 0 0 6 U1 V3 U 2 1 0 0 1 V7 Vh := 6 U3 4 V8 3 0 0 U4 5 5
extract rows 3, 7 and 8 of Af
@3 @7 Vh @8
7.333 3 = 6 10 47.2
or,
Vh
366.67 1 = 300 2360 EI
Page 437
Displacement Method
FORCE-DEFORMATION RELATIONS FOR ELEMENT AND STRUCTURE
Objective: force-deformation relation of frame elements; displacement method of analysis; constraints
Page 438
Displacement Method
Force-deformation behavior of prismatic 2d frame element

Invert deformation-force relation for the same element from Part IV
recall from Part IV
L EA
1
v =fq
with
q1 = 1
L EA f = 0 0
0 L 3EI L 6 EI
L 6 EI L 3EI 0
L 3EI q2 = 1
1 L 6 EI 1 L
L
L 6EI 1 L
q3 = 1
L 3EI
v =fq
EA L 1 k =f = 0 0 0 4 EI L 2 EI L
q = f 1v = kv
0 2 EI L 4 EI L
v1 = 1
i j
EA L
EI L
v2 = 1
EI L
EI L
4
v3 = 1
L
EI L
Page 439
Displacement Method
Initial forces (or fixed-end forces)
v = f q + v0
q = f 1 v v0 = k v v0 = kv + q 0
with
q 0 = k v0
Initial forces (or fixed-end forces) due to uniformly distributed element load
q 0 = k v0
EA L q0 = 0 0
0 4 EI L 2 EI L
0 0 w L3 2 EI y L 24 EI 4 EI w L3 y L 24 EI
0 wy L2 = 12 2 wy L 12
wy L 12
wy
wy L 2
L
w y L2 12
wy L 2
Initial forces (or fixed-end forces) due to non-mechanical effects
q 0 = k v0
EA L q0 = 0 0
0 4 EI L 2 EI L
0 a0 L EA a 0 2 EI 1 = EI L 0 L 2 0 EI 0 4 EI 1 0 L L 2
EAa 0
a 0 ( x ) = const=a 0
EAa 0
EI 0
no shear forces
0 ( x ) = const=0
EI 0
Page 440
Displacement Method
Force-deformation behavior of prismatic 2d frame element with moment release

Invert deformation-force relation for the same element from Part IV recall from Part IV
L EA
1
v =fq
L EA with f = 0
and
q1 = 1
i j
0 L 3EI
q2 = 1
L 3EI
1
L 6 EI
L
L
1 v3 = v 2 2
v =fq
q = f 1v = kv
v1 = 1
with
EA k= L 0
0 3EI L
EA L
EI L
v2 = 1
v3 =
1 2
Page 441
Displacement Method
Initial forces (or fixed-end forces) for element with moment release at node j
v = f q + v0
q = f 1 v v0 = k v v0 = kv + q 0
with
q 0 = k v0
Initial forces (or fixed-end forces) due to uniformly distributed element load
q 0 = k v0
EA q0 = L 0
0 0 w L3 3EI y L 24 EI
0 2 = wy L 8

wy
wy L2 8
note additional shear forces due to fixed-end moment
wy L 2 wy L 8
L
wy L 2 wy L 8
Initial forces (or fixed-end forces) due to non-mechanical effects
q 0 = k v0
EA q0 = L 0
0 a 0 L EA a 0 = 1 L 3 EI 3EI 0 2 0 2 L
1.5 EI 0
note shear forces due to fixed-end moment
0 ( x ) = const= 0
1.5EI 0 L
1.5EI 0 L
Page 442
Displacement Method
Element stiffness matrix of 2d prismatic beam element in local coordinates

4 EI q= L 2 EI L
2 EI 2 EI 2 1 L v = v 4 EI L 1 2 L
from
we derive
1 v = L 1 L
6 EI 2 q = L 6 EI 2 L
6
1
EI L2 12 EI L3 12 EI L3 EI L2 6 EI L2
1 v = 0
4 EI q = L 2 EI L
EI 4 L
6
EI L2 EI L3 12 EI L3 EI L2
2 6
EI L
EI L2
1
1 v = L 1 L
6 EI 2 q = L 6 EI 2 L
2 EI q = L 4 EI L
12 EI 6 2 L EI 2 L
6 EI 6 2 L
L
1
0 v = 1
EI L
or, in one step
1 L 1 T a ka = 1 L 0
1 L 4 EI 0 L 1 2 EI L L 1
2 EI 1 L L 4 EI 1 L L
1 L 1 0 L
EI 12 3 L EI 0 6 2 = L EI 1 12 3 L EI 6 2 L
L EI 4 L EI 6 2 L EI 2 L
EI
2
12 6
12
EI L EI
3
L2 EI L3 EI L2
EI 2 L EI 2 L EI 6 2 L EI 4 L 6
gives the beam stiffness matrix in local coordinates (axial effects are not present)
Page 443
Displacement Method
Element stiffness matrix of 2d prismatic beam element with moment release in local coordinates
from
3EI q= v L
we derive
1 v = L
3EI q = 2 L
3
1
EI L2 3 EI L3 3 EI L3 EI L2
v = (1)
3EI q = L
EI 3 L 3
EI L2 3 EI L3 1
1 v = L
3EI q = 2 L
3 3 EI L2
EI L3
or, in one step
1 L 1 1 3EI 1 T a ka = L L 1 L 1 L 0
EI 3 3 L EI 3 2 0 = L EI 3 3 L 0
L EI 3 L EI 3 2 L 0
EI
2
3 3 3
EI L EI
2 3
L EI
3
L 0
0 0 0 0
gives the beam stiffness matrix in local coordinates (axial effects are not present)
Page 444
Displacement Method
Basic force-deformation relation for collection of elements

from the preceding pages we know that the basic force-deformation relation for a single 2d frame element is given by the following relation
q = kv + q 0
Combine the deformation-force relations for all elements in the structural model q
(a ) ( b) ( c)
=k v =k
(a ) (a ) (b) (b)
v
+ q0
(a ) ( b)
q q
+ q0 + q0
=k v =k
(c) (c)
(c) ( ne )
q q ( a ) k ( a ) ( b) q 0 (c) = q 0 0 ( ne ) q 0
( ne )
( ne ) ( ne )
v
+ q0
0
k
0 0
k
0 0 0 0
( b)
0 0 0
or, in compact form
(c)
0 0
(a ) (a ) 0 v q0 ( b) (b) 0 v q0 ( c) + ( c) 0 v q0 0 ( ne ) ( ne ) q ( ne ) k v 0
v(a ) ( b) v with V = ( c ) v ( ne ) v
q (a ) (b) q Q = (c) q ( ne ) q
q (a ) 0 ( b) q0 Q0 = q ( c ) 0 ( ne ) q 0
and
k ( a ) 0 Ks = 0 0 0
0 k
0 0 k
0 0 0 0
( b)
0 0 0
(c)
0 0
0 0 0 0 ( ne ) k
block-diagonal we get
Q = KsV +Q0
Page 445
DISPLACEMENT OR STIFFNESS METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Equilibrium Compatibility
Pf = B fQ + Pfw
V = A fU f +Vd
Element force-deformation
Q = K sV +Q0
T Pf = A T K s A fU f + Pfw + A TQ0 + A f K sVd f f
or
Pf = K fU f + Pf0
or with fewer subscripts
nf equations in nf unknowns nf = number of free degrees of freedom
P = KU f + P0
DISPLACEMENT OR STIFFNESS METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Pf = B f Q + Pfw
V = Af Uf Q = K s V + Q0
(1) note
Bf = AT f
(2)
Element force-deformation for linear elastic material
(3)
In the displacement method of analysis the unknowns of the analysis problem are the displacements at free dof's from (2) and (3) from (1) and (3*)
Uf
Q = K s ( A f Uf ) + Q0
(3*)
T Pf = A f [ K s ( A f U f ) + Q 0 ] + Pfw
T T Pf = A f K s A f U f + Pfw + A f Q 0
Pf = K ff U f + Pf0
for brevity
P = KU f + P0
with
K = AT K s Af f
T P0 = Pfw + Af Q 0
the structure stiffness matrix at free dof's the initial nodal force vector at free dof's
the initial nodal force vector arises from two contributions: (1) end shear forces due to element loading, (2) fixed end or initial basic forces
Page 446
Displacement Method
Displacement method of analysis

In the absence of constraints we have the following relations: Equilibrium equations in undeformed configuration (linear)
Pf = BfQ + Pfw
(1) note
Bf = A T f
Compatibility relations for small displacements/deformations (linear) where Vd
V = A fU f +Vd
(2)
are the element deformations due to imposed displacements at the restrained dofs
Q = K sV + Q0
(3)
In the displacement method of analysis the unknowns of the analysis problem are the displacements at free dof's from (2) and (3) from (1) and (3*)
Uf
Q = K s A fU f +Vd + Q0
(3*)
T Pf = A f K s A fU f +Vd + Q0 + Pfw T T T Pf = A f K s A fU f + A f K sVd + A f Q0 + Pfw
Pf = K ffU f + Pf0
for brevity
T
Pf = KU f + P0
with
K = Af K s Af
T T P0 = Pfw + A f Q0 + A f K sVd
the structure stiffness matrix at free dofs the initial nodal force vector at free dofs
the initial nodal force vector arises from 3 contributions: (1) end shear forces due to element loading, (2) fixed end or initial basic forces, and (3) element deformations due to support displacements
Page 447
Displacement Method
Solution steps for displacement method of analysis

Step 1: write compatibility relations and establish structure compatibility matrix for free dofs A f Step 2: form structure stiffness matrix and initial force vector (a) by computer: (b) term by term through physical interpretation
K = Af K s Af
K = Af K s Af
T
P0 = Pfw + A f Q0 + A f K sVd
P0 = Pfw + A TQ0 + A T K sVd f f
Step 3: solve system of equilibrium equations for the unknown displacements at free dofs
Pf P0 = KU f
Uf
Step 4: determine element deformations from global dof displacements V = A fU f +Vd Step 5: determine basic element forces from element deformations (a) by computer: (b) by hand: element by element
Q = K s V V0 = K sV + Q0 q = k v v0 = kv + q 0
(c) by hand: faster if intermediate result available Q = K s A f U f + Q0 + K sVd from stiffness determination Step 6: with Q determine other element forces by equilibrium (shear forces from element equilibrium, axial forces from node equilibrium) Step 7: with Q determine support reactions from equilibrium at restrained dof's (a) by computer: (b) by hand:
R = BdQ + Pdw
one support reaction at a time from equilibrium of corresponding restrained dof
Step 8: with support reactions and applied forces check global equilibrium on complete structure free body
consult Examples 34, 35 and 36
Page 448
Ex 34 - Displacement method for truss
Example 34 - Displacement method: simple truss

We concoct a somewhat unusual structure in an effort to reduce the number of independent free global dofs to 2. Truss structures have many independent free global dofs, and this is the reason why the force method of analysis gained the upper hand in the late 19th century for the analysis of truss bridges. The displacement method received a boost in the 1930s with the introduction of the iterative method of Hardy Cross for continuous beams and frames. Finally, the advent of computer analysis methods in the 1960s led to the exclusive use of the displacement method in computer programs. This unusual truss has only two independent free global dofs.
5
5 4
b a
3
U2
c
1
U1
The properties of the truss elements are:
EAa := 30000
EAb := 10000
EAc := 10000
EAd := 20000
Geometric information
La := Lb := Lc := Ld := 8
5 +8
2
2 2
La = 9.43 Lb = 5.66 Lc = 5.66
4 +4 4 +4
2
Page 449
Step 1: Set up the compatibility relations between independent free global dofs and element deformations. dof 1 corresponds to first column of the compatibility matrix Af
5 4
b a
5 La 0 Af 1 := 4 Lc 1
U1 = 1
dof 2 corresponds to the second column of the compatibility matrix Af

5 4
b a
U2 = 1
0 4 Lb Af 2 := 4 Lc 0
Page 450
Equilibrium equations just for checking (transpose of compatibility relations)

5
5
4
Q1
Q2
b
Q2
3
P2
Q3
c
Q1
1 2
Q3
Q4
Q4
8
P1
For free dof's
5 4 P1 = Q 1 Q3 + Q4 La Lc thus Bf := 4 4 P2 = Q 2 + Q3 Lb Lc
5 0 4 1 L Lc a 4 4 0 0 Lb Lc
we note
Bf = A f
We set up the collection of element stiffness matrices. It consists of the individual basic element stiffness matrices arranged on the diagonal (block diagonal form, in the case of the truss diagonal) Collection of element stiffness matrices Ks
with
ka :=
EAa La
kb :=
EAb Lb
kc :=
EAc Lc
kd :=
EAd Ld
we have
ka 0 Ks := 0 0
kb 0 0 0 kc 0 0 0 kd
for hand calculations it is better to factor out a reference stiffness and then include only relative stiffness terms in Ks. We demonstrate
0 0 0 1 EAb La 0 0 0 EAa Lb EAa EAc La Ks := La 0 0 0 EAa Lc EAd La 0 0 0 EAa Ld
Ks
0 0 1 0 0 EAa 0 0.556 0 = 0 0 0.556 0 La 0 0.786 0 0
Page 451
Step 2: Form the structure stiffness matrix : Method A: T K := Af Ks Af K =
4.28 0.88 3 10 0.88 1.77
or, better K =
1.35 0.28 EAa 0.28 0.56 La
Method B: Let us identify the contribution of each element to the stiffness matrix. We do this as follows: we isolate the deformation of each element in the compatibility matrix. Afa :=
5 0 L a
Afb :=
0 4 Lb
Afc :=
4 4 L L c c
Afd := ( 1 0 )
T The operation Af Ks Af now breaks down in the following element contributions: element a T Ka := Afa ka Afa T Kb := Afb kb Afb
element b
0.89 0 3 10 0 0 0 0 3 Kb = 10 0 0.88
Ka =
or, Ka =
or,
0.28 0 EAa 0 0 La 0 0 EAa Kb = 0 0.28 La
element c
T Kc := Afc kc Afc T Kd := Afd kd Afd
element d
0.88 0.88 3 10 0.88 0.88 2.5 0 3 Kd = 10 0 0

Kc =
or, Kc =
or,
0.28 0.28 EAa 0.28 0.28 La 0.79 0 EAa Kd = 0 0 La

K := Ka + Kb + Kc + Kd
Then the stiffness matrix is the sum of the element contributions:
Although Method A of determining the structure stiffness matrix K is compact and convenient by computer, it is not advisable for "hand" calculations. Method B is faster for "hand" calculations. For determining individual stiffness coefficients the most suitable method will be presented later under the section "physical interpretation of stiffness coefficients".
Page 452
Illustration of Method B: element contributions to structure stiffness matrix
5 L a K= 0
0 4 Lb
4 Lc 4 Lc
k 1 0 0 0 0
(a)
0 k 0 0
(b )
0 0 k (c) 0
5 L a 0 0 0 0 4 k ( d ) Lc 1
0 4 Lb 4 Lc 0
4 1 ( d ) k [1 0] + Lc 0
5 L 5 a K = k (a) La 0
4 0 Lc (c ) 4 k (b) 0 4 + k 0 + 4 Lb 4 Lc L L b c
Step 3: Set up the applied nodal force vector; for load case 1 we have
Pf :=
5 8
Solve for the unknown displacements of the global dof's (use Gauss elimination instead of inverse!) Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf) Uf =
2.35 3 10 5.7
such numbers are easier to handle
if we do not include the term EAa /La in the stiffness we get global dof displacements with EAa /La factor Uf =
7.46 La 18.12 EAa
Note: we use Gauss elimination or another suitable solution method for linear system of equations. We do not use multiplication by the inverse of the stiffness matrix !! (even though the latter approach is not a crime for very small matrices)
Page 453
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements from the compatibility relations
V := Af Uf
1.24 4.03 10 3 V = 2.37 2.35 3.96 7.12 = 4.19 5.87
or,
va vb := vc vd
Af Uf
va 3.955 vb 12.814 La = vc 7.538 EAa vd 7.462
Step 5: Determine the basic force of all elements
Q := Ks V
Even though this way of determining is compact and convenient for computer use, particularly, since we have already established Ks, it is strongly advisable to use the following element-by element determination of the basic force in "hand" calculations.
qa := ka va qb := kb vb qc := kc vc qd := kd vd
qa = 3.96 qb = 7.12 qc = 4.19 qd = 5.87
If we had not included the term EAa /La in the stiffness we get the element forces by multiplication with the relative stiffness only. We demonstrate
qa := ( 1) 3.96 qb := 0.556 ( 12.814) qc := 0.556 ( 7.538) qd := 0.786 ( 7.462)
qa = 3.96 qb = 7.12 qc = 4.19 qd = 5.87
It is clear that basic element forces do not depend on the reference stiffness value, but only on the relative stiffness ratios. Global dof displacements and element deformations on the other hand, are proportional to the reference stiffness value, as the above results clearly demonstrate. Step 6: not applicable since all basic forces have been determined
Page 454
Step 7: Determine support reactions
R7
R8
5
R5
R6
4
Q1
Q2
b
Q2
3
P2
R4
Q3
c
Q1
R1
R2
1
Q3
Q4
Q4
P1
R3
With all basic element forces known it is now straightforward to determine the support reactions. Each one of these appears in a separate equilibrium equation. We can thus determine them one at a time.
R1 = Q 4 R2 = 0 8 4 Q3 La Lc 4 4 R4 = Q 2 + Q3 Lb Lc R3 = Q 1 4 R5 = Q 2 Lb 4 R6 = Q 2 Lb R7 = Q 1 5 La
In Mathcad it may be convenient to use matrix multiplication with an equilibrium matrix Bd
8 R8 = Q 1 La
0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 4 La Lc 4 4 0 Lc Lb 4 0 Bd := 0 Lb 4 0 0 Lb 5 0 0 La 8 0 0 La
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
R := Bd Q
5.87 0 6.32 2.07 = 5.04 5.04 2.1 3.35
Page 455

5.037 5.037 3.955
3.354 2.096
4
7.124
b a
7.124
8
2.074
3
4.19
c
1
5.867 5.867 3.955 4.19
d
5.867
2
6.317
Step 8: check global equilibrium

R7
R8
5
R5
R6
4
b a
3
4
8
R4
R1
R2
R3
8
force equilibrium in X force equilibrium in Y
R +5+R +R +R = 0 1 4 5 7 R +8+R +R +R = 0 2 3 6 8 R 8 + 5 8 + 8 4 + R 4 R 5 = 0 1 4 8
moment equilibrium about 4
Page 456
Second load case: thermal heating of members a and b

Steps 1 and 2 are the same (in fact, the compatibility matrix, the element and the structure stiffness matrix are only geometry and property dependent and should be set up only once). Step 3: Set up applied nodal force vector: for thermal heating there are no applied forces at global dofs. Pf :=
0 0
We note, however, that the elements undergo initial deformations due to non-mechanical effects. These are
0.001 La 0.001 Lb V0 := 0 0
in the displacement method of analysis, these initial deformations result in initial element forces (also known as "fixed end forces", because they arise for the case that the global dofs are "held fixed" so that the global dof displacements are zero, while the non-mechanical effects are applied). These initial element forces are collected in a vector Q 0 , which can be obtained either by the operation Q0 := Ks V0 T Q0 = ( 30 10 0 0 )
or, more conveniently element by element in which case
q0 = EA 0
Collecting the initial element forces into a vector we get
EAa 0.001 EAb 0.001 Q0 := 0 0 15.9 7.07
Q0
30 10 = 0 0
Initial force at global dof's
T P0 := Af Q0
P0 =
even though this way of determining the initial force vector Pf0 is compact and convenient by computer, it is not advisable for "hand" calculations. The method that is suitable for hand calculations will be shown later under the section "physical interpretation of stiffness coefficients and initial force vector" Solve for the unknown displacements of the global dof's Uf := lsolve [ K , ( Pf P0) ] Uf =
3.22 3 10 2.39
Uf =
10.25 La 7.59 EAa
Page 457
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements
V := Af Uf
1.71 1.69 3 V = 10 3.97 3.22
or,
va vb := vc vd
Af Uf
va 5.434 vb 5.37 La = vc 12.619 EAa vd 10.252
Step 5: Determine the basic force of all elements. This can be done in a number of ways, each with its advantages and drawbacks. Let us look at the methods. (a) From the physical understanding point of view the best approach is to realize that the element forces are proportional to the mechanical deformations, not the total deformations. Thus, we subtract the initial deformations from the total deformations and then multiply by the element stiffness matrix. The most convenient computer solution is by multiplication with Ks. By "hand" it is advisable to proceed element by element. computer solution Q := Ks ( V V0) T Q = ( 24.57 7.01 7.01 8.06 )
hand solution, element by element
qa := ka ( va 0.001 La) qb := kb ( vb 0.001 Lb ) qc := kc vc qd := kd vd

(b)
qa = 24.57 qb = 7.01 qc = 7.01 qd = 8.06
or,
qa := ( 1) 5.434 0.001 La
qa = 24.57 La EAa qb := ( 0.556) 5.37 0.001 Lb qb = 7.02 La
EAa
qc := ( 0.556) ( 12.619) qd := ( 0.786) ( 10.252)
qc = 7.02 qd = 8.06
If we have already set up the element initial force vector for determining the structure initial force vector, then we can simply write
Q := Ks V + Q0
24.57 7.01 = 7.01 8.06
In this case we can think of the final element forces as the linear superposition of the initial forces that we obtained without any global dof displacements (remember the name "fixed end forces"!) and the additional forces that result from the deformations due to global dof displacements. Step 6: not applicable since all basic forces have been determined
Page 458
Step 7: With all element forces known the determination of support reactions is the same as for the first load case with the interesting footnote that there are no applied forces at the applied dofs, but, the support reactions are not zero, if there are more than 3 support forces!
20.832 4.96 4.96 24.566
5
13.02
4
7.015
b a
7.015
3 7.015
7.015
9.921
c
1
8.06 8.06 24.566
d
8.06
7.015
25.793
5 4
R := Bd Q
8.06 0 25.79 9.92 = 4.96 4.96 13.02 20.83
R7
R8
5
R5
R6
4
b a
3
4
8
R4
R1
R2
R3
8
Step 8: check global equilibrium force equilibrium in X force equilibrium in Y moment equilibrium about 4 R +R +R +R = 0 1 4 5 7 R +R +R +R = 0 2 3 6 8 R 8 + R 4 R 5 = 0 1 4 8
Page 459
Physical interpretation of stiffness coefficients and initial forces

Impose a unit value at displacement dof 1 and determine element deformations and forces
b
0
K 21
EA 5 La La
c
EA 4 Lc Lc
EA 1 Ld
K11 U1 = 1
The force at dof 1 due to a unit displacement at dof 1 is stiffness coefficient K 11. Obtain it by equilibrium
K11 := ( 1)
EAd Ld
( 1) +
5 EAa 5 4 EAc 4 + La La La Lc Lc Lc
3
K11 = 4.28 10
as above
K21 :=
4 EAc 4 Lc Lc Lc
K21 = 0.88 10
as above
Page 460
Impose a unit value at displacement dof 2 and determine element deformations and forces
a b
EA 4 Lb Lb
K 22
U2 = 1
0
EA 4 Lc Lc
K12
4 EAc 4 4 EAb 4 K22 := L L L + L L L c c c b b b 4 EAc 4 K12 := L L L c c c

3
K22 = 1.77 10
as above
K21 = 0.88 10
as above
Clearly for hand calculations this is the most direct way to set up the coefficients of the stiffness matrix. All free displacement dofs are set to zero ('locked') and the members are heated up. The forces at dofs 1 and 2 are the initial (or fixed end) forces P0 . They are determined by equilibrium
b a
EAb T
P20
T := 0.001
EAa T
0 0
U2 = 0
c
P10 :=
5 EAa T La
) )
P10 = 15.9
as above
U1 = 0
P10
4 P20 := EAb T L b
P20 = 7.07
as above
Clearly for hand calculations this is the most direct way to set up the initial force vector.
Page 461

%truss with only 2 free global dofs: solution with separate FEDEASLab functions

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 12 4]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 8 8]; XYZ(5,:) = [ 3 8]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 2 5]; CON {2} = [ 3 4]; CON {3} = [ 2 3]; CON {4} = [ 1 2]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(2,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [1 0 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('LinTruss'); 0 = free)
% linear truss element
create Model
Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName); Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); Label_Model(Model);
element properties in ElemData

ElemData{1}.E = 1000; ElemData{1}.A = 30;
Page 462
for el=[2:3] ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 10; end ElemData{4}.E = 1000; ElemData{4}.A = 20;
set up collection of element stiffness matrices

Ks = Ks_matrix(Model,ElemData);
form compatibility matrix

A = A_matrix(Model); Af = A(:,1:Model.nf);
form stiffness matrix

% either by Af'Ks*Af Kf = Af'*Ks*Af; disp('The stiffness matrix by the displacement method is'); disp(Kf); % or better by direct assembly Kf = Kf_matrix(Model,ElemData); disp('The stiffness matrix by direct assembly is'); disp(Kf); The stiffness matrix by the displacement method is 4.2771e+003 -8.8388e+002 -8.8388e+002 1.7678e+003 The stiffness matrix by direct assembly is 4.2771e+003 -8.8388e+002 -8.8388e+002 1.7678e+003
1. Load case: applied nodal forces

Pf = [5;8]; % displacement method of analysis Uf = Kf\Pf; % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under applied nodal forces 2.3467e-003 5.6988e-003
determine element forces Q

Q = Ks*Af*Uf; disp('The basic forces under the applied nodal forces are') disp(Q); The basic forces under the applied nodal forces are 3.9551e+000 -7.1235e+000 4.1902e+000 5.8667e+000

Pr = A'*Q; % resisting force vector % check equilibrium at free dofs Pu = Pf - Pr(1:Model.nf); % unbalance force vector Res = sqrt(Pu'*Pu);
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disp('The error of the equilibrium equations is'); disp(Res); % support reactions R = Pr(Model.nf+1:end); disp('The support reactions under the applied nodal forces are') disp(R) The error of the equilibrium equations is 1.7764e-015 The support reactions under the applied nodal forces are -5.8667e+000 0 -6.3168e+000 -2.0742e+000 5.0371e+000 -5.0371e+000 -2.0962e+000 3.3539e+000
2. Load case: thermal heating of elements a and b

Pf = [0;0]; ElemData{1}.e0 = 0.001; ElemData{2}.e0 = 0.001; % set up initial deformation vector V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % set up initial force vector P0 = Af'*(-Ks*V0); % displacement method of analysis Uf = Kf\(Pf-P0); % display displacements disp('free dof displacements Uf under thermal heating of elements a and b') disp(Uf); free dof displacements Uf under thermal heating of elements a and b 3.2239e-003 -2.3880e-003
determine element forces Q

Q = Ks*(Af*Uf-V0); disp('The basic forces under thermal heating of elements a and b are') disp(Q); The basic forces under thermal heating of elements a and b are -2.4566e+001 -7.0150e+000 -7.0150e+000 8.0598e+000

Pr = A'*Q; % resisting force vector % check equilibrium at free dofs Pu = Pf - Pr(1:Model.nf); % unbalance force vector Res = sqrt(Pu'*Pu); disp('The error of the equilibrium equations is'); disp(Res); % support reactions R = Pr(Model.nf+1:end); disp('The support reactions under thermal heating of elements a and b are') disp(R) The error of the equilibrium equations is
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2.5121e-015 The support reactions under thermal heating of elements a and b are -8.0598e+000 0 2.5793e+001 -9.9207e+000 4.9603e+000 -4.9603e+000 1.3020e+001 -2.0832e+001
Page 465

% truss with only 2 free global dofs: solution with direct stiffness method

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 12 4]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 8 8]; XYZ(5,:) = [ 3 8]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 2 5]; CON {2} = [ 3 4]; CON {3} = [ 2 3]; CON {4} = [ 1 2]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, 0 = free) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(2,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [1 0 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('LinTruss'); % linear truss element
create Model

ElemData{1}.E = 1000; ElemData{1}.A = 30; for el=[2:3] ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 10; end ElemData{4}.E = 1000;
Page 466
ElemData{4}.A = 20;

Pe(2,1) = 5; Pe(3,2) = 8; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe);
linear solution with direct stiffness method of analysis

S_LinearStep Norm of equilibrium error = 1.776357e-015
plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); MAGF = 200; % magnification factor Plot_Model(Model); % original configuration Plot_Model(Model,U); % deformed configuration (chords only)
plot axial forces

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_AxialForces (Model,Post); % store the results for later use (if necessary) Uf_LC1 = Uf; Post_LC1 = Post;
Page 467
2. Load case: thermal heating of elements a and b

% no nodal forces for this load case Loading = Create_Loading(Model); ElemData{1}.q0 = -30; ElemData{2}.q0 = -10;

plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model(Model); % original configuration Plot_Model(Model,U); % deformed configuration (chords only)
plot axial forces

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_AxialForces (Model,Post); % store the results for later use (if necessary) Uf_LC2 = Uf; Post_LC2 = Post;
Page 468
Ex 35 - Displacement method for continuous beam
Example 35 - Displacement method: a three span continuous beam

1. Load Case: nodal forces We analyze the 3-span continuous beam in the following figure with the displacement method.
80 2 20 15 100 c 3 15 4
a 1
There are only two free global dofs as shown in the following figure
1 2 c
We can proceed as in earlier examples and set up the compatibility matrix Af for the free dofs. The result is:
U1 = 1
b
U2 = 1
b c
0 1 Af := 1 0 0
0 0
0 1 1
Page 469
With the element properties we obtain:
La := 20 EI := 60000
Lb := 15
Lc := 15
4 EI 2 EI 0 0 0 La La 2 EI 4 EI 0 0 0 La La 4 EI 2 EI 0 0 Ks := 0 Lb Lb 2 EI 4 EI 0 0 0 Lb Lb 3 EI 0 0 0 0 Lc
and the structure stiffness matrix becomes
or, factor out EI/L b
Lb Lb 4 2 L La a Lb Lb 4 2 La EI La Ks := Lb 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 4 2 2 4 0 0
0 0 0 Lb 3 Lc
T K := Af Ks Af
K =
28000 8000 8000 28000
It is much more straightforward to set up the stiffness matrix directly from the following figure
2 EI La
K11
a
4 EI Lb
2 EI Lb
K 21
c
b
4 EI La 3EI Lc
K12
a
2 EI Lb
K 22
b
K11 := K21 :=
4 EI 4 EI + La Lb 2 EI Lb
K11 = 28000 K21 = 8000 K11 :=
K12 := K22 := K12 :=
2 EI Lb 4 EI 3 EI + Lb Lc EI ( 2) Lb Lb EI 4 + 3 Lb Lc
K12 = 8000 K22 = 28000
if we factor out EI/Lb
EI Lb 4 + 4 Lb La
EI ( 2) Lb
K21 :=
K22 :=
Page 470
We can set up the equations of equilibrium at the free dofs in the form:
Pf = K U f + P0
and solve for the displacement values at the free dofs. The only difficulty arises with the moment of 100 units acting at the end of the beam. According to the following figure the fixed-end moment at the left end of element c is one half the applied end moment of 100 units. How did we obtain this?
L 100 6 EI
100
50
100
First we determined the initial deformation v0 for the completely unrestrained beam in the upper figure. it is
L times the value of the end moment and of opposite sign. 6 EI q0 = k v0
Then the fixed-end moment of the beam with one end unrestrained becomes with
k :=
3 EI L
we obtain
q0 =
Mend 3 EI L Mend = L 6 EI 2
Thus, one half of the moment at the unrestrained end "carries over" to the restrained end. 1/2 is known as the carry-over factor of the prismatic beam.
Page 471
Thus, we have for the applied loading:
Pf :=
80 0
b
and
P0 :=
0 50
100 c
P20
a 1
50
We solve the linear system of equilibrium equations for the unknown displacement values U := lsolve ( K , Pf P0) U =
3.67 3 10 2.83
We can determine the end moments of members a, b and c directly from the stiffness coefficients and the initial (fixed-end) moments (superposition of different compatible states)
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
2 EI La
K11
a
4 EI Lb
2 EI Lb
K 21
c
b
4 EI La 3EI Lc
K12
a
2 EI Lb
K 22
b
c
4 EI Lb
P20
a 1 b
50
100 c
Q := U 1 La 1 Q := U 2 La 1
2 EI 4 EI
Q = 22 1 Q = 44 2
Q := U + U 3 Lb 1 Lb 2 Q := U + U 4 Lb 1 Lb 2 Q := U + 50 5 Lc 2
4 EI
2 EI
Q = 36 3
2 EI
4 EI
Q = 16 4
3 EI
Q = 16 5
Page 472
calculation with relative stiffness coefficients if we factor out EI/Lb
K11 :=
EI Lb 4 + 4 Lb La
EI ( 2) Lb
K12 :=
EI ( 2) Lb Lb EI 4 + 3 Lb Lc
K21 :=
K22 :=
Lb 2 4 L + 4 a K' := Lb 2 4 + 3 Lc
U' := lsolve ( K' , Pf P0)
K' =
7 2 2 7
U' =
14.67 11.33
Q' := 2 U' 1 La 1 Q' := 4 U' 2 La 1 Q' := 4 U' + 2 U' 3 1 2 Q' := 2 U' + 4 U' 4 1 2 Q' := 3 U' + 50 5 Lc 2
Lb Lb
Q' = 22 1 Q' = 44 2 Q' = 36 3 Q' = 16 4 Q' = 16 5
Lb
Page 473
Bending moment diagram and deformed shape
22
36 44
16
100
IP
IP
shear forces and support reactions
80
22
44
36
16
100
22 3.3
3.3 22
3.3
1.33 1.97
1.33
7.73 6.40
7.73
20
15
15
80 22 3.3 1.97 6.40
100 7.73
global equilibrium
3.3 1.97 + 6.40 7.73 = 0
ok
22 + 80 + 100 1.97 20 + 6.40 35 7.73 50 = 0.1
ok
Page 474
2. Load Case: uniform distributed load on members a and c
6 1 a 20 2 b 15 3 c 15 4
Set up the applied force vectors directly. There are no nodal forces, therefore, the initial (fixed-end) forces can be obtained from the following figure
Pf :=
0 0
P10
b 1 200 a
200
P20
168.75
w := 6
w Lc 8
= 168.75
w La 12
= 200
P0 :=
200 168.75
9.65 3 10 8.78
We can determine the end moments of members a, b and c directly from the stiffness coefficients and the initial (fixed-end) moments (superposition of different compatible states):
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
2 EI La
K11
a
4 EI Lb
2 EI Lb
K 21
c
b
4 EI La 3EI Lc
K12
a
2 EI Lb
K 22
b
c
4 EI Lb
Page 475
200
200
P10
b
P20
168.75
Q := U + 200 1 La 1 Q := U 200 2 La 1 Q := U + U 3 Lb 1 Lb 2 Q := U + U 4 Lb 1 Lb 2 Q := U + 168.75 5 Lc 2 calculation with relative stiffness coefficients
2 EI 4 EI
Q = 257.92 1 Q = 84.17 2
4 EI
2 EI
Q = 84.17 3
2 EI
4 EI
Q = 63.33 4
3 EI
Q = 63.33 5
U' =
38.61 35.14
Q' := 2 U' + 200 1 La 1 Q' := 4 U' 200 2 La 1 Q' := 4 U' + 2 U' 3 1 2 Q' := 2 U' + 4 U' 4 1 2 Q' := 3 U' + 168.75 5 Lc 2
Lb Lb
Q' = 257.92 1 Q' = 84.17 2 Q' = 84.17 3 Q' = 63.33 4 Q' = 63.33 5
Lb
Page 476
257.9
84.1
63.3
IP
IP
IP

w=6
257.9 84.1
w=6
63.3
68.7 257.9 68.7 257.9
51.3
1.39 52.7
1.39
49.2 47.8
40.8 40.8
20
15
15
257.9 68.7
w=6
52.7
w=6
47.8
40.8
global equilibrium
68.7 6 20 + 52.7 + 47.8 6 15 + 40.8 = 0 257.9 6 20 10 + 52.7 20 + 47.8 35 6 15 42.5 + 40.8 50 = 0.1
OK!!
Page 477
3. Load Case: differential heating of members a and c
0
1 a 20 2 b 15 3
0
c 15 4
with
0 := 2 10
3 Pf :=
Set up the applied force vectors directly. There are no nodal forces, therefore, the initial (fixed-end) forces can be obtained from the following figure
0 0
P10
b 1 120 a
120
P20
180
EI 0 = 120
1.5 EI 0 = 180
P0 :=
120 180
6.67 3 10 8.33
Q3
We determine the basic forces (bending moments) by superposition of the different compatible states.
Q1
Q2
Q4
Q5
2 EI La
K11
a
4 EI Lb
2 EI Lb
K 21
c
b
4 EI La 3EI Lc
K12
a
2 EI Lb
K 22
b
c
4 EI Lb
Page 478
P10
b 1 120 a
120
P20
180
Q := U + 120 1 La 1 Q := U 120 2 La 1 Q := U + U 3 Lb 1 Lb 2 Q := U + U 4 Lb 2 Lb 1 Q := U + 180 5 Lc 2 calculation with relative stiffness coefficients
2 EI 4 EI
Q = 160 1 Q = 40 2
4 EI
2 EI
Q = 40 3
2 EI
4 EI
Q = 80 4
3 EI
Q = 80 5
U' =
26.67 33.33
Q' := 2 U' + 120 1 La 1 Q' := 4 U' 120 2 La 1 Q' := 4 U' + 2 U' 3 1 2 Q' := 2 U' + 4 U' 4 1 2 Q' := 3 U' + 180 5 Lc 2
Lb Lb
Q' = 160 1 Q' = 40 2 Q' = 40 3 Q' = 80 4 Q' = 80 5
Lb
Page 479
Bending moment diagram, curvature distribution and deformed shape
160
80 40
80/EI 40/EI 40/EI
80/EI
120/EI
IP

160 40 6 2.67 160 6 8.67 2.67 80
6 160
5.33
5.33 5.33
8 15 15
20
160 6 8.67
5.33
global equilibrium
6 8.67 + 8 5.33 = 0 160 8.67 20 + 8 35 5.33 50 = 0.1

OK!!
Page 480
4. Load Case: support settlement at node 2 Assume now that the support at node 2 settles downward by 0.05 units In this case we have again an initial force vector, as shown in the following figure (impose support displacement while "holding fixed" the free global dofs and determine the forces at free dofs).
0.05 6 EI La 2
0.05
1
0.05 6 EI La 2
P10
0.05 6 EI Lb 2
6 EI Lb 2
P20
3
There are again no nodal forces, therefore,
Pf :=
0 0
the initial (fixed-end) forces can be determined from the figure above
0.05 6 EI 0.05 6 EI 2 2 La Lb P0 := 6 EI 0.05 2 Lb
P0 =
35 80
0.47 3 10 2.72
Q3
We determine the basic forces (bending moments) by superposition of the different compatible states.
Q1
Q2
Q4
Q5
2 EI La
K11
a
4 EI Lb
2 EI Lb
K 21
c
b
4 EI La 3EI Lc
K12
a
2 EI Lb
K 22
b
c
4 EI Lb
Page 481
0.05
6 EI La 2
0.05
1
0.05 6 EI La 2
P10
0.05 6 EI Lb 2
6 EI Lb 2
P20
3
Q := U + 0.05 1 2 La 1 La Q := U + 0.05 2 2 La 1 La
2 EI
6 EI
Q = 47.83 1
4 EI
6 EI
Q = 50.67 2
Q := U + U 0.05 3 Lb 1 Lb 2 Q := U + U 0.05 4 Lb 1 Lb 2 Q := U 5 Lc 2
4 EI
2 EI
6 EI Lb
2
Q = 50.67 3
2 EI
4 EI
6 EI Lb
2
Q = 32.67 4
3 EI
Q = 32.67 5
calculation with relative stiffness coefficients U' := lsolve ( K' , Pf P0) Q' := 2 U' + 0.05 1 2 La 1 La Q' := 4 U' + 0.05 2 2 La 1 La Q' := 4 U' + 2 U' 0.05 3 1 2 U' =
1.89 10.89
Lb Lb
6 EI 6 EI
Q' = 47.83 1 Q' = 50.67 2
6 EI Lb
2
Q' = 50.67 3
Q' := 2 U' + 4 U' 4 1 2 Q' := 3 U' 5 Lc 2
Q' = 47.33 4 Q' = 32.67 5
Lb
Page 482

32.67 47.83
50.67
IP
0.05
IP

47.83 50.67 32.67
4.93 47.83 4.93 47.83 4.93
5.56 10.49
5.56
2.18
2.18 2.18
7.74 15 15
20
47.83 4.93 2.18
10.49
7.74
global equilibrium
4.93 10.49 + 7.74 2.18 = 0 47.83 10.49 20 + 7.74 35 2.18 50 = 0.07

OK!!
Page 483

% continuous beam over three spans: solution with separate FEDEASLab functions

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 20 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 35 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 50 0]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(2,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:3}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); 0 = free)
% linear 2d frame element
create Model
set up compatibility matrix by hand (note that we include the trivial dof!)
Af = [0 1 1 0 0 0; 0 0 0 1 1 0; 0 0 0 0 0 1]';
set up collection of element stiffness matrices by hand

EI = 60000; for el=1:Model.ne xyz = Localize(Model,el);
Page 484
L = ElmLenOr(xyz); k{el} = 2*EI/L*[2 1;1 2]; end Ks = blkdiag(k{1:Model.ne});

% by Af'Ks*Af Kf = Af'*Ks*Af; disp('The stiffness matrix at the free dofs is'); disp(Kf); The stiffness matrix at the free dofs is 28000 8000 0 8000 32000 8000 0 8000 16000

Pf = [80;0;100]; % displacement method of analysis Uf = Kf\Pf; % determine element forces Q Q = Ks*Af*Uf; disp('The basic forces under the applied nodal forces are'); disp(Q); The basic forces under the applied nodal forces are 2.2000e+001 4.4000e+001 3.6000e+001 -1.6000e+001 1.6000e+001 1.0000e+002
2. Load case: uniformly distributed load in elements a and c

% set up initial deformation vector w = 6; for el=[1 3] xyz = Localize(Model,el); L = ElmLenOr(xyz); v0{el} = w*L^3/24/EI*[-1 1]; end v0{2} = [0 0]; V0 = [v0{:}]'; % set up initial force vector P0 = Af'*(-Ks*V0); % displacement method of analysis Uf = Kf\(-P0); % determine element forces Q Q = Ks*(Af*Uf-V0); disp('The basic forces under the uniformly distributed load in elements a and c are'); disp(Q); % note that for the support reactions we should include the equivalent nodal forces! The basic forces under the uniformly distributed load in elements a and c are 2.5792e+002 -8.4167e+001 8.4167e+001 -6.3333e+001 6.3333e+001
Page 485
-1.4211e-014
3. Load case: differential heating of elements a and c

% set up initial deformation vector kap0 = 2e-3; for el=[1 3] xyz = Localize(Model,el); L = ElmLenOr(xyz); v0{el} = kap0*L/2*[-1 1]; end v0{2} = [0 0]; V0 = [v0{:}]'; % set up initial force vector P0 = Af'*(-Ks*V0); % displacement method of analysis Uf = Kf\(-P0); % determine element forces Q Q = Ks*(Af*Uf-V0); disp('The basic forces under differential heating of elements a and c are'); disp(Q); The basic forces under differential heating of elements a and c are 1.6000e+002 -4.0000e+001 4.0000e+001 -8.0000e+001 8.0000e+001 4.2633e-014
4. Load case: support settlement at node 2

% set up deformation vector due to support settlement Vd = 0.05*[1/20 1/20 -1/15 -1/15 0 0]'; % set up initial force vector P0 = Af'*(Ks*Vd); % displacement method of analysis Uf = Kf\(-P0); % determine element forces Q Q = Ks*(Af*Uf+Vd); disp('The basic forces under support settlement are'); disp(Q); The basic forces under support settlement are 4.7833e+001 5.0667e+001 -5.0667e+001 -3.2667e+001 3.2667e+001 -3.5527e-015
Page 486

% continuous beam over three spans: solution with direct stiffness method

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 20 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 35 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 50 0]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(2,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(4,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:3}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); 0 = free)
create Model

for el=1:Model.ne ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1e6; ElemData{el}.I = 60; end


S_LinearStep
Page 487
Norm of equilibrium error = 3.552714e-015
plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); MAGF = 100; % magnification factor Plot_Model(Model); % original configuration Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,ElemData,U);
plot bending moment distribution

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Post,2); % store the results for later use (if necessary) Uf_LC1 = Uf; Post_LC1 = Post;
2. Load case: uniformly distributed load in elements a and c

% no nodal forces Loading = Create_Loading(Model); % specify uniformly distributed load value in ElemData ElemData{1}.w = [0;-6]; ElemData{3}.w = [0;-6];

plot deformed shape

Page 488

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Post); % store the results for later use (if necessary) Uf_LC2 = Uf; Post_LC2 = Post;
3. Load case: differential heating of elements a and c

% no nodal forces Loading = Create_Loading(Model); % clear uniformly distributed load value in ElemData ElemData{1}.w = [0;0]; ElemData{3}.w = [0;0]; % specify initial deformation due to heating in ElemData ElemData{1}.e0 = [0;2e-3]; ElemData{3}.e0 = [0;2e-3];

plot deformed shape


Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Post);
Page 489
% store the results for later use (if necessary) Uf_LC3 = Uf; Post_LC3 = Post;
4. Load case: support settlement at node 2

% no nodal forces Pe = []; % specify support displacement Ue(2,2) = -0.05; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe,Ue); % clear initial deformation due to heating in ElemData ElemData{1}.e0 = [0;0]; ElemData{3}.e0 = [0;0];

plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); MAGF = 60; % magnification factor Plot_Model(Model); % original configuration Plot_Model(Model,U); % deformed configuration (chords only) Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,ElemData,U);

Page 490
Ex 36 - Displacement method for portal frame
Example 36 - Displacement method: portal frame w/o axial deformations

Geometry-dimensions
b c
Geometric properties:
La := 8 Lb := 10 Lc := 10
a d 12
Ld := 12
2@10 = 20
If all elements are assumed to be inextensible, there are five free independent global dofs as shown
3 1 2 b 4 c 5
Material properties
EI := 80000
a d
Step 1: Set up compatibility matrix for independent free global dofs dof 1 to determine the first column of the compatibility matrix Af
U1 = 1
b c
a d
1 La 1 La 0 0 Af 1 := 0 0 1 Ld 1 Ld
Page 491
dof 2 to determine the second column of the compatibility matrix Af
U2 = 1
b c
a d
0 1 1 2 := 0 Af 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lb 1 L b Af 3 := 1 L c 1 Lc 0 0 0 0 0 4 := 1 Af 1 0 0 0
dof 3 to determine the third column of the compatibility matrix Af
U3 = 1
a d
dof 4 to determine the fourth column of the compatibility matrix Af
U4 = 1
b c
a d
Page 492
dof 5 to determine the fifth column of the compatibility matrix Af
U5 = 1
b c
a d
0 0 0 0 Af 5 := 0 1 1 0
Q3
Q4
b
Q5
c
Q6
It is interesting to look at the equilibrium equations that do not involve axial forces: the numbering of basic forces without axial forces is shown in the figure
Q2
a
Q7
Q1
The free body for the first equilibrium equation is shown in the following figure
Q3
1
Q8
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q2
a
Q1 + Q 2 8
d
Q7
Q 7 + Q8 12
Q1
Q8
We have:
P1 =
Q1 + Q2 8
Q7 + Q8 12
Thus, the equilibrium matrix Bf becomes
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 P3 = Q3 + Q4 10 + Q5 + Q6 10
P4 = Q 4 + Q 5 P5 = Q 6 + Q 7
1 8 0 Bf := 0 0 0
1 8 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 1 12 12 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0
Page 493
The equilibrium matrix is, therefore
The transpose of the compatibility matrix is:
Bf
1 8 0 = 0 0 0
1 8 1 0 0 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 1 12 12 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 10 10 10 10 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
T Af
0 0
1 8 0 = 0 0 0
1 8 1 0 0 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 1 12 12 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 10 10 10 10 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0
and we observe that the two are identical. Thus, equilibrium equations can also be written as T Pf = Af Q which is in fact an application of the principle of virtual displacements
Step 2: Set up the structure stiffness matrix : Collection of element stiffness matrices for structural model
4 EI 2 EI 0 0 0 0 0 0 La La EI EI 0 0 0 0 0 2 La 4 La 0 EI EI 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 4 Lb Lb EI EI 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 Lb Lb Ks := EI EI 0 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 Lc Lc EI EI 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 Lc Lc EI EI 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 4 Ld Ld EI EI 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 Ld Ld
Page 494
Method 2(a): by computer in a single operation
T K := Af Ks Af
2.43 7.5 = 0 0 3.33
3 4.8 1.92 0 4.8 10 16 0 64 16 0 4.8 16 58.67

72 4.8 16 0
7.5
3.33
Method 2(a): express element stiffness matrix in terms of global dof displacements and add up Determination of individual element stiffness contributions ka :=
EI 4 2 La 2 4
kb :=
EI 4 2 Lb 2 4
kc :=
EI 4 2 Lc 2 4
kd :=
EI 4 2 Ld 2 4
1 0 0 0 0 L a Afa := 1 L 1 0 0 0 a 0 0 1 1 0 Lc Afc := 1 0 0 0 1 Lc
0 1 1 0 0 Lb Afb := 1 0 0 L 1 0 b 1 0 0 0 1 L d Afd := 1 0 0 0 0 L d 1.88 7.5 = 0 0 0

7.5 0 0 0 40 0 0 0
element a
T Ka := Afa ka Afa
Ka
3 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
element b
T Kb := Afb kb Afb
0 0 0 0 0 0 32 4.8 16 0 3 Kb = 0 4.8 0.96 4.8 0 10 0 16 4.8 32 0 0 0 0 0 0
Page 495
element c
Kc := Afc kc Afc
Kc
0 0 = 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
3 0 0.96 4.8 4.8 10 0 4.8 32 16 0 4.8 16 32

0 0 0 3.33 0 0 0 0
element d
T Kd := Afd kd Afd
0.56 0 Kd = 0 0 3.33
3 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26.67
Illustration of element stiffness contribution to structure stiffness matrix
1 La 1 La 0 1 0 K= 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 Lb 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 Ld 0 0 0 1
1 Lb 1 Lc 1 Lc 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 Ld k a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 kb 0 0
0 0 kc 0
1 La 1 L a 0 0 0 0 0 0 kd 0 1 L d 1 Ld
0 1
0 0
1 1 Lb 0 1 Lb 0 0 0 0 1 Lc 1 Lc 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 La 1 La 0 1 1 La K= 0 0 k (a) 1 La 0 0 0 0
1 La 1 La 6 EI 0 1 2 La K= 0 0 6 EI 0 2 0 L a 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 + 1 Lb 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 + 1 Lb 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 Lb 1 Lb k (b ) 0 0 1 Lb 1 0
0 0 0 1 Lb 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lc + 1 L 1 Lc k ( c ) 1 0 c 0 0 1 Lc 0 1 0 1
0 0 6 EI 0 0 0 0 0 Lc 2 + 1 Lc 1 Lc 6 EI 0 1 0 0 0 Lc 2 0 1
1 Ld 1 Ld 0 0 1 0 1 Ld + 0 0 k (d ) 0 1 1 Ld 0 0 1 0
1 Ld 2 EI 0 Lc + 0 4 EI 0 Lc 1 1 Ld 6 EI 0 2 Ld 0 6 EI 0 2 Ld 0
2 EI La 4 EI La
4 EI Lb 2 EI Lb
6 EI Lb 2 6 EI Lb 2
2 EI Lb 4 EI Lb
4 EI Lc 2 EI Lc
0 0 0 0 0 0
4 EI Ld 2 EI Ld
12 EI L3 a 6 EI 2 K = La 0 0 0
6 EI La 2 4 EI La 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 4 EI 0 Lb 0 0 0 6 EI + 0 L 2 b 0 0 0 2 EI 0 0 0 0 Lb 0 0 0 0 0
0 6 EI 2 Lb 12 EI Lb 3 6 EI Lb 2 0
0 2 EI Lb 6 EI 2 Lb 4 EI Lb 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 12 EI Lc 3 6 EI Lc 2 6 EI Lc 2
0 0 6 EI Lc 2 4 EI Lc 2 EI Lc
0 12 EI 0 3 Ld 6 EI 0 2 Lc + 0 2 EI 0 Lc 6 EI 4 EI 2 Ld Lc
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 EI Ld 2 0 0 0 4 EI Ld
Page 496
Method 2(b): Derivation of all stiffness coefficients by direct method Impose a unit value at displacement dof 1 and determine element deformations and then forces The force at dof 1 necessary to equilibrate all element forces due to a unit displacement at dof 1 is stiffness coefficient K11 and so on. Obtain the necessary forces at all free dof's from the corresponding equilibrium equations. 12 EI 12 EI 3 K11 := + K11 = 2.43 10 K 31 3 3 K 21 La Ld U1 = 1 K 51 K11 K 41
12 EI L3 6 EI a 2 La 12 EI L3 d
K21 :=
6 EI La
2
K21 = 7.5 10
6EI L2 d
K31 := 0 K41 := 0 K51 := 6 EI Ld

2
K51 = 3.33 10
for dof 2
K12 :=
U2 = 1
K 32 K 52 K 42
6 EI L2 b
6 EI La
2
K12 = 7.5 10
K12
K 22
4 EI La
K22 :=
4 EI 4 EI + La Lb 6 EI Lb
2
K22 = 72 10
K32 :=
K32 = 4.8 10
3
2 EI La
K42 :=
2 EI Lb
K42 = 16 10
K52 := 0
Page 497
for dof 3
12 EI L3 b
K 33 K 43
12 EI L3 c
K13 := 0 K23 := 6 EI Lb K33 :=

2
K12 = 7.5 10
K13
K 23
6 EI L2 b
6 EI L2 b
6 EI L2 c
K 53
6 EI L2 c
K23 = 4.8 10 12 EI Lc +
2
U3 = 1
12 EI Lb
2
K33 = 19.2 10
3
K43 :=
6 EI Lb
2
6 EI Lc
2
K43 = 0 10
K53 :=
for dof 4
6 EI Lc
2
K53 = 4.8 10
3
K 34
K14 K 24
2 EI Lb
4 EI Lb
6 EI L2 c
4 EI
K14 := 0
U4 = 1 2 EI Lc
K14 = 0 10
K 54
K24 :=
2 EI Lb 6 EI Lb
2
K24 = 16 10 6 EI Lc
2 3
K 44 L c
6 EI L2 b
K34 :=
K34 = 0 10
K44 := K54 :=
for dof 5
4 EI 4 EI + Lb Lc 2 EI Lc 6 EI Ld
2
K44 = 64 10 K54 = 16 10
K15
K 25
K 35 K 45
2 EI Lc
K15 :=
U5 = 1
K 55
6EI L2 d
K15 = 3.33 10
K25 := 0 K35 := 6 EI Lc K45 :=

2
6 EI L2 c
4 EI Lc
4 EI Ld
K35 = 4.8 10
2 EI Lc 4 EI 4 EI + Lc Ld
K45 = 16 10
2 EI Ld
K55 :=
K55 = 58.67 10
Page 498
Step 3: Set up the applied nodal force vector and solve for global dof displacements Load Case: Nodal Forces
25 20 2 b 3 c 4
a d 1 12
20 0 Pf := 25 0 0
5 2@10 = 20
Solve for the unknown displacement values at the free global dof's Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf) 3 T Uf = ( 18.79 3.73 24.09 0.76 0.7 ) 10
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements V := Af Uf 3 T V = ( 2.35 1.38 1.32 3.17 1.65 1.71 2.26 1.57 ) 10
Step 5a: Determine the basic forces of all elements with a single operation Q := Ks V T Q = ( 66.28 8.36 8.36 80.21 80.21 81.21 81.21 71.92 )
Step 5b: Determine the basic forces element by element Even though this way of determining is compact and convenient for computer use, particularly, since we have already established Ks , it is strongly advisable to use the following element-by element determination of the basic force in "hand" calculations. V1 2.35 3 2 EI 2 1 66.28 va := va = ka := qa := ka va qa = 10 V2 La 1 2 1.38 8.36
V3 vb := V4 V5 vc := V6 V7 vd := V8
vb =
1.32 3 10 3.17 1.65 3 10 1.71 2.26 3 10 1.57
kb :=
2 EI 2 1 Lb 1 2 2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 2 EI 2 1 Ld 1 2
qb := kb vb
qb =
8.36 80.21 80.21 81.21 81.21 71.92
vc =
kc :=
qc := kc vc
qc =
vd =
kd :=
qd := kd vd
qd =
Page 499
Step 5c: using stiffness coefficients An even more convenient way of obtaining the basic forces if we have established the individual stiffness coefficients is by superposition of the forces of the unit displacement states. We obtain simplify notation for free dof displacement vector U := Uf
Q1 :=
6 EI La
2
U +
1
2 EI U La 2 4 EI U La 2
Q1 = 66.28
Q2 :=
6 EI La
2
U +
1
Q2 = 8.36
Q3 :=
4 EI 6 EI 2 EI U U + U Lb 2 L 2 3 Lb 4 b 2 EI 6 EI 4 EI U U + U Lb 2 L 2 3 Lb 4 b 6 EI Lc
2
Q3 = 8.36
Q4 :=
Q4 = 80.21
Q5 :=
U +
3
4 EI 2 EI U + U Lc 4 Lc 5 2 EI 4 EI U + U Lc 4 Lc 5 4 EI U Ld 5 2 EI U Ld 5
Q5 = 80.21
Q6 :=
6 EI Lc
2
U +
3
Q6 = 81.21
Q7 :=
6 EI Ld
2
U +
1
Q7 = 81.21
Q8 :=
6 EI Ld
2
U +
1
Q8 = 71.92
Page 500
Step 6: Determine shear forces by element equilibrium and then use the equilibrium equations that involve the axial forces to determine the latter. Note that the axial forces cannot be determined from the force-deformation relations like the end moments, because the elements are inextensible and thus their axial deformations are zero.
8.86 7.24 7.24 8.86 16.14 8.86 8.36 8.86 7.24 7.24 8.86 16.14
25
7.24 7.24
16.14
20
12.76 16.14
25
80.22
81.21
20
16.14 12.76
7.24 66.28
12
12.76 71.92
2@10 = 20
Page 501
Draw bending moment diagram and deformed shape of the structure (observe element deformations as the angle between the tangent and the chord)
81.21 8.36 80.22
66.28
71.92
deformed shape
Page 502
Step 7: Determine support reactions (trivial from node free bodies)

8.86 7.24 7.24 8.86 16.14 8.86 8.36 8.86 7.24 7.24 8.86 16.14
25
7.24 7.24
16.14
20
12.76 16.14
25
80.22
81.21
20
16.14 12.76
7.24 66.28
12
12.76 71.92
2@10 = 20

25 20 b c
a d
66.28 7.24
12
8.86 71.92 12.76
16.14
2@10 = 20
sum of forces in X: sum of forces in Y:
20 7.24 12.76 = 0 8.86 + 16.14 25 = 0 66.28 25 10 20 8 + 16.14 20 + 71.92 12.76 4 = 0.04
sum of moments about left support:
Page 503
Second load case: thermal deformation of element d Set up the applied nodal force vector: for load case 2 of thermal heating there are no directly applied forces at the global dofs.
0 0 Pf := 0 0 0
We note, however, that the elements undergo initial deformations due to non-mechanical effects. A positive non-mechanical curvature causes element d to deform inwards
0 := 2 10
noting that the top of the element d is deformation 1 we have:
0 0 0 0 V0 := 0 0 0.5 0 Ld 0.5 0 Ld
in the displacement method of analysis, these initial deformations result in initial element forces (also known as "fixed end forces", because they arise for the case that the global dofs are "held fixed" so that the global dof displacements are zero, while the non-mechanical effects are applied). These initial element forces are collected in a vector Q 0 , which can be obtained either by the operation Q0 := Ks V0 T Q0 = ( 0 0 0 0 0 0 160 160 )
EI 0 q0 = EI 0
Collecting the initial element forces into a vector we get
0 0 0 0 Q0 := 0 0 EI 0 EI 0
Page 504
initial forces at global dofs
1 2
2 b 3
4 c 4
P0 := Af Q0
P0
0 0 = 0 0 160
EI 0
or directly
1
EI 0
Step 3: Solve for the unknown displacements of the global dof's Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf P0) 3 T Uf = ( 6.69 0.29 9.81 1.13 4.22 ) 10
Step 5a: Determine the basic forces of all elements with a single operation Q := Ks V + Q0 T Q = ( 44.3 38.44 38.44 15.7 15.7 69.83 69.83 193.94 )
V3 vb := V4 V5 vc := V6 V7 vd := V8
vb =
1.27 3 10 0.15 2.11 3 10 3.24 3.66 3 10 0.56
kb :=
2 EI 2 1 Lb 1 2 2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 2 EI 2 1 Ld 1 2
qb := kb vb
qb =
38.44 15.7 15.7 69.83
vc =
kc :=
qc := kc vc
qc =
vd =
kd :=
Page 505
vd0 :=
0.5 0 Ld 0.5 0 Ld
qd0 :=
qd := kd ( vd vd0)
qd =
69.83 193.94 69.83 193.94
or,
EI 0 EI 0
qd := kd vd + qd0
qd =
Step 5c: using stiffness coefficients An even more convenient way of obtaining the basic forces if we have established the individual stiffness coefficients is by superposition of the forces of the unit displacement states. Do not forget to add the basic forces due to the initial state!! (for which all dof's are "locked"). We obtain simplify notation for free dof displacement vector U := Uf
Q1 :=
6 EI La
2
U +
1
2 EI U La 2 4 EI U La 2
Q1 = 44.3
Q2 :=
6 EI La
2
U +
1
Q2 = 38.44
Q3 :=
4 EI 6 EI 2 EI U U + U Lb 2 L 2 3 Lb 4 b 2 EI 6 EI 4 EI U U + U Lb 2 L 2 3 Lb 4 b 6 EI Lc
2
Q3 = 38.44
Q4 :=
Q4 = 15.7
Q5 :=
U +
3
4 EI 2 EI U + U Lc 4 Lc 5 2 EI 4 EI U + U Lc 4 Lc 5 4 EI U + EI 0 Ld 5 2 EI U EI 0 Ld 5
Q5 = 15.7
Q6 :=
6 EI Lc
2
U +
3
Q6 = 69.83
Q7 :=
6 EI Ld
2
U +
1
Q7 = 69.83
Q8 :=
6 EI Ld
2
U +
1
Q8 = 193.94
Page 506
Step 6: Determine shear forces by element equilibrium and then use the equilibrium equations that involve the axial forces to determine the latter. Note that the axial forces cannot be determined from the forcedeformation relations like the end moments, because the elements are inextensible and thus their axial deformations are zero.
5.41 10.34 10.34 5.41 5.41 5.41 10.34 10.34 5.41 5.41
38.44 10.34
69.83 10.34
10.34 44.3
12
10.34 193.94
2@10 = 20
Page 507
moment distribution
69.83 38.44
44.3
193.94
Curvature distribution
Page 508
Curvature distribution
deformed shape
Note the deformed shape follows the curvature !
Page 509
Step 7: Determine support reactions (trivial from node free bodies)

5.41 10.34 10.34 5.41 5.41 5.41 10.34 10.34 5.41 5.41
38.44 10.34
69.83 10.34
10.34 44.3
12
10.34 193.94
2@10 = 20
a
44.3
d
10.34
12
5.41 193.94 10.34
5.41
20
44.3 + 5.41 20 193.94 + 10.34 4 = 0.08
Page 510
Third load case: distributed uniform load in element b

4 2 b 3 c 4
a d 1 12
5 2@10 = 20
Step 3: Set up the applied nodal force vector applied nodal forces equivalent nodal forces due to distributed loads (from equilibrium)
0 0 Pf := 0 0 0
Pfw
0 0 := 20 0 0
In addition to these forces that arise at the global dofs by equilibrium, the elements suffer initial deformations due to distributed element loads acting over their span (in this case only element b). We denote these with vw and obtain with uniform transverse element load w (downward)
w := 4
w Lb 3 24 EI vw := 3 w Lb 24 EI
We collect these initial deformations in initial deformation vector V0
0 0 vw 1 vw V0 := 2 0 0 0 0
Page 511
in the displacement method of analysis, these initial deformations result in initial element forces (also known as "fixed end forces", because they arise for the case that the global dofs are "held fixed" so that the global dof displacements are zero, while the non-mechanical effects are applied). These initial element forces are collected in a vector Q 0 , which can be obtained either by the operation Q0 := Ks V0 T Q0 = ( 0 0 33.33 33.33 0 0 0 0 )
w Lb 2 12 q0 := 2 w Lb 12
Collecting the initial element forces into a vector we get for all Initial (fixed-end) forces
0 0 q0 1 q0 2 Q0 := 0 0 0 0
T P0 := Pfw + Af Q0
P0
0 33.33 = 20 33.33 0
3
or, better directly by keeping all free dofs "locked" and determining the forces at these dofs
4 2 1
20 20 33.33 33.33
5
P0
0 33.33 = 20 33.33 0
Page 512
Solve for the unknown displacements of the global dof's Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf P0) 3 T Uf = ( 7.13 2.73 19.56 0.97 0.93 ) 10
Step 5a: Determine the basic forces of all elements with a single operation Q := Ks V + Q0 T Q = ( 1 55.51 55.51 47.95 47.95 48.58 48.58 36.18 )
Step 5b: Determine the basic forces element by element Even though this way of determining is compact and convenient for computer use, particularly, since we have already established Ks , it is strongly advisable to use the following element-by element determination of the basic force in "hand" calculations. V1 0.89 3 2 EI 2 1 1 va := va = ka := qa := ka va qa = 10 V2 La 1 2 1.83 55.51
V3 vb := V4
vb =
0.77 3 10 2.93
kb :=
2 EI 2 1 Lb 1 2
qb := kb ( vb vb0) qb =
vw 1 vb0 := vw 2
or,
55.51 47.95 55.51 47.95 47.95 48.58 48.58 36.18
q01 qb0 := q02

vc =
qb := kb vb + qb0
qb =
V5 vc := V6 V7 vd := V8
0.99 3 10 1.03 1.52 3 10 0.59
kc :=
2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 2 EI 2 1 Ld 1 2
qc := kc vc
qc =
vd =
kd :=
qd := kd vd
qd =
Step 5c: using stiffness coefficients An even more convenient way of obtaining the basic forces if we have established the individual stiffness coefficients is by superposition of the forces of the unit displacement states. Do not forget to add the basic forces due to the initial state!! (for which all dof's are "locked"). We obtain simplify notation for free dof displacement vector U := Uf
Q1 :=
6 EI La
2
U +
1
2 EI U La 2
Q 1 = 1
Page 513
Q2 :=
6 EI La
2
U +
1
4 EI U La 2
2
Q2 = 55.51
w Lb 4 EI 6 EI 2 EI Q3 := U U + U + Lb 2 L 2 3 Lb 4 12 b w Lb 2 EI 6 EI 4 EI Q4 := U U + U Lb 2 L 2 3 Lb 4 12 b Q5 := 6 EI Lc Q6 :=
2
Q3 = 55.51
2
Q4 = 47.95
U +
3
4 EI 2 EI U + U Lc 4 Lc 5 2 EI 4 EI U + U Lc 4 Lc 5 4 EI U Ld 5 2 EI U Ld 5
Q5 = 47.95
6 EI Lc
2
U +
3
Q6 = 48.58
Q7 :=
6 EI Ld
2
U +
1
Q7 = 48.58
Q8 :=
6 EI Ld
2
U +
1
Q8 = 36.18
Step 6: Determine shear forces by element equilibrium and then use the equilibrium equations that involve the axial forces to determine the latter. Note that the axial forces cannot be determined from the forcedeformation relations like the end moments, because the elements are inextensible and thus their axial deformations are zero.
30.35 7.06 7.06 30.35 30.35 55.51 7.06 47.95 9.65 9.65 7.06 9.65 9.65 7.06 7.06 7.06 9.65 9.65 9.65
48.58 7.06
12
1 7.06
7.06 36.18
2@10 = 20
Page 514
moment diagram
55.51 47.95
48.58
max M
36.18
determination of maximum moment: shear at right end of element b
Vr :=
4 10 47.95 + 55.51 2 10 Vr
2
Vr = 9.65
maximum moment Deformed shape:
Mmax := 47.95 +
2 4
Mmax = 59.6
Page 515
Step 7: Determine support reactions (trivial from nodal free bodies as before)
30.35 7.06 7.06 30.35 30.35 55.51 7.06 47.95 9.65 9.65 7.06 9.65 9.65 7.06 7.06 7.06 9.65 9.65 9.65
48.58 7.06
12
1 7.06
7.06 36.18
2@10 = 20
4 b c
a d
1 7.06 30.35 36.18 7.06
12
9.65
2@10 = 20
1 4 10 5 + 36.18 7.06 4 + 9.65 20 = 0.06
OK!
Page 516
Displacement Method
Displacement method of analysis with constraints

Bf = A T f
Pf = BfQ + Pfw
(1) note
V = A fU f +Vd Q = K sV + Q0
(2)
(3)
Introduce relation between unconstrained and constrained dofs from Part II, pp. 23 The compatibility relations become
U f = A cU f Af = Af Ac
V = A f A cU f +Vd = A fU f +Vd (2*) with
Pre-multiply both sides of the equilibrium equations by the transpose of the constraint matrix Ac (recall Lecture 14, pp. 7-10) to derive the equilibrium equations for the constrained dofs by PVD
T T A TPf = A c A f Q + Pfw c
)
(1*)
Pf = A f Q + A c Pfw
with Pf = A c Pf
Proceeding as before and substituting (2*) into (3) and then into (1*) we obtain
T T Pf = A T K s A fU f + A f K sVd + A f Q0 + A TPfw f c
Pf = KU f + P0
with
K = AT K s Af f
T T T
the structure stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs
P0 = A c Pfw + A f Q0 + A f K sVd the initial nodal force vector at the constrained free dofs
consult Examples 37 and 38
Page 517

% portal frame with inextensible elements: solution with separate FEDEASLab functions

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 8]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 10 8]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 20 8]; XYZ(5,:) = [ 20 -4]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 1]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); 0 = free)
create Model
2 2 3 3 4

for el=1:Model.ne ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1; ElemData{el}.I = 80; end % irrelevant
Page 518
collection of element stiffness matrices

identify deformation modes with inextensible elements

Idef = Idef_index(Model,ElemData,1:Model.ne);

% form stiffness matrix at the original free dofs by direct assembly Kf = Kf_matrix(Model,ElemData); % set up constraint matrix Ac LC = LinConEqs(Model); % reorder dofs to have horizontal translation at node 2 and vertical translation at node 3 pick_dof = [Model.DOF(2,1), Model.DOF(3,2)]; dof_reord = [setdiff(1:Model.nt,pick_dof) pick_dof]; % constraint matrix Ac = Ac_matrix(LC,dof_reord); % extract free dofs of constraint matrix Acf = Ac(1:Model.nf,:); % compatibility matrix for unconstrained dofs A = A_matrix (Model); % compatibiliy matrix for constrained dofs Aftild = A*Ac; % Method A: stiffness matrix for constrained free dofs (transformation after direct assembly) Kftild = Acf'*Kf*Acf; disp('The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is'); disp(Kftild); % Method B: stiffness matrix for constrained dofs ("hand calculation" if Aftild available) Kftild = Aftild'*Ks*Aftild; disp('The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is'); disp(Kftild); The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is 2.4306e+003 7.5000e+003 0 0 3.3333e+003 7.5000e+003 7.2000e+004 -4.8000e+003 1.6000e+004 0 0 -4.8000e+003 1.9200e+003 0 4.8000e+003 0 1.6000e+004 0 6.4000e+004 1.6000e+004 3.3333e+003 0 4.8000e+003 1.6000e+004 5.8667e+004 The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is 2.4306e+003 7.5000e+003 0 0 7.5000e+003 7.2000e+004 -4.8000e+003 1.6000e+004 0 -4.8000e+003 1.9200e+003 0 0 1.6000e+004 0 6.4000e+004 3.3333e+003 0 4.8000e+003 1.6000e+004 3.3333e+003 0 4.8000e+003 1.6000e+004 5.8667e+004

Pe(3,2) = -25; Pe(4,1) = 20; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); % transform applied nodal forces to constrained dofs Pftild = Acf'*Loading.Pref;
Page 519
% displacement method of analysis Uftild = Kftild\Pftild; % display result for constrained free dof displacements disp('constrained free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces'); disp(Uftild); % transform to complete displacement vector Uf = Acf*Uftild; % display result for free dof displacements only disp('complete free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces'); disp(Uf); constrained free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces 1.8789e-002 -3.7320e-003 -2.4093e-002 7.5882e-004 6.9671e-004 complete free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces 1.8789e-002 0 -3.7320e-003 1.8789e-002 -2.4093e-002 7.5882e-004 1.8789e-002 0 6.9671e-004
determine the basic forces

% determine element deformations V = Aftild*Uftild; % determine basic forces from force-deformation relation (only deformable) Q = Ks(Idef,Idef)*V(Idef); disp('the basic forces under the applied nodal forces are'); disp(Q); the basic forces under the applied nodal forces are 6.6277e+001 -8.3622e+000 8.3622e+000 8.0215e+001 -8.0215e+001 -8.1208e+001 8.1208e+001 7.1919e+001
2. Load case: thermal deformation of element d

% initial deformations ElemData{4}.e0 = [0;0.002]; % initial deformation vector V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % initial basic force vector (only for deformable elements) Q0 = -Ks(Idef,Idef)*V0(Idef); % initial force vector at constrained dofs P0tild = Aftild(Idef,:)'*Q0; % displacement method of analysis Uftild = Kftild\(-P0tild); % display result for constrained free dof displacements
Page 520
disp('constrained free dof displacements under thermal loading of element d'); disp(Uftild); % transform to complete displacement vector Uf = Acf*Uftild; % display result for free dof displacements only disp('complete free dof displacements under thermal loading of element d'); disp(Uf); constrained free dof displacements under thermal loading of element d 6.6895e-003 -2.9340e-004 9.8105e-003 1.1278e-003 -4.2176e-003 complete free dof displacements under thermal loading of element d 6.6895e-003 0 -2.9340e-004 6.6895e-003 9.8105e-003 1.1278e-003 6.6895e-003 0 -4.2176e-003

% determine element deformations V = Aftild*Uftild; % determine basic forces from force-deformation relation (only deformable) Q = Ks(Idef,Idef)*V(Idef) + Q0; disp('the basic forces under thermal loading of element d are'); disp(Q); the basic forces under thermal loading of element d are 4.4303e+001 3.8435e+001 -3.8435e+001 -1.5697e+001 1.5697e+001 -6.9829e+001 6.9829e+001 -1.9394e+002

% clear previously defined applied force vector (always a good idea!) clear Pe; % equivalent nodal forces Pe(2,2) = -20; Pe(3,2) = -20; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); % erase initial deformation of element d ElemData{4}.e0 = [0;0]; % specify uniformly distributed load in element b ElemData{2}.w = [0;-4]; % initial deformation vector V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % initial basic force vector (only for deformable elements) Q0 = -Ks(Idef,Idef)*V0(Idef);
Page 521
% initial force vector at constrained dofs P0tild = Aftild(Idef,:)'*Q0; % transform applied nodal forces to constrained dofs Pftild = Acf'*Loading.Pref; % displacement method of analysis Uftild = Kftild\(Pftild-P0tild); % display result for constrained free dof displacements disp('constrained free dof displacements under uniform distributed load in element b'); disp(Uftild); % transform to complete displacement vector Uf = Acf*Uftild; % display result for free dof displacements only disp('complete free dof displacements under uniform load in element b'); disp(Uf); constrained free dof displacements under uniform distributed load in element b 7.1333e-003 -2.7251e-003 -1.9555e-002 9.6956e-004 9.3024e-004 complete free dof displacements under uniform distributed load in element b 7.1333e-003 0 -2.7251e-003 7.1333e-003 -1.9555e-002 9.6956e-004 7.1333e-003 0 9.3024e-004

% determine element deformations V = Aftild*Uftild; % determine basic forces from force-deformation relation (only deformable) Q = Ks(Idef,Idef)*V(Idef) + Q0; disp('the basic forces under the uniform distributed load in element b are'); disp(Q); the basic forces under the uniform distributed load in element b are -1.0035e+000 -5.5506e+001 5.5506e+001 4.7955e+001 -4.7955e+001 -4.8584e+001 4.8584e+001 3.6181e+001
Page 522

% portal frame with inextensible elements: solution with direct stiffness method

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 8]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 10 8]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 20 8]; XYZ(5,:) = [ 20 -4]; % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, 0 = free) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 1]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); % linear 2d frame element
create Model
2 2 3 3 4

for el=1:Model.ne ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 1e6; ElemData{el}.I = 80; end % inextensible

Pe(3,2) = -25; Pe(4,1) = 20; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe);
Page 523

plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); MAGF = 100; % magnification factor Plot_Model(Model); % original configuration Plot_Model (Model,U); % deformed configuration (chords only) Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,ElemData,U);

2. Load case: thermal deformation of element d

% no nodal forces Loading = Create_Loading(Model); ElemData{4}.e0 = [0;0.002];

Page 524
plot deformed shape


Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Post);
plot curvature distribution

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dCurvDistr (Model,ElemData,Post,0.75); % store the results for later use (if necessary) Uf_LC2 = Uf; Post_LC2 = Post;
Page 525

% no nodal forces Loading = Create_Loading(Model); % clear initial deformation due to heating in ElemData ElemData{4}.e0 = [0;0]; % specify uniformly distributed load in element b ElemData{2}.w = [0;-4];

plot deformed shape


Page 526
Ex 37 - Displacement method for gable frame with constraints
Example 37 - Displacement method for gable frame with inextensible constraints

We have dealt with this problem in Part II from the standpoint of the kinematic relation between free global dof displacements and element deformations (see Example 17). We use these relations in the following for the solution of the element response under different loadings with the displacement method of analysis. The geometry of the portal frame is given. Without trivial dofs, there are 9 independent free global dofs.
5 4 2 b 1 3 6 c 9 8 7 6
La := 12 Lb := 10 Lc := 10
12
Ld := 12
Under the assumption that all elements are inextensible, there are five free independent global degrees of freedom. We select these as shown in the following figure
4
3 2
Material properties
5
EI := 80000
Page 527
Step 1: Set up compatibility matrix for independent free global dofs dof 1 to determine the first column of the compatibility matrix Af consult Example 17
a :=
IC b 1.33 ICc
1 12 1 6
b := d :=
1 6 1 12
c :=
1
IC a
ICd
a a b 1 Af := b c c d
0 1 1 Af 2 := 0 0 0 0
Page 528

IC c
consult Example 17
a := 0 c := 1 6
1 1.33
1 6 1 d := 6 b :=
IC b
dof 3
IC d
a a b Af 3 := b c c d
dof 4 to determine the fourth column of the compatibility matrix Af
0 0 0 Af 4 := 1 1 0 0
dof 5 to determine the fifth column of the compatibility matrix Af
0 0 0 Af 5 := 0 0 1 1
Page 529
It is interesting to look at the equilibrium equations that do not involve axial forces. To this end we use the principle of virtual displacements. the transpose of the kinematic matrix is
T Pf = Af Q
T Af
1 1 1 12 12 6 0 1 1 = 1 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 6
1 6 0
1 6 0
1 12 0 1 6 0 1
0 1 6 1 0
1 1 6 6 0 1
1 0
the numbering of basic forces without axial forces is shown in the figure
Q4
Q3
Q5
Q6
Q7
P1 =
Q1 + Q2 12
Q3 + Q4 6
Q5 + Q6 6
Q7 12
Q2
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 Q3 + Q4 Q5 + Q6 Q7 P3 = + 6 6 6 P4 = Q 4 + Q 5 P5 = Q 6 + Q 7
Q1
Page 530
Step 2: Set up the structure stiffness matrix: Collection of element stiffness matrices for structural model
4 2 0 0 EI Ks := La 0 0 0
2 4 0 4 0 2
0 0 La Lb La Lb 0 2 4
0 0 La Lb La Lb 0 4 2
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 La Lc La Lc 0 2 4
0 La Lc La Lc 0
0 0 0 0 La 3 Ld
0 0
T K := Af Ks Af
6.03 4.67 5.61 4.67 58.67 8 = 5.61 8 5.89 0 16 0 0 4.67 6.33
3 0 4.67 10 64 16 16 52
16 0
6.33
Method 2(a): express element stiffness matrix in terms of global dof displacements and add up Determination of individual element stiffness contributions
ka :=
EI 4 2 La 2 4
kb :=
EI 4 2 Lb 2 4
kc :=
EI 4 2 Lc 2 4
kd :=
3EI Ld
1 0 0 0 0 12 Afa := 1 12 1 0 0 0
Afd :=
1 1 1 0 0 6 6 Afb := 1 1 6 0 6 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 6 6 Afc := 1 1 6 0 6 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 6 12
Page 531
element a
T Ka := Afa ka Afa
element b
T Kb := Afb kb Afb
0.56 3.33 0 0 0 3.33 26.67 0 0 0 3 Ka = 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.67 8 2.67 8 0 8 32 8 16 0 3 Kb = 2.67 8 2.67 8 0 10 8 16 8 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.67 0 = 2.67 8 8
0 2.67 8 0 0 0
element c
T Kc := Afc kc Afc
Kc
3 0 2.67 8 8 10 0 8 32 16 0 8 16 32
0 0 0.28 0 1.67 0 0 0 0
element d
T Kd := Afd kd Afd
0.14 0 Kd = 0.28 0 1.67
3 0 0.56 0 3.33 10 0 0 0 0 0 3.33 0 20

6.03 4.67 5.61 4.67 58.67 8 = 5.61 8 5.89 0 16 0 0 4.67 6.33
3 0 4.67 10 64 16 16 52
16 0
6.33
same of course
Page 532
Illustration of element stiffness contributions to structure stiffness matrix

1/12 1/12 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 12 0 k 1 1 0 0 0 0 a 0 K= 0 0 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 12 1 12 0 1 6 0 1 6 0 1 6 kd 16 1 12 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 6 0 0 0 1 6 1 0 0 1 6 1 0 0 1 6 0 1 0 1 6 0 1 0 0 0
0 kb 0 0
0 0 kc 0
1/12 1/12 1 6 1 6 16 16 1 12 0 1 0 1 0 0 ( a ) 1/12 0 0 0 0 (b) 1 6 1 1 6 0 0 (c ) 1 6 0 1 6 1 0 0 ( d ) K= 0 0 k + 1 6 1 6 k 1 6 0 1 6 1 0 + 1 6 1 6 k 1 6 0 1 6 0 1 + 1 6 k [ 1 12 0 1 6 0 1] 1/12 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1/12 1/12 6 EI 1 0 1 La 12 K= 0 0 6 EI 1 0 0 L 12 0 a 0
2
2 EI La 4 EI La
1 6 1 6 6 EI 0 0 0 1 0 Lb + 1 6 1 6 6 EI 0 0 0 0 1 Lb 0 0
1 6 1 6
4 EI Lb 2 EI Lb
6 EI 1 Lb 6 6 EI 1 Lb 6
2 EI Lb 4 EI Lb
16 16 6 EI 0 0 0 L + 1 6 1 6 c 6 EI 0 1 0 L 0 1 c
1 6 EI 1 0 6 Lc 6 1 6 EI 1 0 6 Lc 6
4 EI Lc 2 EI Lc
1 12 2 EI 0 Lc + 1 6 3EI 1 0 3EI 1 0 3EI 4 EI Ld 6 Ld Ld 12 0 Lc 1

2
2 12 EI 1 2 6 EI 1 12 EI 1 Lb 6 Lb 6 12 EI 1 6 EI 1 Lb 6 0 0 0 6 EI 1 4 EI 6 EI 1 La 12 La 12 Lb 6 Lb Lb 6 4 EI 6 EI 1 0 0 0 2 2 K = La 12 + 12 EI 1 La 6 EI 1 12 EI 1 Lb 6 Lb 6 0 0 0 0 0 Lb 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 EI 1 2 EI 6 EI 1 0 0 0 0 0 Lb 6 Lb Lb 6 0 0 0 3EI 1 2 3EI 1 1 3EI 1 0 0 Ld 12 6 Ld 12 Ld 12 0 0 0 0 0 2 3EI 1 1 3EI 1 3EI 1 + 0 0 Ld 6 Ld 6 Ld 12 6 0 0 0 0 0 3EI 1 3EI 3EI 1 0 0 Ld 12 Ld 6 Ld
6 EI 1 12 EI 1 2 0 Lb 6 Lc 6 0 2 EI 0 12 EI 1 2 Lb + Lc 6 6 EI 1 0 6 EI 1 Lb 6 Lc 6 4 EI 0 6 EI 1 Lb Lc 6 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
12 EI Lc 0
1 6
2
6 EI Lc
1 6
0 6 EI 1 Lc 6 4 EI Lc 2 EI Lc
12 EI 1 Lc 6 6 EI Lc 6 EI Lc
1 6 1 6
1 6 0 6 EI 1 Lc 6 2 EI Lc 4 EI Lc 6 EI Lc
Page 533
Method 2(b): Derivation of stiffness coefficients by direct method (PVD) We confirm only the stiffness coefficients for translation dof 1 with the principle of virtual displacements Impose a unit value at displacement dof 1 and determine element deformations and forces, as shown in the following figure. The stiffness coefficients are the forces at the free global dofs due to the element forces caused by a unit displacement at global dof 1. In steps we can write:
6 EI 1 Lb 6
K 31
K 41
6 EI Lc 1 6
K11
K 21
6 EI 1 Lb 6
6 EI 1 La 12
6 EI 1 Lc 6 3EI 1 Ld 12
K 51
6 EI 1 La 12
We denote with Q` the forces due a unit displacement at dof 1
K11 =
Q'1 + Q'2 12
Q'3 + Q'4 6
Q'5 + Q'6 6
Q'7 12
K21 = Q'2 + Q'3 K31 = Q'3 + Q'4 6 Q'5 + Q'6 6 + Q'7 6
K41 = Q'4 + Q'5 K51 = Q'6 + Q'7

We demonstrate the terms one by one
1 6EI 1 1 6EI 1 1 6EI 1 1 3EI 1 K11 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 12 La 12 6 Lb 6 6 Lc 6 12 Ld 12
K 21 =
6EI 1 6EI 1 + La 12 Lb 6
Page 534
1 6EI 1 1 6EI 1 1 3EI 1 K31 = 2 + 2 + 6 Lb 6 6 Lc 6 6 Ld 12
K41 =
6EI 1 6EI 1 + Lb 6 Lc 6 6EI 1 3EI 1 + Lc 6 Ld 12
K51 =
Combining terms and evaluating we obtain the first column of the 5x5 structure stiffness matrix
12 EI 1 12 EI 1 12 EI 1 3 EI 1 K11 := + + + La 12 Lb 6 Lc 6 Ld 12 K21 := 6 EI 1 6EI 1 + La 12 Lb 6 12EI 1 1 12 EI 1 1 3 EI 1 1 + Lc 6 6 Ld 12 6 Lb 6 6 6 EI 1 6 EI 1 + Lc 6 Lb 6 6 EI 1 3 EI 1 + Ld 12 Lc 6
K11 = 6.03 10
K21 = 4.67 10
K31 :=
K31 = 5.61 10
3
K41 := K51 :=
K41 = 0 10
K51 = 6.33 10
Page 535
Step 3: Set up the applied nodal force vector and solve for global dof displacements Load Case: Nodal Forces
30 100
consult Lecture 14, pp. 7-10
from
20
Pf = A c Pf
60 0 Pf := 80 100 0
4 P1 = ( 30 ) + 20 ( 1) = 60 3
P2 = 0
4 P3 = ( 30 ) + 20 ( 2 ) = 80 3 P4 = 100
P5 = 0
Solve for the unknown displacement values at the free global dof's Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf) 3 T Uf = ( 56.66 6.81 75.88 3.56 1.19 ) 10
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements V := Af Uf 3 T V = ( 4.72 2.09 3.61 6.77 0.36 4.39 6.74 ) 10
Step 5: Determine the basic force of all elements Q := Ks V T Q = ( 98.02 7.19 7.19 158.81 58.81 134.79 134.79 )
Even though this way of determining is compact and convenient for computer use, particularly, since we have already established Ks , it is strongly advisable to use the following element-by element determination of the basic force in "hand" calculations.
V1 va := V2 V3 vb := V4 V5 vc := V6
vd := V 7
va =
4.72 3 10 2.09 3.61 3 10 6.77 0.36 3 10 4.39
ka :=
2 EI 2 1 La 1 2 2 EI 2 1 Lb 1 2 2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 3 EI Ld
qa := ka va
qa =
98.02 7.19 7.19 158.81 58.81 134.79
vb =
kb :=
qb := kb vb
qb =
vc =
kc :=
qc := kc vc
qc =
( )
3 vd = ( 6.74 ) 10
kd :=
qd := kd vd
qd = ( 134.79 )
Page 536
Step 6: Determine shear forces by element equilibrium and then use the equilibrium equations that involve the axial forces to determine the latter. Note that the axial forces cannot be determined from the forcedeformation relations like the end moments, because the elements are inextensible and thus their axial deformations are zero (this is left as an exercise) Bending moment diagram
58.81
158.81 134.79 7.21
98.02
deformed shape
4.72 2.09 3.61 3 V = 6.77 10 0.36 4.39 6.74

(observe element deformations as the angle between the tangent and the chord)
Page 537
Step 7: Determine support reactions (left as exercise) Step 8: check global equilibrium (left as exercise) Second load case: distributed uniform load in element b
w=5
25
500/12
w=5
500/12
25
20 15
25
6
20 15
12
initial state
for the effect of end shear forces in element b review again Lecture 14, pp. 7-10
from Pfw = A c Pfw
3 4 P1w = 30 + ( 40 ) = 11.67 6 6
P2w = 0
3 4 P3w = 30 + ( 40 ) = 41.67 6 6
P4w = 0
P5w = 0
equivalent nodal forces due to distributed loads Pfw
11.67 0 := 41.67 0 0
initial forces (fixed-end moments) due to distributed load in element b T 2 2 Q0 :=
w := 5
0 0
w Lb 12
w Lb 12
0 0 0
Page 538
T P0 := Pfw + Af Q0
P0
11.67 41.67 = 41.67 41.67 0
there are no nodal forces in this case
0 0 Pf := 0 0 0
or, better directly by keeping all free dofs "locked" and determining the forces at the free global dofs
20 15 25
20 15
initial state
P0
11.67 41.67 = 41.67 41.67 0
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements V := Af Uf 3 T V = ( 6.89 1.03 5.94 5.26 1.3 4.57 6.28 ) 10
Step 5a: Determine the basic forces of all elements with a single operation Q := Ks V + Q0 T Q = ( 170.04 64.37 64.37 31.6 31.6 125.59 125.59 )
Step 5b: Determine the basic forces element by element Even though this way of determining is compact and convenient for computer use, particularly, since we have already established Ks , it is strongly advisable to use the following element-by element determination of the basic force in "hand" calculations. V1 6.89 3 2 EI 2 1 va := va = ka := qa := ka va qa = 10 V2 La 1 2 1.03
170.04 64.37
Page 539
V3 vb := V4
vb =
5.94 3 10 5.26
kb :=
2 EI 2 1 Lb 1 2
or with initial forces,
w Lb 3 24 EI vw := 3 w Lb 24 EI 2 w Lb 12 q0 := 2 w Lb 12 1.3 3 10 4.57
vw 1 vb0 := vw 2
qb := kb ( vb vb0)
qb =
64.37 31.6
q01 qb0 := q02

2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 3 EI Ld
qb := kb vb + qb0
qb =
64.37 31.6 31.6 125.59
V5 vc := V6
vd := V 7
vc =
kc :=
qc := kc vc
qc =
( )
3 vd = ( 6.28 ) 10
kd :=
qd := kd vd
qd = ( 125.59 )
Bending moment diagram

31.6
125.59 64.37
170.04
Page 540
deformed shape
6.89 1.03 5.94 3 V = 5.26 10 1.3 4.57 6.28

Page 541
Third load case: vertical translation of 0.1 units at right support
P0,4 P0,3
6 ICc
6 EI 0.1 Lc 8
6 EI 0.1 Lc 8
P0,1
P0,5
3EI 0.1 Ld 16
12
0.1 ICd 8 8 16
Initial force vector at free global dofs due to support displacement (a) by computer
1 1 1 Vd := 0 0 0 0 0.1 8 8 16
T P0 := Af Ks Vd P0
210.42 0 = 220.83 600 475
(b) directly from the basic element forces caused by the support displacement (see above figure) We denote with Q` the forces due a unit displacement at dof 1
P01 =
Q'1 + Q'2 12
Q'3 + Q'4 6
Q'5 + Q'6 6
Q'7 12
P02 = Q'2 + Q'3 P03 = Q'3 + Q'4 6 Q'5 + Q'6 6 + Q'7 6
P04 = Q'4 + Q'5 P05 = Q'6 + Q'7
Page 542
we evaluate
P01 :=
12 EI 0.1 1 3 EI 0.1 1 Lc 8 6 Ld 16 12
P01 = 210.42 P02 = 0
P02 := 0 P03 := P04 := 12 EI 0.1 1 3 EI 0.1 1 + Lc 8 6 Ld 16 6
P03 = 220.83 P04 = 600
6 EI 0.1 Lc 8 6 EI 0.1 3 EI 0.1 + Lc 8 Ld 16
P05 :=
P05 = 475
as above
0 0 Pf := 0 0 0
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements V := Af Uf + Vd 3 T V = ( 3.15 2.57 0.9 0.14 0.9 1.18 1.16 ) 10
Step 5a: Determine the basic forces of all elements with a single operation Q := Ks V T Q = ( 49.81 26.58 26.58 9.94 9.94 23.23 23.23 )
V3 vb := V4
vb =
0.9 3 10 0.14
kb :=
2 EI 2 1 Lb 1 2
qb := kb vb
qb =
26.58 9.94
Page 543
V5 vc := V6
vd := V 7
vc =
0.9 3 10 1.18
kc := kd :=
2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 3 EI Ld
qc := kc vc qd := kd vd
9.94
qc =
9.94 23.23
( )
3 vd = ( 1.16 ) 10
qd = ( 23.23 )
23.23 26.58
49.91
deformed shape
3.15 2.57 0.9 3 V = 0.14 10 0.9 1.18 1.16

Page 544

% gable frame with inextensible elements: solution with separate FEDEASLab functions

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 12]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 8 18]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 16 12]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 16 0]; % % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('Lin2dFrm');
0 = free)
% 2d linear frame element

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Label_Model (Model); % open figure window % plot model (optional)

ne = Model.ne; % % Modulus, area and for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.E = ElemData{el}.A = ElemData{el}.I = end number of elements in structural model moment of inertia 1000; 1; 80; % irrelevant value, since it will be constrained
Page 545

identify deformation modes with inextensible elements

Idef = Idef_index(Model,ElemData,1:Model.ne);

% form stiffness matrix at the original free dofs by direct assembly Kf = Kf_matrix(Model,ElemData); % set up constraint matrix Ac LC = LinConEqs(Model); % reorder dofs to have horizontal translation at node 2 and vertical translation at node 3 pick_dof = [Model.DOF(2,1), Model.DOF(3,1)]; dof_reord = [setdiff(1:Model.nt,pick_dof) pick_dof]; % constraint matrix Ac = Ac_matrix(LC,dof_reord); % extract free dofs of constraint matrix Acf = Ac(1:Model.nf,:); % compatibility matrix for unconstrained dofs A = A_matrix (Model); % compatibiliy matrix for constrained dofs Aftild = A*Ac; % Method A: stiffness matrix for constrained free dofs (transformation after direct assembly) Kftild = Acf'*Kf*Acf; disp('The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is'); disp(Kftild); % Method B: stiffness matrix for constrained dofs ("hand calculation" if Aftild available) Kftild = Aftild'*Ks*Aftild; disp('The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is'); disp(Kftild); The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is 6.4444e+003 -4.6667e+003 -6.4444e+003 0 4.6667e+003 -3.3333e+003 -4.6667e+003 5.8667e+004 8.0000e+003 1.6000e+004 0 0 -6.4444e+003 8.0000e+003 7.5556e+003 0 -1.3333e+003 6.6667e+003 0 1.6000e+004 0 6.4000e+004 1.6000e+004 0 4.6667e+003 0 -1.3333e+003 1.6000e+004 5.8667e+004 1.3333e+004 -3.3333e+003 0 6.6667e+003 0 1.3333e+004 2.6667e+004 The stiffness matrix at the constrained free dofs is 6.4444e+003 -4.6667e+003 -6.4444e+003 0 4.6667e+003 -3.3333e+003 -4.6667e+003 5.8667e+004 8.0000e+003 1.6000e+004 0 0 -6.4444e+003 8.0000e+003 7.5556e+003 0 -1.3333e+003 6.6667e+003 -4.5475e-013 1.6000e+004 4.5475e-013 6.4000e+004 1.6000e+004 0 4.6667e+003 0 -1.3333e+003 1.6000e+004 5.8667e+004 1.3333e+004 -3.3333e+003 0 6.6667e+003 0 1.3333e+004 2.6667e+004

Pe(3,2) Pe(3,3) Pe(4,1) Loading = -30; = 100; = 20; = Create_Loading(Model,Pe);
Page 546
% transform applied nodal forces to constrained dofs Pftild = Acf'*Loading.Pref; % displacement method of analysis Uftild = Kftild\Pftild; % display result for constrained free dof displacements disp('constrained free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces'); disp(Uftild); % transform to complete displacement vector Uf = Acf*Uftild; % display result for free dof displacements only disp('complete free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces'); disp(Uf); constrained free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces 5.6657e-002 -6.8125e-003 7.5884e-002 3.5623e-003 -1.1865e-003 -1.1296e-002 complete free dof displacements under the applied nodal forces 5.6657e-002 0 -6.8125e-003 7.5884e-002 -2.5636e-002 3.5623e-003 9.5111e-002 0 -1.1865e-003 -1.1296e-002

% determine element deformations V = Aftild*Uftild; % determine basic forces from force-deformation relation (only deformable) Q = Ks(Idef,Idef)*V(Idef); disp('the basic forces under the applied nodal forces are'); disp(Q); the basic forces under the applied nodal forces are 9.8023e+001 7.1894e+000 -7.1894e+000 1.5881e+002 -5.8807e+001 -1.3479e+002 1.3479e+002 4.2633e-014

% clear previously defined applied force vector (always a good idea!) clear Pe; % equivalent nodal forces Pe(2,1) = 15; Pe(2,2) = -20; Pe(3,1) = 15; Pe(3,2) = -20; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe);
Page 547
% specify uniformly distributed load in element b ElemData{2}.w = [0;-5]; % initial deformation vector V0 = V0_vector(Model,ElemData); % initial basic force vector (only for deformable elements) Q0 = -Ks(Idef,Idef)*V0(Idef); % initial force vector at constrained dofs P0tild = Aftild(Idef,:)'*Q0; % transform applied nodal forces to constrained dofs Pftild = Acf'*Loading.Pref; % displacement method of analysis Uftild = Kftild\(Pftild-P0tild); % display result for constrained free dof displacements disp('constrained free dof displacements under distributed load in element b'); disp(Uftild); % transform to complete displacement vector Uf = Acf*Uftild; % display result for free dof displacements only disp('complete free dof displacements under uniform distributed load in element b'); disp(Uf); constrained free dof displacements under uniform distributed load in element b 8.2713e-002 -7.9252e-003 9.4597e-002 3.2808e-003 -2.5940e-003 -1.2013e-002 complete free dof displacements under uniform distributed load in element b 8.2713e-002 0 -7.9252e-003 9.4597e-002 -1.5846e-002 3.2808e-003 1.0648e-001 0 -2.5940e-003 -1.2013e-002

% determine element deformations V = Aftild*Uftild; % determine basic forces from force-deformation relation (only deformable) Q = Ks(Idef,Idef)*V(Idef) + Q0; disp('the basic forces under the uniform distributed load in element b are'); disp(Q); the basic forces under the uniform distributed load in element b are 1.7004e+002 6.4370e+001 -6.4370e+001 3.1594e+001 -3.1594e+001 -1.2559e+002 1.2559e+002 9.9476e-014
Page 548
3. Load case: vertical translation of 0.1 units at right support

% no nodal forces element deformations due to support translation (by hand) Vd = [0 0 0 0 -1/8 -1/8 1/16 1/16]'.*0.1; % initial basic force vector (only for deformable elements) Q0 = Ks(Idef,Idef)*Vd; % initial force vector at constrained dofs P0tild = Aftild(Idef,:)'*Q0; % displacement method of analysis Uftild = Kftild\(-P0tild); % display result for constrained free dof displacements disp('constrained free dof displacements under upward support movement of node 5'); disp(Uftild); % transform to complete displacement vector Uf = Acf*Uftild; % display result for free dof displacements only disp('complete free dof displacements under upward support movement of node 5'); disp(Uf); constrained free dof displacements under upward support movement of node 5 -3.7858e-002 5.7290e-003 -7.7634e-002 6.7688e-003 4.6957e-003 2.9534e-003 complete free dof displacements under upward support movement of node 5 -3.7858e-002 0 5.7290e-003 -7.7634e-002 5.3035e-002 6.7688e-003 -1.1741e-001 0 4.6957e-003 2.9534e-003

% determine element deformations V = Aftild*Uftild; V(Idef) = V(Idef) + Vd; % determine basic forces from force-deformation relation (only deformable) Q = Ks(Idef,Idef)*V(Idef); disp('the basic forces under upward support movement of node 5 are'); disp(Q); the basic forces under upward support movement of node 5 are -4.9808e+001 2.6578e+001 -2.6578e+001 -9.9407e+000 9.9407e+000 -2.3230e+001 2.3230e+001 -6.9278e-014
Page 549

% gable frame with inextensible elements: solution with direct stiffness

CleanStart

% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 0 12]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 8 18]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 16 12]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 16 0]; % % connectivity array CON {1} = [ 1 2]; CON {2} = [ 2 3]; CON {3} = [ 3 4]; CON {4} = [ 4 5]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, 0 = free) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; BOUN(5,:) = [1 1 0]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:4}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); % 2d linear frame element Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Label_Model (Model); % open figure window % plot model (optional)

ne = Model.ne; % % Modulus, area and for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.E = ElemData{el}.A = ElemData{el}.I = end number of elements in structural model moment of inertia 1000; 1e6; 80; % inextensible

Pe(3,2) = -30;
Page 550

plot deformed shape



% no nodal forces Loading = Create_Loading(Model);
Page 551
% specify uniformly distributed load in element b ElemData{2}.w = [0;-5];

plot deformed shape


3. Load case: vertical translation of 0.1 units at right support

% no nodal forces Pe = []; % specify support displacement
Page 552
Ue(5,2) = 0.1; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe,Ue); % erase uniformly distributed load in element b ElemData{2}.w = [0;0];

plot deformed shape

Create_Window(0.80,0.80); MAGF = 40; % magnification factor Plot_Model(Model); % original configuration Plot_Model(Model,U); % deformed configuration (chords only) Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,ElemData,U);

Page 553
CE220 - Theory of Structures Ex 38 - Displacement method for gable frame with inflexible element Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000
Example 38 - Displacement method for gable frame with inflexible constraint

The geometry of the portal frame is given. Without trivial dofs, there are 9 independent free global dofs.
5 4 2 b 1 3 6 c 9 8 7 6
La := 12 Lb := 10 Lc := 10
12
Ld := 12
Material properties
EI := 80000
Under the assumption that all elements are inextensible and element b is inflexible, there are three independent free global degrees of freedom. We select these as shown in the following figure
Page 554
Step 1: Set up compatibility matrix for independent free global dofs dof 1 to determine the first column of the compatibility matrix Af consult Example 17
a :=
1.33
1 12
b :=
1 6
c :=
1 6
d :=
1 12
a a + b Af 1 := c + b c d
1 12 1 4 1 Af 1 = 3 1 6 1 12
consult Example 17
a := 0
1 1.33
b :=
1 6
c :=
1 6
d :=
1 6
a a + b Af 2 := c + b c d
1 12 1 4 1 = 1 Af 3 1 6 1 12
Page 555
0 0 3 := 0 Af 1 1
It is interesting to look at the equilibrium equations that do not involve axial forces. To this end we use the principle of virtual displacements. the transpose of the kinematic matrix is
T Pf = Af Q
T Af
1 1 1 1 1 12 4 3 6 12 = 1 1 1 1 0 6 3 6 6 0 0 0 1 1
the numbering of basic forces without axial forces and basic forces in element b is shown in the figure
Q3
Q4
Q2
P1 =
Q5
Q1 12
Q2 4
Q3 3
Q4 6 +
Q5 12
P2 =
Q2 6
Q3 3
Q4 6
Q5 6
Q1
P3 = Q 4 + Q 5
Page 556
Step 2: Set up the structure stiffness matrix: Collection of element stiffness matrices for structural model
4 2 0 EI Ks := La 0 0
2 4 0 4 0 2
0 0 La Lc La Lc 0 2 4
0 0 La Lc La Lc 0
0 0 La 3 Ld
0
T K := Af Ks Af
9 8.77 7.8 3 = 7.8 7.52 7.33 10 9 7.33 52
Method 2(a): express element stiffness matrix in terms of global dof displacements and add up Determination of individual element stiffness contributions
ka :=
EI 4 2 La 2 4
kc :=
EI 4 2 Lc 2 4
kd :=
3EI Ld
1 0 0 12 Afa := 1 1 4 6 0
1 1 0 3 3 Afc := 1 1 6 6 1
Afd :=
1 1 1 12 6
element a
T Ka := Afa ka Afa
Ka
2.41 1.3 0 3 = 1.3 0.74 0 10 0 0 0
element c
T Kc := Afc kc Afc
Kc
6.22 6.22 10.67 3 = 6.22 6.22 10.67 10 10.67 10.67 32

Page 557
element d
T Kd := Afd kd Afd
0.14 0.28 1.67 3 Kd = 0.28 0.56 3.33 10 1.67 3.33 20

K := Ka + Kc + Kd
9 8.77 7.8 3 = 7.8 7.52 7.33 10 9 7.33 52
same of course
Method 2(b): Derivation of stiffness coefficients by direct method (PVD) We confirm only the stiffness coefficients for translation dof 1 with the principle of virtual displacements Impose a unit value at displacement dof 1 and determine element deformations and forces, as shown in the following figure. The stiffness coefficients are the forces at the free global dofs due to the element forces caused by a unit displacement at global dof 1. In steps we can write:
K 21
1.33
6 EI Lc
1 4 EI + 6 Lc
1 6
6 EI Lc
1 2 EI + 6 Lc
1 6
6 EI La
K11
K 31
1 6
3EI 1 Ld 12
1
1 4 EI + 12 La
6 EI 1 2 EI 1 + La 12 La 6
We denote with Q` the forces due a unit displacement at dof 1
K11 =
Q'1 12
Q'2 4
Q'3 3
Q'4 6 +
Q'5 12
K21 =
Q'2 6
Q'3 3
Q'4 6
Q'5 6
K31 = Q'4 + Q'5
Page 558
We demonstrate only for the first term
1 6EI 1 2EI 1 1 6EI 1 4EI 1 K11 = + + + + 12 La 12 La 6 4 La 12 La 6 1 6EI 1 4EI 1 1 6EI 1 2EI 1 1 3EI 1 + + + + 3 Lc 6 Lc 6 6 Lc 6 Lc 6 12 Ld 12
etc. etc.... Step 3: Set up the applied nodal force vector and solve for global dof displacements Load Case: Nodal Forces
30 100
consult Lecture 14, pp. 7-10
from Pf = A c Pf
20
4 1 P1 = ( 30 ) + 20 ( 1) + 100 = 43.33 3 6 4 1 P2 = ( 30 ) + 20 ( 2 ) + 100 = 63.33 3 6 P3 = 0
Solve for the unknown displacement values at the free global dof's Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf) 3 T Uf = ( 31.87 41.84 0.39 ) 10
43.33 Pf := 63.33 0
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements V := Af Uf 3 T V = ( 2.66 0.99 3.33 1.28 4.7 ) 10
Step 5: Determine the basic force of all elements Q := Ks V T Q = ( 84.05 61.88 126.85 94.08 94.08 )
Page 559
Even though this way of determining is compact and convenient for computer use, particularly, since we have already established Ks , it is strongly advisable to use the following element-by element determination of the basic force in "hand" calculations. V1 2.66 3 2 EI 2 1 84.05 va := va = ka := qa := ka va qa = 10 V2 La 1 2 0.99 61.88
V3 vc := V4
vd := V 5
vc =
3.33 3 10 1.28
kc :=
2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 3 EI Ld
qc := kc vc
qc =
126.85 94.08
( )
3 vd = ( 4.7 ) 10
kd :=
qd := kd vd
qd = ( 94.08 )
Step 6: Determine shear forces by element equilibrium and then use the equilibrium equations that involve the axial forces to determine the latter. Note that the axial forces cannot be determined from the forcedeformation relations like the end moments, because the elements are inextensible and thus their axial deformations are zero (this is left as an exercise) Bending moment diagram
126.85
b
226.85 65.88 94.08 65.88
84.05
Note: the basic end moments of element b are obtained from node equilibrium at nodes 2 and 3; to this end we use the basic forces of elements a and c and the applied load values.
Page 560
deformed shape
2.66 0.99 3 V = 3.33 10 1.28 4.7

Step 7: Determine support reactions (left as exercise) Step 8: check global equilibrium (left as exercise)
Page 561
Second load case: distributed uniform load in element b

w=5
25
w=5 6
20 25 15
25
20 15
12
initial state
equivalent nodal forces due to distributed loads (same as Example 37) Pfw initial forces (fixed-end moments) due to distributed load in element b T Q0 := ( 0 0 0 0 0 ) initial forces at global dofs T P0 := Pfw + Af Q0
w := 5
11.67 := 41.67 0
P0
11.67 = 41.67 0
0 Pf := 0 0
Solve for the unknown displacements of the global dof's Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf P0) 3 T Uf = ( 47.25 53.99 0.56 ) 10
Step 4: Determine the deformations of all elements V := Af Uf 3 T V = ( 3.94 2.81 2.25 1.69 4.5 ) 10
Page 562
Step 5a: Determine the basic forces of all elements with a single operation Q := Ks V + Q0 T Q = ( 142.52 127.55 98.86 89.92 89.92 )
V3 vc := V4
vd := V 5
vc =
2.25 3 10 1.69
kc :=
2 EI 2 1 Lc 1 2 3 EI Ld
qc := kc vc
qc =
98.86 89.92
( )
3 vd = ( 4.5 ) 10
kd :=
qd := kd vd
qd = ( 89.92 )
98.86
89.92
127.55
142.52
Note: the basic end moments of element b are obtained from node equilibrium at nodes 2 and 3; to this end we use the basic forces of elements a and c and the applied load values.
Page 563
deformed shape
3.94 2.81 3 V = 2.25 10 1.69 4.5

Page 564
Displacement Method
Direct stiffness implementation of displacement method

P=
with
(a)T Ab
(a)
(b)T + Ab
(b)
(el)T + Ab
(el)
or
P=
el =1
A(el)T p (el) b
ne
(1)
p = aT q + aT p w g r
q = kv + q 0
v = a gu
we get
p = aT q + aT pw = aT kv + q 0 + aT pw = aT kagu + q 0 + aT pw = aT kagu + aTq 0 + aT pw g r g r g r g g r
which can be written in compact form as where and
p = k eu + p0
(2)
k e = ag kag
T p0 = a g q 0 + a T p w r
is the element stiffness matrix in the global reference system is the initial element force vector (fixed-end forces) in the global reference
(el) (el) A(el)T k e u (el) + p0 b ne
Substituting (2) into (1) we get
P=
(3)
(el)
el =1
We recall the relation between element end displacements and global dof displacements u and substituting into (3) we get P =
(el) A(el)T k (el) A(el)U + p0 b b e ne
= Ab U
(el)
el =1
ne ne (el)T (el) (el) (el)T (el) = A b k e A b U + A b p0 el =1 el =1
which can be written compactly where
P = KU + P0
is the structure stiffness matrix In Matlab this becomes K (id,id) = K (id,id) + ke;
K=
P0 =
el =1
ne
A(el)Tk (el) A(el) b e b

el =1 (el) A(el)T p0 b
ne
and
is the initial force vector for the structure
The last two expressions reveal that the structure stiffness matrix and the initial force vector can be obtained by direct summation of the element stiffness matrix and the initial force vector after the latter have been transformed from the local to the global degrees of freedom by the Boolean matrix of the element. This process is called "direct assembly", because in the computer implementation each term of the structure stiffness matrix is updated by addition of the corresponding element stiffness term. The same is true for the initial force vector. Before assembly the element stiffness matrix and initial force vector are expressed relative to the global reference system according to the relations.
k e = ag kag
p0 = a g q 0 + a r p w
These operations can be done element by element, which makes the process modular and very effective. Because of this fact, the direct stiffness implementation of the displacement method of analysis is the exclusive method of analysis used in commercial software in structural engineering.
Page 565
Displacement Method
Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates

The stiffness matrix of a 2d frame element in global coordinates is
X L Y L 0 T k e = ag k ag = X L Y L 0
Y
2
L X L 1 Y
2
L X L 0
2
Y 2 L X EA 2 L L 0 0 Y 2 L 0 X 2 L 1
0 4 EI L 2 EI L
X 0 L 2 EI Y L L2 4 EI Y L L2
Y L X
2
0 1 0
X L Y L Y L
2 2
L X L
2
Y L X 2 L X 2 L
0 0 1
The special cases of a 2d truss and a 2d frame element with an end moment release can be obtained by suitable modification. The elegant way of accomplishing this is described on the following page. 2d truss
X L Y L 0 ke = X L Y L 0 EA X L L
Y L
X L
Y L
2d frame element with an end moment release at node j
X L Y L 0 ke = X L Y L 0
Y L2 X L2 EA 1 L Y 0 L2 X 2 L 0
X 0 L 3EI Y L L2
Y L X L2
0 1
X L Y L2
Y L X 2 L
0 0
Page 566
Displacement Method
Basic force-deformation for 2d frame with or w/o end moment releases

It is possible to describe the force-deformation behavior of a 2d frame element with one expression by introducing the concept of a release switch. We demonstrate this for end moment releases. The following figure shows how the "strain" related element deformations v depend on the element deformations v. It is the "strain" related element deformations that are related to the basic forces q.
v 2 = v 2
(a)
v3 v3
j
L
v 2
i
v v
chord to node tangent chord to element tangent
(b)
v 2
1 = 1 2
v3
v3 = v3
v2 v3
1 0 v2 = 2 for hinge at end i 0 1 v3
v2 v3
0 v2 for hinge at end j v 0 3
Generalize and include axial deformation (without release)
1 0 v1 1 mri v2 = 0 v 3 0 1 1 mr mr i j 2
v1 1 1 mr j mri v2 2 v3 1 mr j 0
Release? n
or, v = a hv
mri = 0 or 1 mrj = 0 or 1
for hinge rotation: v h = v v = I a h v With the relations q = k v + q 0 Combining all these we get
T
measured from tangent inside to tangent outside
and
v = a hv
T
we get with
q = aTq h
by PVD and q 0 = a h q 0
T
q = ah k a hv + a h q 0 = kv + q 0
ah = I
k = aTk a h h
k = k
Without any end releases present
the 3x3 identity matrix, so that
q 0 = q 0
which shows that the "strain" related stiffness and intial forces are those we defined in pages 3-6
With a release at end node i we get
mri = 1 mr j = 0
we perform the calculations on the following page

Page 567
1 0 0 1 ah = 0 0 and thus 2 0 0 1
Displacement Method
con'd With a release at end node i we get
mri = 1 mr j = 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 and thus a h = 2 0 0 1
for the stiffness matrix we get
1 0 k = 0 0 1 0 2
EA 0 L 0 0 1 0
0 4 EI L 2 EI L
0 1 0 0 1 0 2 EI 1 0 0 = 0 0 2 L 1 4 EI 0 0 1 0 2 L
EA 0 L 0 0 1 0
0 0 0
EA 0 L 0 = 0 3EI 0 L
0 0 0
0 0 3EI L
same as on page 5 for the initial force vector due to uniformly distributed element load
1 0 q 0 = 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 2 wy L 0 12 1 w L2 y 12
0 = 0 wy L2 8
similar to the result on page 6
and the same is true for all other load cases
Page 568
Displacement Method
Computer implementation of displacement method - Assembly of stiffness matrix

To illustrate the compact nature of the direct assembly process we use FEDEASLab function Kf_matrix which sets up the stiffness matrix at the free dof's for 2d/3d truss elements and 2d frame elements with end moment release(s) Typical syntax is: Kf = Kf_matrix(Model,ElemData)
Matlab command for assembly of stiffness matrix

ne = Model.ne; nf = Model.nf; nt = Model.nt; % number of elements in structural model % number of free dofs in structural model % number of total dofs in structural model
K = zeros(nt,nt); % initialize structure stiffness matrix for el=1:ne; % locate element in Model and return end coordinates and id array [xyz id] = Localize(Model,el); % form element stiffness matrix ke in global reference system ke = ke_matrix(xyz,Model.ElemName{el},ElemData{el}); % assemble element stiffness matrix ke into structure stiffness matrix K K (id,id) = K (id,id) + ke; end Kf = K(1:nf,1:nf); % extract stiffness matrix of free dof's
The stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates ke is supplied by the local function ke_matrix; the function uses the end coordinates of the element, its name (or type) and the element properties as input, as shown in the following page. This function separation illustrates the way of breaking down a process into modules for "modular programming".
Page 569
Displacement Method
Computer implementation of displacement method - Element stiffness matrix

function ke_matrix
% determine element length and orientation [L dcx] = ElmLenOr(xyz); % direction cosines of element x-axis dXL = dcx(1); dYL = dcx(2); E = ElemData.E; A = ElemData.A; EA = E * A; switch ElemName case 'LinTruss' % linear truss element % transformation matrix from basic system to complete system in global reference ag = [-dcx' dcx']; Y X Y X for 2d ag = k = EA/L; L L L L T k e = ag k ag ke = ag'*k*ag; Y Z X Y Z X ag = case 'Lin2dFrm' for 3d L L L L L L % 2d linear frame element with or w/o release % moment release indices MR: 0 indicates no hinge, 1 indicates hinge MRi = 0; MRj = 0; if (isfield(ElemData,'Release')) if (strncmpi(ElemData.Release(1),'y',1)), MRi = 1; end if (strncmpi(ElemData.Release(2),'y',1)), MRj = 1; end end % transformation matrix from basic system to complete system in global reference ag = [-dXL -dYL 0 dXL dYL 0; X Y X Y 0 0 -dYL/L dXL/L 1 dYL/L -dXL/L 0; L L L L -dYL/L dXL/L 0 dYL/L -dXL/L 1]; Y X Y X ag = 2 1 2 0 for 2d L I = ElemData.I; L2 L2 L EI = E * I; X Y X Y 0 2 1 2 k = [ EA/L 0 0; L2 L2 L L 0 4*EI/L 2*EI/L; 0 2*EI/L 4*EI/L]; 1 0 0 % compatibility matrix in the presence of moment release(s) 1 ah = [ 1 0 0; 1 mri a h = 0 1 mr j mri 0 1-MRi -0.5*(1-MRj)*MRi; 2 0 -0.5*(1-MRi)*MRj 1-MRj ]; 0 1 1 mr mr 1 mr j % transform basic stiffness matrix for moment release(s) i j 2 k = ah'*k*ah; T % transform basic stiffness to global reference k = ah k ah ke = ag'*k*ag; otherwise k e = aTk ag g error ('element name not found in stiffness options') end
L = X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2
direction cosines
X L
Y L
Z L
Page 570
Substructures - Symmetry
SUBSTRUCTURES SYMMETRY
Objective: force-deformation relation of substructures; condensation of internal dofs; generalization of dof definition; symmetry; structural theorems
Page 571
Substructure solution - there are 3 approaches Procedure: divide structural model dofs into two groups: (a) those that interact with other elements or substructures; we call these "external" but use the subscript r for retain (b) those that are internal to the substructure and therefore do not interact with other elements or substructures; we use the subscript c for these which stands for condense. Assumption: forces at "internal dofs" are given (subscript c); forces at external dofs are not given since these will be obtained from the interaction with other substructures; this means that we seek to establish a force-deformation relation for the "external" dofs. 1. Form flexibility matrix (most logical, but not available in commercial software)
U r Frr = U F c cr
Frc Pr Fcc Pc
we are only interested in Ur
U r = Frr Pr + FrcPc
since Pc is given
deformation-force for substructure
v = f q + v0
U r = FrrPr +U r0
q = f 1 v v0 = kv + q 0
add rigid body modes, if necessary, but relation is already established in the global reference system
p = k eu + p0
for substructure
Page 572
2. Static condensation (logical, available in more advanced commercial software, e.g. aerospace, automobile industry)
Pr K rr = P K c cr
K rc U r K cc U c
support dofs can be included solve lower group of equations
U c = K cc Pc K crU r
and substitute into upper

1 1 Pr = K rr K rc K cc K cr U r + K rc K cc Pc
q = kv + q 0
with
1 k = K rr K rc K cc K cr the condensed stiffness matrix of the substructure 1 q 0 = K rc K cc Pc
the initial force vector for the substructure
p = k eu + p0
for substructure
since this relation is already established in the global coordinate system
Page 573
3. Set up flexibility matrix by typical structural engineering software program (can be a lot of work) Apply a unit force in turn at each dof to be retained, determine the displacements at all other dofs to retain and set up flexibilibility matrix column by column; determine the displacements due to applied forces at internal dofs to set up the initial displacement vector U0 (not shown below)
U r = FrrPr +U r0
proceed as in case 1
F51
F41
F31 F21
F52
F42
F32 F22
1
F11
F12
F53 F43
F54
F55
1
F44
1
F45 F35
F33
F23
F34
F24
F25
F13
F14
F15
Page 574
Ex. 39 - Frame element with semi-rigid connectors
Example 39 - Frame element with semi-rigid connectors

Element with axial connector We consider first the axial force-deformation behavior of a truss element with a semi-rigid connector (or flexible expansion joint) with spring stiffness ka . The location of the connector is not relevant and we show it at the end of the element. The deformable portion of the element has axial stiffness EA and length L.
element
q1
EA L
axial spring ka
q1
viewed as a two-node element
free dofs
2 1
Q2 Q2
basic forces of substructure viewed as a substructure
basic forces
Q1
From the "outside" the element is a typical two-node truss element with a special force-deformation relation. From the inside it is a substructure with 3 nodes and 2 elements. The semi-rigid connector is a zero length or point element, i.e. its end nodes have the same coordinates resulting in what is known in computer models as a double node. The force-deformation behavior of the spring is described by its axial stiffness. The axial connector is assumed rigid in the transverse direction, so that no relative displacement normal to the element axis is allowed. The substructure is supported so that rigid body modes are eliminated. These can be added with the procedure in page Part I-136. The substructure has, thus, only two free dofs, as shown. Dof 1 is critical for the interaction of the element with other elements in the structural model ("the outside world"). Dof 2 is internal to the element. We are interested in establishing the force-deformation relation at dof 1 only. This can be done in one of two ways: first, by applying a unit force at dof 1 and determining the corresponding displacement (i.e. establishing the flexibility of the substructure only for the relevant dof); secondly, by setting up the stiffness matrix for the substructure and using condensation of the internal dof. The substructure has only two free dofs and two basic forces, if we do not include for now flexural effects (more on this later). The substructure is, therefore, statically determinate. The equilibrium equations are
P1 = Q 2 P2 = Q 2 + Q 1
Assuming that there is no nodal force at the "internal" dof 2, we have we obtain
P2 = 0
Q 1 = Q 2 = P1
which of course we could have obtained by inspection a lot faster
Page 575
There is only one dof to be retained in this case, i.e. dof 1. We determine the flexibility for this dof and denote it with subscript r. To do so, we apply a unit force at dof 1 and determine the corresponding displacement. Setting it up in general form we need the force influence matrix which expresses the effect of a unit force at the global dof on the basic element forces. We have from above
Bbar :=
1 1
L 0 EA Fs := 1 0 ka
T Frr := Bbar F s Bbar
Frr
L 1 + EA ka
We observe that the substructure (element) flexibility is equal to the sum of the component flexibilities. Such an element is known as a series element. Conclusion: in a series element (i.e. an element with springs under constant axial force) the flexibility is equal to the sum of the component flexibilities. Let us try the stiffness method with condensation of the internal dof, which is more time consuming for a statically determinate structure. There are two independent free global dofs, one to be retained (dof 1) and one to be condensed out (dof 2). Let us write the stiffness matrix of the substructure.
with
0 1 Af := 1 1
EA 0 L Ks := 0 ka
K := Af Ks Af
ka ka K ka EA + ka L
Since there is no applied force at the "internal dof" 2 we have the following relation
P2 = 0 = K21 U1 + K22 U2 U2 = U1 ka EA + ka L
we solve for the displacement at dof 2 and obtain EA L
or, denoting the ratio
ka
we get
U2 = U1
1 1+
substituting into the first equilibrium equation of the displacement method, i.e. we get
P1 = K11 U1 + K12 U2
P1 = K11 U1 + K12
1 1+
U1 = ka
1+
U1 =
EA 1 U1 L 1+
Thus, we have condensed out the internal dof by satisfying equilibrium and have obtained the condensed stiffness matrix for dof 1. It is a scalar in this case. Denoting the condensed stiffness matrix with a star we can write
K*rr =
EA 1 L 1+
note that r refers to dof 1 in this case, as already stated
It is obvious that the condensed stiffness matrix is not the same as the stiffness coefficient K 11 of the original stiffness matrix of the substructure. Why? The stiffness coefficient K 11 of the original stiffness matrix represents the force at dof 1 under a unit displacement of dof 1 with all other dof displacement values equal to zero. By contrast, the condensed stiffness matrix coefficient K* 11 represents the force at dof 1 under a unit displacement at dof 1 with the value of dof 2 adjusted to satisfy equilibrium at that dof.
Page 576
Observe that the result from the two approaches is, of course, the same. The earlier expression for the flexibility matrix can be written as
Frr =
and it is equal to the inverse of the condensed stiffness matrix K* 11 Element with flexural connectors
L 1 L + = ( 1 + ) EA ka EA
After establishing the effect of a semi-rigid connector on the axial response, we look now at the same problem in flexure. We can then combine the axial and flexural relations to establish the force-deformation of a frame element with axial and flexural connectors. For a beam the location of the semi-rigid connectors is important, since the bending moment is not uniform over the span. We assume at first that there are two semi-rigid connectors, one at each end.
rotational spring kr
q2
EI
q3
viewed as a two-node element
L 3 1
Q1
free dofs 4
2
viewed as a substructure
Q4
basic forces
basic forces of substructure
Q2
Q3
The substructure now consists of three components, a flexible beam element with length L and flexural section stiffness EI, and two semi-rigid connectors with different stiffness kri and krj in the general case. Noting that the connectors do not allow relative axial and transverse displacement there are four basic forces for the four free dofs of the substructure and the substructure is again statically determinate. It is also again supported so that rigid body modes are restrained; these can be added with the procedure in page Part I-136. The 4 equilibrium equations (dofs) for 4 basic forces Q are:
P1 = Q 1 P2 = Q 4 P3 = Q 1 + Q 2 P4 = Q 3 Q 4
note the definition of the basic force Q1 and Q4 for a point element!
Page 577
We need to retain dofs 1 and 2, with dofs 3 and 4 to be condensed out. We assume that there are no forces acting at the internal dofs 3 and 4. Thus, we have:
P3 = 0 P4 = 0
Q 2 = Q 1 Q3 = Q4
and P2 = 0 and P2 = 1
we obtain therefore for P1 = 1 and for
Q 1 = 1 Q1 = 0
Q2 = 1 Q2 = 0
Q4 = 0 Q4 = 1
Q3 = 0 Q3 = 1
P1 = 0
the force influence matrix and the collection of flexibility matrices are
Bbar
1 1 := 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0 kri L L 0 3 EI 6 EI Fs := L 0 L 6 EI 3 EI 0 0 0
0 0 1 krj
0
the flexibility matrix of the substructure then becomes T Frr := Bbar F s Bbar
We proceed to establish the contribution of each component separately:
left connector
1 0 1 1 ( 1 0 ) kri 0 kri 0 0
flexible beam element
1 L 1 0 L 2 1 1 0 3 EI 0 1 6 EI 1 2 0 1 1 L 6 EI
1 L observe that the force influence matrix is the 6 EI identity matrix; thus, the 1 L flexibility contribution to the substructure 3 EI flexibility is equal to the
component flexibility
right connector
0 0 0 1 ( 0 1 ) 1 0 1 krj krj
The flexibility of the substructure is the sum of the component flexibilities "weighted" by the force influence coefficients of each component. We obtain
Page 578
1 L 1 + 1 L k 3 EI 6 EI ri Frr 1 L 1 L 1 + 6 EI 3 EI krj
which can also be written
1 0 L 2 1 kri Frr = + 6 EI 1 2 1 0 krj
We see from the last expression that the substructure flexibility is equal to the beam element flexibility plus the flexibility of the connectors; the latter is a diagonal matrix, since each connector is located at the corresponding end node of the substructure and does not affect the deformation at the opposite node. Let us derive an expression for the stiffness matrix of this substructure as the inverse of the flexibility matrix; for simplicity's sake we assume that the end connectors have the same stiffness. After introducing the following stiffness ratio
6EI L kr
we have
f=
L 2 + 1 Note: the flexibility f of the element is equal to F of the substructure 6 EI 1 2 +

k=
then
k = f 1
2 + 1 6 EI 1 L 3 + 4 + 2 1 2+
k= 2 EI 2 1 L 1 2
we make a quick check by setting =0 (infinitely stiff connectors). In this case we get
We can see clearly that the semi-rigid connectors reduce the stiffness of the substructure, since the denominator is growing faster with increasing positive than the diagonal terms. We pursue again the static condensation approach, which is more complicated in this case. We do this for the case of connectors with equal stiffness only. The compatibility matrix for the 4 free dofs of the substructure is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix (coefficient matrix of Q's in earlier equilibrium equations). It is
1 0 Af := 0 0
0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 kr 0 0 4 EI 2 EI L L Ks := 0 2 EI 4 EI L L 0 0 0
0 0 kr
T K := Af Ks Af
kr 0 K k r 0
kr 0 kr EI EI 0 kr + 4 2 L L EI EI kr 2 kr + 4 L L
0 kr 0
Page 579
We could have established the stiffness matrix of the substructure much faster by physical considerations, i.e. by getting the stiffness coefficients as forces at dof i under a unit displacement at dof j. There are no applied forces at dofs 3 and 4, which means that we can use these two equations to solve for the displacements of the dofs to be condensed in terms of the displacements of the dofs to be retained. The formula for this is available on page Part II-338.
Pr = P c K rr K cr K rc U r K cc U c
1 U c = K cc Pc K crU r
1 1 Pr = K rr K rc K cc K cr U r + K rc K cc Pc
in our case r refers to dofs 1 and 2, c refers to dofs 3 and 4, P c = 0
kr 0 Krr := 0 kr
kr 0 Krc := 0 kr
6EI L kr
kr 0 Kcr := 0 kr
1 + 2 1 3 3 Kcc := kr 1 2 3 1 + 3
with as defined previously, i.e.
the condensed stiffness matrix becomes
1 K* rr := Krr Krc Kcc Kcr
kr 2+ kr ( + 3) ( + 1) ( + 3) ( + 1) K* rr factor kr 2+ kr ( + 3) ( + 1) ( + 3) ( + 1) 3 + 4 +
2 is the same as the earlier denominator of the stiffness matrix
Noting that
( + 3) ( + 1) expand
6 EI L
and
kr =
we have obtained the same result as with the inversion of the flexibility matrix of the substructure but with more effort
Page 580
Basic frame element stiffness matrix with semi-rigid axial and flexural connectors We know that as long as we use the centroidal axis of the element as reference axis the axial and flexural responses are uncoupled. Thus, the basic frame element stiffness matrix with semi-rigid axial and flexural connectors becomes
EA 1 0 0 L 1+ 6 EI 2+ 6 EI 1 0 k= L ( 1 + ) ( 3 + ) L ( 1 + ) ( 3 + ) 6 EI 1 6 EI 2+ 0 L ( 1 + ) ( 3 + ) L ( 1 + ) ( 3 + )
Beam with connectors offset from the end nodes
with
EA L ka 6EI L kr
and
We would like to study now the case that the connectors are offset from the end nodes. This case is depicted in the following figure. Formally, there are now 8 free dofs and 8 basic element forces requiring us to divide the flexible beam components into 3 elements as shown in the figure.
rotational spring kr
q2
0.25L 3 1
EI
q3
0.25L 6
0.5L free dofs
Q3
Q4
basic forces
Q1
Q2
1
0.75 0.25
unit force 1/L
1/L unit force 1/L
1/L
0.25
0.75
Page 581
Instead of setting up 8 equilibrium equations in 8 unknown basic forces and solving them, we do this by inspection, since we are dealing with a simply supported beam under unit end moments. With this approach we do not need to subdivide the flexible beam component into 3 elements, but can directly add the flexibility matrices of the 3 components of the substructure after "weighing" them by the force influence coefficients, as we have already discussed. The contribution of the flexible beam element remains the same as before. The force influence coefficients for the connectors are now
for the left connector the force influence coefficients are
3 1 4 4 1 3 4 4
for the right connector the force influence coefficients are
The contribution of the flexibility of the left connector to the substructure flexibility becomes
3 9 3 16 k 16 k ri ri 4 1 3 1 1 kri 4 4 3 1 4 16 k 16 k ri ri
The contribution of the flexibility of the right connector to the substructure flexibility becomes
3 1 1 16 k 16 k rj rj 4 1 1 3 3 krj 4 4 3 9 4 16 k 16 k rj rj
under the assumption that both end connector stiffness values are the same we get for the substructure flexibility
5 3 8 L 2 1 1 8 Frr = + 6 EI 1 2 kr 3 5 8 8
Page 582
Ex. 40 - Beam with semi-rigid connection and rigid zone
Example 40 - Beam with SR connection at midspan and rigid link

We study now a slightly more complicated case than Example 39. In this case the substructure consists of 4 subelements including an inflexible segment. We also investigate the effect of a distributed element load on the substructure force-deformation relation. The following figure shows the substructure as a 2-node beam element whose force-deformation behavior is to be established. Since axial deformations are of no interest, the basic force vector consists of q2 and q3 only.
w
q2
EI L/2
0
rigid L/4
EI L/4
q3
Properties
L := 10
EI := 10000
kr := 3000
(for reference only)
The following figure shows the substructure without rigid body modes. Nodes separate the substructure into 4 elements. With the inflexible segment and without the rigid body modes the substructure has 5 independent free global dofs. There are also 5 basic forces, as shown, and the substructure is statically determinate. Note that we have not included any basic forces for the inflexible segment after introducing the inflexible segment constraint.
3 1 4
Q3
Q1
Q2
Q4
Q5
It is worth noting that the 5 independent free global dofs above result from the original set of 7 independent free dofs, shown in the following figure, as a consequence of the constraint of the inflexible segment.
3 6
2
With the inflexible segment dofs 6 and 7 depend on the translation dof 5.
We write the equilibrium equations for translation dofs 3 and 5 with the principle of virtual displacements Before doing so, we write the moment equilibrium equations for dofs 1, 2 and 4 directly.
P1 = Q 1 P2 = Q 5 P4 = Q 2 Q 3
Page 583
Equilibrium equations for dof 3
T V =
0
1 1 1 1 0 0.5 L 0.5 L 0.25 L 0.25 L
L/2
L/4
L/4
the equation for dof 3 then reads
P3 =
Q1 + Q2 0.5 L
Q3 0.25 L
Q4 0.25 L
or, simpler
P3 0.25 L =
Q1 + Q2 2
Q3 Q4
Equilibrium equations for dof 5
T V =
L/4
1 2 1 0 0 0.25 L 0.25 L 0.25 L
L/2
L/4
the equation for dof 5 then reads
P5 =
Q3 0.25 L
2 Q4 0.25 L
Q5 0.25 L
or, simpler
P5 0.25 L = Q3 + 2 Q4 + Q5
Let us set up the equilibrium matrix for later use in checking the answers.
0 1 0 0 Bf := 0.5 0.5 0 1 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 P1 = 1 P1 = 0 P2 = 0 P2 = 1 P3 = P 4 = P5 = 0 P3 = P 4 = P5 = 0
solving the equations for the case and then separately for the case
Page 584
we get the following force influence matrix Bbar
Bbar
0 1 0.5 0.5 := 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.75 1 0
and we can check
Bf Bbar
1 0 = 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
However, for this simply supported beam it is much more straightforward to set up the force influence matrix by inspection, i.e. draw the moment diagram for each unit end force (moment) and read off the values at the ends of the segments. The following figure shows the well known linear moment diagrams.
Q3
Q1
Q2
Q4
Q5
1 unit force 1/L
0.50
0.25
1/L unit force 1/L 1
1/L
0.50
0.75
The collection of element flexibility matrices is
4 2 L 1 Fs := 0 4 6 EI 0 0
2 4 0 0 0
0 0 24 EI L kr 0 0
0 0 0 2
0 0 1
1 2
We can obtain the flexibility matrix of the substructure for the two dofs to be retained
T Frr := Bbar F s Bbar Frr
73 37 192 L 192 = 37 61 EI 192 192

f := F rr and the element stiffness is
the element flexibility thus is
k := f 1
k =
3.8 2.3 EI 2.3 4.54 L
and we can see that the semi-rigid connector reduces the stiffness coefficients, while the rigid segment increases the stiffness coefficients; the increase is higher for node j, since the rigid segment is "off center"
Page 585
We can also show the component-by-component contributions to the substructure flexibility so as to illustrate the fact that it is the summation of the component flexibilities "weighted" by the force influence coefficients. In the process we note, of course, that the rigid element does not contribute (zero flexibility)
left segment
1 0 1 0 L 4 2 1 1 Fa := 1 1 24 EI 2 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 Fb := 2 2 kr 2 2 1 3 1 3 L 2 1 4 Fc := 4 4 4 24 EI 1 2 0 1 0 1
T T
Fa
connector
Fb
right segment
Fc
7 1 24 12 L = 1 1 EI 12 24 1 1 12 L 12 = 1 1 EI 12 12 1 5 192 192 L = 5 37 EI 192 192
flexibility matrix of substructure
Frr := Fa + F b + Fc
Frr
73 37 192 192 L = 37 61 EI 192 192
as before
Page 586
Effect of distributed load w Distributed element loads acting over elements of the substructure cause displacements at the dofs to be retained. These correspond to initial deformations when the substructure is viewed as a single element. To determine these displacements we determine first the basic element forces under the distributed element loads, then the deformations of each element in the substructure from the deformation-force relation, and finally the displacements at the dofs to be retained by compatibility or by the principle of virtual forces. For the given distributed load we can establish the basic element forces by inspection
w
wL/4
wL/4
with
3wL/8
0
w := 20
wL/8
L/4
the basic forces are
wL /16
wL /32
0 1 16 1 2 Qp := w L 16 1 32 0
we check the answer with the equilibrium equations
0 0 1 2 Bf Qp = w L 16 0 0
which agrees with for
P3 0.25 L = wL P3 = 4
Q1 + Q2 2
Q3 Q4
In addition to the basic forces distributed element loads also cause initial deformations in the element(s) in which they act; in this case this is limited to the left segment of the substructure
1 8 1 3 8 w L Vo := 24 EI 0 0 0
The displacements at the dofs to be retained due to the element deformations can be established by compatibility or by the principle of virtual forces. Recall from Part IV, page 11 that
U f = B TV
Page 587
We do first the calculations element by element from left to right left segment T T 1 1 0 0 1 0 8 3 1 1 L 4 2 1 w L2 + 1 1 w L Uoa := 24 EI 2 4 1 24 EI 2 2 16 2 2 8 semi-rigid connector
Uoa
7 3 384 w L = 1 EI 128 1 96 w L3 = 1 EI 96
Uob :=
1 1 1 1 w L2 2 2 kr 16
Uob
right segment
1 3 1 4 4 L 2 1 32 w L2 Uoc := 24 EI 1 2 0 1 0
Uoc
1 3 1536 w L = 5 EI 1536 15 3 512 w L = 11 EI 512 15 3 512 w L = 11 EI 512
The displacements of substructure at the dofs to be retained are therefore
Uro := Uoa + Uob + Uoc
Uro
This can be obtained, of course, with a single operation Uro := BbarT ( F s Qp + Vo) Uro
The displacements of the substructure at the dofs to be retained under element loading represent the initial deformations of the two node element, i.e. and the corresponding fixed-end forces for use in the displacement method of analysis can be established from
vo := Uro
qo := f
vo
qo
0.741 w L2 = 0.362 12
Page 588
Ex. 41 - Static condensation for dynamic analysis
Example 41 - Static condensation for dynamic analysis

In this example we derive the condensed stiffness matrix of a cantilever model. The objective is to determine the periods of vibration of this model under the assumption that the uniformly distributed mass is discretized into a lumped value at each node of the model. With more nodes the eigenvalue analysis approaches the results of the actual model which has uniformly distributed mass with specific density . In the following we investigate the case of 3 lumped mass terms. We are only interested in translatory effects and rotary mass effects are neglected. The following figure shows the model and the mass discretization.
m 3
EI := 120000
5 EI
L := 5
The structural model has 5 free dofs as shown in the following figure
3
EI
5 2
EI
We are interested, however, only in the translation dofs (first three in the selected numbering scheme). We can derive the stiffness matrix at these three dofs either directly with the force method (note that the model is statically determinate), or with the stiffness method after condensation of the rotation dofs.
Page 589
1. Approach: Force method (great for statically determinate structure) Apply a unit force at each dof to be retained and determine the displacements at all dofs to be retained. This establishes the flexibility matrix of the model for the dofs to be retained. We do this long hand and in compact form in the following.
3 unit force
unit force
unit force
Page 590
The basic forces are numbered as shown in the following figure The basic force values under a unit force at each dof to be retained are (note that these are actually force influence coefficients) unit force at dof 1 unit force at dof 2 unit force at dof 3
Q5
Q1 = 5 Q2 = 0
Q1 = 10 Q 2 = 5 Q3 = 5 Q4 = 0 Q5 = 0
Q1 = 15 Q2 = 10 Q3 = 10 Q 4 = 5 Q5 = 5
Q4
Q3
Q3 = 0 Q4 = 0 Q5 = 0
Q2
The compatibility equations are:
Q1
V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 =
U1 5 U1
it follows U 1 = 5 V 1
+ U4 5 U2 U1 5 U2 U1 5 U3 U2 5
+ U4 + U5 + U5
U2 = 5 ( V3 V2) + 2 U1 = 5 ( V3 V2) + 10 V1
U3 = 5 ( V5 V4) + 2 U2 U1 U3 = 5 ( V5 V4) + 10 ( V3 V2 ) + 15 V1
observe that the coefficients of the deformations V for each dof are equal to the values of the transpose of the corresponding column of the force influence matrix (we did not have to prove this, but just in case!). This agrees with Part IV, page 11, i.e.
U f = B TV
Page 591
We do the calculations in compact form, even though hand calculations are only slightly more time consuming (take these as an exercise)
Bbar
5 0 := 0 0 0
10 5 5 0 0
10 10 5 5
15
2 1 L Fs := 0 6EI 0 0
1 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
0 0
0 0
1 0 0 2 0
1 2
T Frr := Bbar F s Bbar
Frr
8.33 20.83 33.33 L = 20.83 66.67 116.67 33.33 116.67 225 EI
the condensed stiffness matrix for the three translation dofs can then be obtained as the inverse of F 1 K* rr := F rr
0.738 0.425 0.111 EI K* rr = 0.425 0.406 0.148 0.111 0.148 0.065 L
2. Approach: Condensation of stiffness matrix We have already established the compatibility matrix for all free dofs. We restate it in matrix form
V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 =
U1 5 U1
+ U4 5 U2 U1 5 U2 U1 5 U3 U2 5
+ U4 + U5 + U5
1 0 L 1 L 0 1 1 Af := L L 1 1 L L 1 0 L
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 L
0 0 1 1
Page 592
The collection of element stiffness matrices is
2 1 2EI Ks := 0 L 0 0
1 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 1 2
0 0 0 0

T K := Af Ks Af K
0 0 0 1.5
the structure stiffness matrix becomes
0.96 0.48 0 0.48 0.6 0.12 = 0 0.12 0.12 0 1.2 0 1.2 0.6 0.6
1.2 0.6 0 8 2 0.6 7
1.2
EI
L 2
we extract the necessary submatrices of the stiffness matrix and perform the condensation
Krr := submatrix ( K , 1 , 3 , 1 , 3)
0.96 0.48 0 EI Krr = 0.48 0.6 0.12 0 0.12 0.12 L 0 1.2 EI Krc = 1.2 0.6 0 0.6 L
Kcr =
Krc := submatrix ( K , 1 , 3 , 4 , 5)
Kcr := submatrix ( K , 4 , 5 , 1 , 3)
0 1.2 0 EI 1.2 0.6 0.6 L 8 2 EI 2 7 L

same as with the force method
Kcc := submatrix ( K , 4 , 5 , 4 , 5)
Kcc =
K* rr := Krr Krc Kcc 1 Kcr
0.738 0.425 0.111 EI K* rr = 0.425 0.406 0.148 0.111 0.148 0.065 L
The same result for the condensed stiffness matrix can be obtained with function Condense_Kf of FEDEASLab (consult Example_41a.m). It is interesting to run a parametric analysis of the eigenfrequencies of the problem for different model discretizations. The results are: Period of first mode 4 elements 32 elements 64 elements 2.2270 (sec) 2.1282 (sec) 2.1194 (sec) Period of second mode 0.3945 (sec) 0.3387 (sec) 0.3383 (sec) Period of third mode 0.1584 (sec) 0.1211 (sec) 0.1208 (sec)
Page 593

% eigenmodes and frequencies of flexible cantilever column (step by step)

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) nn = 4; ne = nn-1; XYZ(:,1:2) = [ zeros(nn,1) linspace(0,15,nn)']; % connectivity array CON (1:ne) = num2cell ([ [1:(nn-1)]' [ 2:nn]'],2); % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, 0 = free) (specify only restrained dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); % 2d linear elastic frame element % create Model Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);


% Modulus, area, moment of inertia and loading of beams (elements 1 through 3) for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 4*10^5; ElemData{el}.I = 120; end

Kf = Kf_matrix(Model,ElemData);
specify nodal mass (not required for CE220)

% define distributed mass m m = 5;
Page 594
l = 10/ne; Me(2:nn,1) = (m*l).*ones(ne,1); Me( nn,1) = m*l/2; % create nodal mass vector Ml = Create_LumpedMass(Model,Me);
solve dynamic eigenvalue problem (not required for CE220)

% condense stiffness matrix to dofs with non-zero mass idm = find(Ml); % find dofs with non-zero terms in lumped mass vector Kmm = Condense_MV(Kf,idm); % create diagonal mass matrix from lumped mass vector Md = diag(Ml(idm)); % solve eigenvalue problem [phi omega] = eig (Kmm,Md); % sort eigenvalues in ascending order [omega io] = sort(diag(omega)); % number of eigenmodes nmode = length(omega); % put eigenmodes in the same order as the eigenvalues phi = phi (:,io(1:nmode)); % eigenfrequencies are equal to square root of eigenvalues omega = sqrt(omega(1:nmode))'; % determine eigenmode values at all free dofs Um = zeros(Model.nf,nmode); Um(idm,:) = phi; Ueig = Kf\(repmat(omega.^2,length(Ml),1).*repmat(Ml,1,nmode).*Um); % echo eigenmode periods disp('The three lowest eigenmode periods are'); T = 2*pi./omega; disp(T(1:3)); The three lowest eigenmode periods are 2.2270e+000 3.9452e-001 1.5844e-001
plot 3 mode shapes with lowest eigenvalues

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); MAGF = 2; U = zeros(Model.nt,1); % plot for i=1:min(3,length(omega)); U(1:Model.nf,1) = Ueig(:,i); Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U); end
Page 595

% eigenmodes and frequencies of flexible cantilever column in single step

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) nn = 4; ne = nn-1; XYZ(:,1:2) = [ zeros(nn,1) linspace(0,15,nn)']; % connectivity array CON (1:ne) = num2cell ([ [1:(nn-1)]' [ 2:nn]'],2); % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 1]; % specify element type [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); 0 = free) (specify only restrained
% 2d linear elastic frame element
% create Model Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);


Modulus, area, moment of inertia and loading of beams (elements 1 through 3)
for el=1:ne; ElemData{el}.E = 1000; ElemData{el}.A = 4*10^5; ElemData{el}.I = 120; end
Page 596

specify nodal mass

% define distributed mass m m = 5; l = 10/ne; Me(2:nn,1) = (m*l).*ones(ne,1); Me( nn,1) = m*l/2; % create nodal mass vector Ml = Create_LumpedMass(Model,Me);
solve dynamic eigenvalue problem with FEDEASLab function EigenMode

[omega Ueig] = EigenMode4LumpedMass (Kf,Ml,3); % echo eigenmode periods disp('The three lowest eigenmode periods are'); T = 2*pi./omega; disp(T(1:3)); The three lowest eigenmode periods are 2.2270e+000 3.9452e-001 1.5844e-001
plot 3 mode shapes with lowest eigenvalues

Create_Window (0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); MAGF = 2; U = zeros(Model.nt,1); for i=1:min(3,length(omega)); U(1:Model.nf,1) = Ueig(:,i); Plot_DeformedStructure(Model,[],U); end
Page 597
Ex. 42 - Substructuring
Example 42 - Substructuring
In this example we will analyze the following structure under the given loading. We intend to demonstrate the substructuring concept and plan to analyze the structure in two parts, assuming that two separate teams are occupied with the analysis of each part. The following figure shows the complete structure.
20 10
6 20
All elements are inextensible and the flexural section stiffness is The two parts of the structure are shown in the following figure.
EI := 50000
20
10 c d
b a detail of double node
20
dof 2 dof 1
Vierendeel truss
Page 598
It is clear that the two substructures interact only at one node with 2 dofs. The vertical translation of the node is zero on account of the inextensible element assumption. The process for the analysis of the two parts is as follows. Team A is responsible for the part of the structure that consists of a Vierendeel truss. This team is supposed to generate a condensed stiffness matrix and an initial force vector at dofs 1 and 2 in the above figure. This is done with FEDEASLab functions in the file Example_42b. The condensed stiffness matrix and initial force vector are:
4.4826 103 4.9044 103 ka := 4.9044 103 4.8347 104
qa0 :=
1.744 17.192
Team B is responsible for the second substructure. The free dofs and basic forces of the substructure are shown in the following figure
4 5 6
Q6
Q5
Q4 Q2
Q3
Q7
2 1 4 4
Q1
There are 6 independent free dofs or equilibrium equations and 7 unknown basic forces. Thus, the degree of static indeterminacy is NOS=1 and it would be much, much better to solve the substructure by the force method. We will do this later. We solve now by the displacement method, which is only advisable because we have access to a computer. The compatibility matrix is:
1 0 1 6 1 6 Af := 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 6 1 1 6
0 0 0 0 1 4 1 4
0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 4
0 0 1 1
Page 599
The collection of element stiffness matrices is:
4.4826 103 4.9044 103 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 4.9044 10 4.8347 10 0 0 0 0 0 4 EI 2 EI 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 2 EI 4 EI 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 Ks := 4 EI 2 EI 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 2 EI 4 EI 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 3 EI 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

the stiffness matrix at the free dofs of the model becomes
T Kf := Af Ks Af
Kf
7.26 3.429 2.778 = 8.333 0 0
3.429 2.778 8.333 81.68 8.333 16.667 0 0 8.333 2.778 8.333 0 0 16.667 8.333 83.333 18.75 25
0 0 0 0 3 10 18.75 25 11.719 9.375 9.375 87.5

0 0
The initial force vector can be determined from the initial forces of the elements (fixed-end forces) T with Q0 := ( 1.744 17.192 0 0 0 0 0 ) and the applied force vector for the given loading is we get T P0 := Af Q0
T Pf := ( 0 0 10 0 20 0 )
we solve for the displacements at the free dofs of the substructure
Uf := lsolve ( Kf , Pf P0)
Uf
3.104 1.153 11.228 3 = 10 0.355 1.334 0.244
Page 600
and determine the deformations and basic forces of the substructure V := Af Uf Q := Ks V + Q0 3 T V = ( 3.104 1.153 0.201 0.999 0.688 0.089 0.578 ) 10 T Q = ( 10 23.35 23.35 36.65 36.65 21.67 21.67 )
any other information, e.g. support reactions, global equilibrium, deformed shape of the substructure, etc. can be obtained as usually. Team B now passes to Team A the forces that correspond to dofs 1 and 2. Team A then proceeds to analyze substructure A with this information. This is done in the file Example_42c. One can compare the above results for substructure B and the results for substructure A from Example_42c with the results of the entire structure under the given loading analyzed in Example_42a. The two sets of results are, of course, identical. We illustrate briefly the solution of substructure B by the force method. There are 6 equilibrium equations in 7 unknown basic forces and NOS=1. The equilibrium equations are:
P1 = Q 1
Q3 + Q4 6
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3 P3 = Q3 + Q4 6
Af T
P4 = Q 4 + Q 5 P5 = Q5 + Q6 4 + Q7 4
1 0 0 = 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 6 6 0 1 6 1 0 0
1 1 6 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 0 1 1
P6 = Q 6 + Q 7
Select Q2 as redundant basic force. The particular solution with Q2 = 0 gives Q 3 = 0
Q4 = 60 Q5 = 60
Q1 = 10
Q7 = 10 Q6 = 10
T Qp := ( 10 0 0 60 60 10 10 ) could do by inspection (faster!)
Page 601
check the answer AfT Qp
0 0 10 = 0 20 0
good!
Homogeneous solution with Q2 = 1 gives
Q 3 = 1
Q4 = 1 Q 5 = 1
Q1 = 0
Q7 = 0.5 Q6 = 0.5
T Bbarx := ( 0 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 )
could do by inspection (faster!)
check the answer AfT Bbarx
0 0 0 = 0 0 0
good!
invert the stiffness of substructure A and the initial force vector to get the flexibility and initial deformation vector for the substructure A dofs 1 and 2. fa := ka 1 fa =
12.547 1.273 1 1.273 1.163 EI

0 0 6 3 6 6 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
va0 := fa q a0
va0 =
0 1 17.78 EI
12.547 1.273 1.273 1.163 0 0 0 0 1 Fs := EI 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 3 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 4 4 0 6 3 4 4 0 6 3 4 0 0 3
Page 602
0 17.78 0 1 V0 := 0 EI 0 0 0
compatibility condition
Qx :=
T Bbarx ( Fs Qp + V0) Bbarx F s Bbarx T
Qx = 23.347
Q := Qp + Bbarx Q x
T Q = ( 10 23.35 23.35 36.65 36.65 21.67 21.67 ) same basic forces as with displacement method
Team B now passes to Team A the forces that correspond to dofs 1 and 2. Team A then proceeds to analyze substructure A with this information. This is done in the file Example_42c.
Page 603

% substructure analysis: solution of complete structure by single analysis

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 16 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 0 6]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 8 6]; % XYZ(6,:) = [ 16 6]; % XYZ(7,:) = [ 16 12]; % XYZ(8,:) = [ 20 12]; % XYZ(9,:) = [ 24 12]; % % connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 1 4]; CON { 4} = [ 2 5]; CON { 5} = [ 3 6]; CON { 6} = [ 4 5]; CON { 7} = [ 5 6]; CON { 8} = [ 6 7]; CON { 9} = [ 7 8]; CON {10} = [ 8 9]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, 0 = free) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; BOUN(9,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); % 2d linear elastic frame element % create Model Model = Create_SimpleModel (XYZ,CON,BOUN,ElemName);

Page 604

applied nodal forces

Pe(5,2) Pe(7,1) Pe(8,2) Loading = = = = -20; -10; -20; Create_Loading(Model,Pe);

plot deformed shape


Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Post,1.25);
Page 605

% substructure A stiffness and initial force vector

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 16 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 0 6]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 8 6]; % XYZ(6,:) = [ 16 6]; % % connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 1 4]; CON { 4} = [ 2 5]; CON { 5} = [ 3 6]; CON { 6} = [ 4 5]; CON { 7} = [ 5 6]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); 0 = free) (specify only restrained

4 6

5 7 6
Page 606


select dofs to retain

ir = [Model.DOF(6,1) Model.DOF(6,3)];
applied nodal forces

Pe(5,2) = -20; Loading = Create_Loading(Model,Pe); Pf = Loading.Pref;

determine condensed stiffness matrix and initial force vector for substructure A with static condensation
Kf = Kf_matrix(Model,ElemData); [Kfr Pf0] = Condense_MV (Kf,ir,Pf); format short e disp('the condensed stiffness matrix is') disp(Kfr); disp('the initial force vector is') disp(-Pf0); the condensed stiffness matrix is 4.4826e+003 4.9044e+003 4.9044e+003 4.8347e+004 the initial force vector is -1.7440e+000 -1.7192e+001
determine condensed stiffness matrix by inverse of flexibility matrix

B = B_matrix(Model); Bf = B(1:Model.nf,:); Fs = Fs_matrix(Model,ElemData); [Bbar Bvbar F] = ForceMethod(Bf,Fs); disp('the inverse of the flexibility matrix at the horizontal translation dofs is') disp(inv(F(ir,ir))); the inverse of the flexibility matrix at the horizontal translation dofs is 4.4826e+003 4.9044e+003 4.9044e+003 4.8347e+004
Page 607
Script for Example 42c in CE220 class notes

% substructure A analysis with results from Substructure B

CleanStart
Create model
% specify node coordinates (could only specify non-zero terms) XYZ(1,:) = [ 0 0]; % first node XYZ(2,:) = [ 8 0]; % second node, etc XYZ(3,:) = [ 16 0]; % XYZ(4,:) = [ 0 6]; % XYZ(5,:) = [ 8 6]; % XYZ(6,:) = [ 16 6]; % % connectivity array CON { 1} = [ 1 2]; CON { 2} = [ 2 3]; CON { 3} = [ 1 4]; CON { 4} = [ 2 5]; CON { 5} = [ 3 6]; CON { 6} = [ 4 5]; CON { 7} = [ 5 6]; % boundary conditions (1 = restrained, dof's) BOUN(1,:) = [1 1 0]; BOUN(3,:) = [0 1 0]; % specify element type ne = length(CON); [ElemName{1:ne}] = deal('Lin2dFrm'); 0 = free) (specify only restrained

Page 608

applied nodal forces (forces at node 6 from substructure B analysis in Mcad example)
Pe(5,2) Pe(6,1) Pe(6,3) Loading = -20; = -10; = 23.35; = Create_Loading(Model,Pe);

plot deformed shape


Create_Window(0.80,0.80); Plot_Model (Model); Plot_2dMomntDistr (Model,ElemData,Post,1.25);
Page 609
Filip C. Filippou
General case of symmetry in 3d structural models Plane symmetry

For plane symmetry the structural geometry and structural properties satisfy the condition for a coordinate system transformation such that X' = - X Y' = Y Z' = Z g(X,Y,Z) = g(X',Y',Z')
Note that the prime coordinate system is this time left-handed, since only one axis reverses sign (-1)1. Consequently, moments and rotations need to obey the left-hand rule. We can identify the plane of symmetry by noting that the right half of the structural model is obtained by reflection of the left half of the model about the Y-Z plane passing through the point of plane symmetry (shown in gray in the figure). Note that the X-Y and X-Z planes can also serve as planes of symmetry, as can any plane in space for complex models.
plane of symmetry
Y'
X Z
X' Z'
Axis symmetry
For axis symmetry the structural geometry and structural properties satisfy the condition for a coordinate system transformation such that X' = - X Y' = - Y Z' = Z g(X,Y,Z) = g(X',Y',Z')
Note that the prime coordinate system is also right-handed, since two axes reverse sign (-1)2 We can identify the axis of symmetry by noting that the right half of the structural model is obtained by rotation of 180o about the Z-axis at the point of symmetry (dashed line). Note that the X- and Y-axes can also serve as axes of symmetry, as can any line in space for complex structural models.
X' Z' Y'
axis of symmetry
X Z
Page 610
Filip C. Filippou
Point symmetry
For point symmetry the structural geometry and structural properties satisfy the condition for a coordinate system transformation with X' = - X Y' = - Y Z' = - Z g(X,Y,Z) = g(X',Y',Z')
The origin of the coordinate system X,Y,Z is, of course, arbitrary, but once selected it fixes the origin of X',Y',Z'. Note that the prime coordinate system is left-handed, since three axes reverse sign, i.e. (-1)3 Moments and rotations obey a left-hand rule in a left-hand coordinate system!
X' Y'
Z'
point of symmetry
X Z
Symmetry in 2d structural models

Restricting ourselves to 2d structural models we identify only 2 types of symmetry: (1) point symmetry or symmetry about axis normal to the plane (2) plane symmetry or symmetry about axis in the plane (reflection) Z' - axis away from viewer
X'
trace of symmetry plane
Y'
point of symmetry
reflection
Y'
X
X
X'
Z - axis towards viewer
Z and Z' axis towards viewer (reflection)
Page 611
Filip C. Filippou
Sign convention for plane symmetry in a 2d structural model

trace of symmetry plane
reflection
Y'
X'
Z and Z' axis towards viewer (reflection)
Structure geometry and structural properties satisfy the condition g(X,Y) = g(X',Y')
Under reflection about the symmetry plane both Z and Z' axes are pointing towards the viewer but the prime coordinate system is left handed. Thus, we conclude: X-Y-Z is right-handed X'-Y'-Z' is left-handed with Z' towards viewer CCW moments and rotations are positive CW moments and rotations are positive
Sign convention for point symmetry in a 2d structural model
X'
Y'
point of symmetry
Structure geometry and structural properties satisfy the condition g(X,Y) = g(X',Y')
Under point symmetry the Z-axis points towards the viewer but the Z'-axis points away from the viewer. The prime coordinate system is left handed. Thus, we conclude: X-Y-Z is right-handed X'-Y'-Z' is left-handed with Z' away from viewer CCW moments and rotations are positive CCW moments and rotations are positive
Page 612
Filip C. Filippou
Take advantage of the symmetry in the geometry of the structural model by collecting the original set of independent global free dofs into symmetric and anti-symmetric sets for the displacement method of analysis grouping basic forces in the same fashion for the force method of analysis; we call each such group a "force field" This leads to the following general definition of a "degree of freedom" or dof DOF = a set of node displacement values that is linearly independent from all other dofs of the model (in the end there should be nf linearly independent displacement vectors) Similarly, we select redundant force fields such that they are linearly independent from all other redundant force fields (in the end there should be NOS linearly indepedent basic force fields or combinations of basic forces)
The loading does not need to be symmetric or anti-symmetric. Under any loading the structural model response separates into symmetric and anti-symmetric responses with a smaller number of independent free dofs, or smaller number of redundants each. Note, however, that the total number of independent free dofs or the NOS of the structure is not affected by the decomposition! Under symmetric or anti-symmetric loading only the corresponding set of dofs gets "excited", so that only a solution of the symmetric or anti-symmetric response is required and the problem solution is substantially shortened.
Taking advantage of symmetric structural models in "hand calculations" Example 44 - Single bridge span with external prestressing
s
Geometry
1 b
2 c 5
d f e 40
s
h g
4 10
6 30
30
3 4
Original set of independent free global dofs
nf = 8
5 6
Y
7 s
s
8
1 2
X' Y'
1
+
Symmetric independent free global dofs
nfs = 4
4
Y
5
3
s
s
3 4
5 6 X' Y'
Anti-symmetric independent free global dofs
nfa = 4
8
7
s
7 8
Page 613
Filip C. Filippou
Deformations under symmetric independent free global dofs

s
a b c
d f e s s
h g
dof 1
a b c
d f e
h g
dof 2
Deformations under anti-symmetric independent free global dofs
d a b c e
s
dof 5
The stiffness matrix becomes

T K := Af KsAf
0 0 0 0 600 0 666.67 2000 0 0 0 0 0 0 2000 90000 0 0 0 0 0 470.76 56.92 0 0 3 0 0 0 56.92 618.97 0 600 = 10 0 600 0 891.67 2500 0 0 0 0 0 2500 150000 0 0 0 0 0 170.76 56.92 0 0 0 0 0 56.92 618.97 0 600 0 0 0 0
Pfs K fs = Pfa 0
0 U fs P0s + K fa U fa P0a
if the loading is symmetric, then only symmetric response

s 50
1 b
2 c 5
d f e 40
s
h g
4 10
Pfs K fs = Pfa 0
K fa = 0 U fa
0 U fs P0s + P0a
6 30
30
if the loading not symmetric, solve symmetric and anti-symmetric response separately and superimpose results
50 s
1 b
2 c 5
d f e 40
s
h g
4 10
Pfs K fs = Pfa 0
0 U fs P0s + K fa U fa P0a
U fs
U fa
6 30
30
Page 614
Filip C. Filippou
Another example
s
4 3
symmetric dofs
s
1 2
1
+
X
1 2
X'
Y'
geometry and element properties are symmetric about plane

4
s
3
Y'
5
X
5
X'
antisymmetric dofs
U3 = 1
ICa
0.75
IC ICc b
0.75
IC
Example 43 - Frame with point symmetry

Y
Y
1
+
+ 1
X
2
X
point symmetry
20
X'
4 +
Y'
3
c
X'
4 +
Y'
independent free dofs for inextensible elements
20
20
0
+
X
2
+
X
1
a
3
a
1
c
X'
4 +
Y'
3
c
X'
4 +
Y'
Page 615
Filip C. Filippou
Example 45 - Frame with point symmetry - Solution by force method

0 2
X'
1
+
Y'
X'
+
Y'
+
X
+
X
4 3
symmetric dof's
X'
anti-symmetric dof's
Q 1
Q 2
+
Y'
Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 2
+
X
X'
Q 3
Y
Q 3
Q2
Y
Q 3
Y'
+
X
Q 1
Q 1
P1 P2
Q' 2 + Q' 2 6
+ 0.8 ( Q'3 + Q' 3)
Q' 2 3
+ 1.6 Q'3
P3 P4
Q"1 + Q"1 8
+ 0.6 ( Q"3 + Q"3)
Q"1 4
+ 1.2 Q"3
Q' 1 + Q' 2 + Q' 2 + Q' 1
2 Q' 1 + 2 Q'2
Q"1 + Q"2 + Q"2 + Q"1
2 Q"1 + 2 Q"2
1 more unknown than equations NOS = 2
1 more unknown than equations
Taking advantage of symmetric structural models in computer analysis

Introduce special boundary conditions at plane or point of symmetry and analyze only "sample" portion of structure For general loading need to decompose it into symmetric and anti-symmetric components (see end of presentation) Need to conduct separate analyses for symmetric and anti-symmetric loading, since boundary conditions change in each case
Analysis of plane symmetry by computer
symmetric loading
symmetry plane or axis
anti-symmetric loading
Y'
Y'
+
X
X'
+
X
X'
Under symmetric loading -> response is symmetric At symmetry plane displacement in X and rotation about Z are zero. Equivalent boundary condition:
Under anti-symmetric loading -> response is anti-symmetric At symmetry plane displacement in Y is zero
Equivalent boundary condition:
Page 616
Filip C. Filippou
Analysis of point symmetry by computer
symmetric loading
X'
+ point of symmetry
Y'
Under symmetric loading -> response is symmetric At point of symmetry displacements in X and Y are zero +
X
Equivalent boundary condition:
anti-symmetric loading
symmetry point or axis
X'
+ point of symmetry
Y'
Under anti-symmetric loading -> response is anti-symmetric At point of symmetry rotation about Z is zero +
X
Equivalent boundary condition: free to translate, no rotation symmetry point or axis
Decomposition of loading for computer analysis

30 10
16
Y'
+
X
X'
15 8
15 8 8
15
15
symmetric load case
anti-symmetric load case
Page 617

The geometry is shown in the following figure. The element properties are
EIa := 10 La := 20
Y
EIb := 3 10 Lb := 20
EIc := 1 10 Lc := 20
+ 1
X
point symmetry
20
X'
4 +
Y'
20
20
With this geometry and the given element properties the structural model is point symmetric about the midpoint of element b, as shown in the figure above. If axial deformations are neglected and no advantage is taken of the point symmetry the structural model has 3 independent free global dofs, as shown in the following figure.
Y
1
+
X
2
a
3
c
X'
4 +
Y'
Page 618
To take advantage of the point symmetry of the structural model we group the independent free global dofs into a symmetric and antisymmetric set. We do this by looking at the original dofs and considering their counterparts in the prime coordinate system. The total number of dofs does not change in the process. symmetric dof
Y
0
+
X
1
a
symmetric translation of the original dof 1 is not possible, if element b is inextensible
1
c
X'
4 +
Y'
antisymmetric dofs
Y
the compatibility matrix becomes
2
+
X
3
a
3
c
X'
4 +
Y'
0 1 1 Af := 1 1 0
1 1 La 1 0 0 1 1 1 La 1 0 La
1 La 0
The first column of the compatibility matrix represents the symmetric dof and the other two the antisymmetric dofs. Observe that the entries of the lower half of the compatibility matrix are the "reflection" of the entries of the upper half: for the symmetric dof the signs are equal, for the antisymmetric dofs the signs are opposite.
Page 619
Alternatively, the compatibility matrix for the symmetric and antisymmetric dofs can be set up directly. We apply each global dof in turn, while holding the others equal to zero. We determine the element deformations and write them in the compatibility matrix Af degree of freedom 1
U1 = 1
20
U1 = 1
0 1 1 := 1 Af 1 1 0
20
20
degree of freedom 2
U1 = 1
20
20
20
1 La 1 La 0 2 := Af 0 1 L c 1 Lc
Page 620
degree of freedom 3
U3 = 1
20
U3 = 1
0 1 1 Af 3 := 1 1 0
20
20
complete compatibility matrix
Af
0 1 1 = 1 1 0
1 20
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 20 1 0 20
1 20
as before
Page 621
Form the structure stiffness matrix set up collection of element stiffness matrices
4 EIa 2 EIa 0 0 0 0 L La a 2 EIa 4 EIa 0 0 0 0 L La a 4 EIb 2 EIb 0 0 0 0 Lb Lb Ks := 2 EIb 4 EIb 0 0 0 0 Lb Lb 4 EIc 2 EIc 0 0 0 0 Lc Lc 2 EIc 4 EIc 0 0 0 0 Lc Lc
The stiffness matrix of the structural model becomes
T Kf := Af Ks Af Kf
0 2200 0 3 = 0 3 30 10 0 30 1000
We observe that the stiffness matrix is now composed of two uncoupled submatrices, a 1x1 matrix that corresponds to the single symmetric dof and a 2x2 submatrix that corresponds to the antisymmetric dofs. This happens because the column of the compatibility matrix that corresponds to the symmetric dof is orthogonal with respect to the stiffness to the columns of the compatibility matrix that correspond to the antisymmetric dofs
Page 622
Structure stiffness matrix "by hand"
Set up the basic forces for each independent free dof and use the principle of virtual displacements to determine the forces at the global dofs due to these forces (note that the basic forces correspond to the deformations caused by a unit displacement at each global dof). The forces at the global dofs are by definition the stiffness coefficients. We demonstrate
EI a La
EI a La
EI b Lb
basic forces due to unit displacement at dof 1 observe the deformed shape of element b; it corresponds to a symmetric deformation and results in symmetric basic forces
EI b Lb
EI 4 c Lc
EI 2 c Lc
6 EI 2 1 1 L 2EI EI L 1 2 1 6 L
EI 6 2a La
EI a L2 a
EI c L2 c
basic forces due to unit displacement at dof 2

6 EI c L2 c
EI a La
EI a La
EI b Lb
basic forces due to unit displacement at dof 3 observe the deformed shape of element b; it corresponds to an antisymmetric deformation and results in anti-symmetric basic forces
EI 2 b Lb
4 EI c Lc 2 EI c Lc
2 EI 2EI 2 1 1 L L 1 2 1 EI ( 2) L
Page 623
In setting up the stiffness coefficients we look at the "upper half" of the structure and then double the result.
K11 := 2 4 K21 := 0 K31 := 0
EIa La
+ 6
EIb
Lb
K11 = 2200 10
note that the virtual displacement for dof 2 is "orthogonal" to the forces due to dof 1
K22 := 2
6EIa 1 6EIa 1 + 2 La L 2 La La a 6EIa 1 La2 EIa La

+ 2 EIb
K22 = 3 10
K32 := 2
K32 = 30 10
K33 := 2 4
Lb
K33 = 1000 10
Loading
if the loading is symmetric or anti-symmetric, then it excites only the corresponding set of dofs and we can solve a smaller problem. We demonstrate
Y
100 + 1
X
the nodal force vector is
point symmetry
20
0 Pf := 100 0
and we can see clearly that the symmetric dof is "not excited", i.e. its value is zero under this nodal force vector
X'
4 +
Y'
20
20
Page 624
We can therefore solve the smaller problem with only two independent free global dofs (dof #1 is zero). we obtain with the anti-symmetric submatrix of the stiffness matrix denoted by Kfa
Kfa :=
3 30 3 10 30 1000 1 1 1 1 0
0
Pfa :=
100 0
Ufa := lsolve ( Kfa , Pfa)
Ufa =
47.619 3 10 1.429
with the columns of the compatibility matrix corresponding to the anti-symmetric dofs we have
1 La 1 La 0 Afa := 0 1 L a 1 La
V := Afa Ufa
Q := Ks V
571.43 428.57 428.57 = 428.57 428.57 571.43
observe the anti-symmetric force distribution
If the loading is general, then there are non-zero nodal force terms for the symmetric and the anti-symmetric dofs. In such case, we need to solve two smaller problems and add up the answers. We demonstrate for the case of uniformly distributed load in element c.
Element loading
Set up the initial force vector due to distributed load

P01
w := 12
Pfw
0 w Lc := 2 0
Set up the initial element force vector Q0
wLc 2
P03 wL2 c 12
wLc 2 wLc 2
wL2 c 12
0 0 0 0 Q0 := 2 w Lc 12 2 w Lc 12
Page 625
The initial force vector at the global dof's P0 becomes
T P0 := Af Q0 + Pfw
P0
400 = 120 400
The nodal force vector P is equal to zero for this loading
0 Pf := 0 0
Pfs P0s Kfs 3 Ufs = 0.182 10
We solve for the symmetric and anti-symmetric dofs separately. We have for the symmetric dof
Pfs := 0 P0s := 400 Kfs := 2200 10 3
thus
Ufs :=
and for the anti-symmetric dofs

Pfa :=
0 0
P0a :=
120 400
Ufa := lsolve ( Kfa , Pfa P0a)
Ufa =
51.429 3 10 1.143
the final result is the superposition of the two solutions; in this case the complete free dof displacement vector is the combination of the symmetric and anti-symmetric dofs
Uf := stack ( Ufs , Ufa)
Uf
0.182 3 = 51.429 10 1.143
with the free dof displacement values established we can determine element deformations and basic forces in the usual way
V := Af Uf
Q := Ks V + Q0
638.96 506.49 506.49 = 179.22 179.22 1075.32
Page 626
Example 44 - Bridge with external prestressing
Example 44 - Bridge model with symmetry plane and external prestressing

Geometry and loading
s
50
1 b
2 c 5
d f e 40 6
h g
4 10
30
30
With the given geometry and element properties we have
EIa := 3 10 La := 30 Lb :=
EId := 3 10 Ld := 40
EIh := 3 10 Lh := 30
EA := 3 10
w := 50
30 + 10
Lb = 31.623
Le := 40
Lg := Lb
Lc := 10
Lf := 10
Dof numbering The structure has 8 free degrees of freedom, as indicated in the following figure.
s 1 2 3 4
5 6 s 8
Page 627
We note that the geometry and element properties of the structure are symmetric about plane s-s. The loading also happens to be symmetric. To take advantage of the symmetric characteristics of the structure we group the free dofs in symmetric and antisymmetric generalized dofs, as shown in the following figures. Positive orientation is based on a right handed system for the left half of the structure (note the orientation of the reference system for the right half of the structure). Symmetric generalized dof's
Y X
1 2 2
Y' X'
3 4 s
Antisymmetric generalized dofs
3 4
Y X
6
5 6
Y' X'
7 8 s 8
Page 628
Solution under given symmetric loading with symmetric dofs and 1/2 the structural model We set up the structure compatibility matrix for the symmetric generalized dofs. We only list deformations for the left half of the structure. We need to be careful and include a deformation for elements that are intersected by the symmetry axis, like element d (only one deformation at the left hand). For dofs 1 and 2 we obtain:
a b c
d f e
s
h g
a b c
d f e
h g
1 La 0 Afs := 1 0 0
rotation at right end of member a
30 10 0 Lb Lb 0 1 0 0 1 0
change of length of member b change of length of member c rotation at left end of member d change of length of member e for left half of its length!
0 1
Page 629
For the element force-deformation matrix we need to be careful with member d and make sure to include the effect of the symmetric mode of deformation. From the following figure we conclude:
2EI L
1 L s
2EI L
We have:
3 EIa 0 0 0 La EA 0 0 0 Lb EA 0 0 0 Lc Ks := EId 0 0 0 Ld 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
EA
Le 2
Form the structure stiffness matrix for the free dofs T
0 300 333.33 1000 Kfs := Afs Ks Afs 1000 45000 0 0 3 Kfs = 10 0 0 235.38 28.46 0 28.46 309.49 300 Set up the applied nodal force vector 0 0 applied nodal forces at symmetric dofs Pfs := 0 w La 2 0 equivalent nodal forces due to distributed loads (from direct equilibrium) Pfw :=
+ 0 0 0
w Ld 2
Page 630
initial force vector (element fixed-end forces)
2 La w 8 0 Q0 := 0 2 w Ld 12 0
Q0
5625 0 = 0 6666.67 0
complete initial force vector at free symmetric dofs
T P0s := Afs Q0 + Pfw
1937.5 1041.7 P0s = 0 0
We need to solve:
Pfs = Kfs Ufs + P0s
Solve for the unknown displacements of the symmetric global dofs 2 T Ufs = ( 11.508 0.258 1.364 11.281 ) 10
Ufs := lsolve ( Kfs , Pfs P0s)
Determine the deformations of all elements 3 T Vs = ( 1.26 22.73 2.27 2.58 13.64 ) 10 IMPORTANT: add initial forces
Vs := Afs Ufs
Determine the basic element forces for the symmetric dofs
Q := Ks Vs + Q0
3 T Q = ( 32.04 2.16 0.68 32.04 2.05 ) 10
Page 631
Internal forces and joint equilibrium

1818 2046 318 1000 682
2156 2500 50
50 32040 1818 318 682 1000
50 32040 1000 318 1818
2156
2046
Effect of external prestressing For the effect of prestress the initial force vector Q0 is modified to include both element load and prestress 2 w La 8 0 0 Q0 := 2 w Ld 12 16000 <<< prestressing force
initial force vector due to prestress (element fixed-end forces)
complete initial force vector at free symmetric dofs
T P0s := Afs Q0 + Pfw
1937.5 1041.7 P0s = 16000 0
We need to solve:
Pfs = Kfs Ufs + P0s
Solve for the unknown displacements of the symmetric global dofs 2 T Ufs = ( 0.377 0.011 6.829 0.262 ) 10
Ufs := lsolve ( Kfs , Pfs P0s)
Page 632
Determine the deformations of all elements 3 T Vs = ( 0.02 63.96 6.4 0.11 68.29 ) 10
Vs := Afs Ufs
Determine the basic element forces for the symmetric dofs ( IMPORTANT: add initial forces ) 3 T Q = ( 5.062 6.068 1.919 5.062 5.756 ) 10
Q := Ks Vs + Q0 Internal Forces and joint equilibrium

581 5756 919
1000 1919
6068 2500 50
50 5062 581 919 1919 1000 1000 5062
50
919
581
6068
5756
It is worth noting that the axial forces in the truss members increased about threefold after the prestressing, but the moments in the girder dropped about six fold (in fact, if one were to calculate the maximum positive moment in both cases a large reduction would be observed). It is also worth noting that the vertical displacement at joint 2 reduced 30-fold by the prestressing. Since the prestressing operation is performed in the field by stressing against the existing structure, the initial force of 16,000 will not be experienced by member e. In fact, during prestressing the tensile force in member e will gradually rise to its final value of 5756.2 and the girder will be pushed upward.
Page 633
Solution for general loading case In this case we need to consider both symmetric and anti-symmetric dofs. global free dofs without consideration of symmetry
1 2
3 4
5 6 s 8
symmetric dofs
Y
1
+
X
s 2
1
X'
Y'
3 4
antisymmetric dofs
3 s 4
Y X
6
5 6
Y' X'
7 8 s 8
Page 634
Compatibility matrix
a b c
s
d f e s
h g
dof 1
a b c
d f e s
h g
dof 2
d a b c e
s
dof 5
1 L a 0 1 0 Af := 0 0 1 0 1 L h
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
30 10 Lb Lb 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
30 10 Lg Lg 0 0
10 30 0 0 Lb Lb 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 Ld 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 Ld 1 0 0 1 30 10 0 0 Lg Lb 1 1 0 0 Lh
Page 635
1 1 La
3 EIa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 La EA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lb EA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lc 4 EId 2 EId 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ld Ld EA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ks := 0 Le 2 EId 4 EId 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ld Ld EA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lf EA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lg 3 EIh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lh

Form the structure stiffness matrix for free dofs T K := Af Ks Af
0 600 0 0 0 0 666.667 2000 0 0 0 0 0 0 2000 90000 0 0 470.763 56.921 0 0 0 0 600 0 56.921 618.974 0 0 0 0 103 = 0 0 0 0 891.667 2500 0 600 0 0 0 0 2500 150000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 170.763 56.921 0 0 0 600 0 56.921 618.974 0
Page 636
We note that the structure stiffness matrix consists of two uncoupled 4x4 submatrices, one for the set of symmetric dofs, and the other for the set of antisymmetric dofs. Interestingly, the only coupling between girder and external prestressing cables are the vertical posts c and f. This coupling arises through the interaction of dofs 1 and 4, and 5 and 8.
General load case

50 s
1 b
2 c 5
d f e 40
s
h g
4 10
6 30
30
2 La w 8 0 0 0 Q0 := 0 0 0 0 0
Q0
5625 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 0
Pfw
w La 2 0 0 0 := w La 2 0 0 0
Pfw
750 0 0 0 = 750 0 0 0
complete initial force vector
T Pf0 := Af Q0 + Pfw
Pf0
937.5 5625 0 0 = 937.5 5625 0 0
We can now solve two 4x4 problems and then superpose the results, as we did in Example 43.
Page 637
Example 45 - Force method for model with point symmetry
Example 45 - Force method for structural model with point symmetry

With the given geometry and element properties we have
EI := 50000 La := 8
EA := 10000 Lb := 6
30 20
Lc := 8
Ld :=
8 +6
Le :=
8 +6
d b 1
point symmetry
a 8
2 8
The structure has four independent global dofs, if elements a, b and c are assumed inextensible. The dofs and corresponding deformations and basic element forces are numbered in the following figures.
2 3 4 1 3 6 5 1
4 2
Q4
Q3
Q5 Q6
Q2 Q1
Page 638
The symmetric dofs are two. These are shown in the following figure
0 2
X'
1
+
Y'
point symmetry
Y
+
X
0
The corresponding basic forces are shown in the following figure
X'
Q2
Q1
Q 3
Q2
+
Y'
Q 3
Y
+
X
Q1
The equilibrium equations for the symmetric dofs are (using PVD!)
P1 =
Q'2 + Q'2 6
+ 0.8 ( Q'3 + Q'3 ) =
Q'2 3
+ 1.6 Q'3
P2 = Q'1 + Q'2 + Q'2 + Q'1 = 2 Q'1 + 2 Q'2

We have two equations in three unknown basic forces; thus, the degree of static indeterminacy is NOS=1. We select Q`2 as the redundant basic force the particular solution is
20 = 1.6 Q'3 0 = 2 Q'1
thus,
0 Q'p := 0 12.5
Page 639
The homogeneous solution is:
0=
1 + 1.6 Q'3 3
B'barx
0 = 2 Q'1 + 2 ( 1)
1 1 := 1 4.8
We set up the collection of element flexibility matrices for only half the structure
La 0 0 3 1 Lb Fs := 0 0 6 EI EI 0 0 Ld EA
the compatibility equation gives Q'x :=
T B'barx Fs Q'p T B'barx F s B'barx
Q'x = 22.31
and the final symmetric solution is
Q' := Q'p + B'barx Q'x
Q'
22.31 = 22.31 7.85
Page 640
The antisymmetric dofs are also two. These are shown in the following figure.
3 4
X'
+
Y'
point symmetry
Y
+
X
4 3
The corresponding basic forces are shown in the following figure
Q1 Q 3
Y
X'
Q 2 Q 2 Q 3
Y'
+
X
Q1
The equilibrium equations for the antisymmetric dofs are (using PVD!)
P3 =
Q"1 + Q"1 8
+ 0.6 ( Q"3 + Q"3) =
Q"1 4
+ 1.2 Q"3
P4 = Q"1 + Q"2 + Q"2 + Q"1 = 2 Q"1 + 2 Q"2

We have two equations in three unknown basic forces; thus, the degree of static indeterminacy is NOS=1. We select Q"1 as the redundant basic force the particular solution is
30 = 1.2 Q"3 0 = 2 Q"2
thus,
0 Q" p := 0 25
Page 641
The homogeneous solution is:
0=
1 + 1.2 Q"3 4
B"barx
0 = 2 ( 1) + 2 Q"2
1 1 := 1 4.8
We set up the collection of element flexibility matrices for only half the structure
La 0 0 3 1 Lb Fs := 0 0 2 EI EI 0 0 Ld EA
the compatibility equation gives Q" x :=
T B"barx Fs Q" p B"barx Fs B"barx T
Q" x = 33.23
and the final symmetric solution is
Q" := Q" p + B"barx Q" x
Q"
33.23 = 33.23 18.08
The final solution is obtained by superposition of the symmetric and antisymmetric solution. In this regard we note the following relations between the original basic forces on the one hand, and the symmetric and antisymmetric basic forces on the other.
Q1 = Q'1 + Q"1 Q2 = Q'2 + Q"2 Q3 = Q'1 Q"1 Q4 = Q'2 Q"2 Q5 = Q'3 + Q"3 Q6 = Q'3 Q"3
thus,
Q1 Q2 := Q 5 Q3 Q4 := Q 6
Q' + Q"
Q' Q"
finally,
Q1 10.92 Q2 10.92 Q 3 = 55.54 Q4 55.54 Q5 10.22 Q 25.93 6
Page 642
Example 46 - Braced Frame with Symmetry
Example 46- Force Method for Braced Frame with Symmetry

25
In the general case there are 14 basic element forces and 9 available equations of equilibrium. The degree of static indeterminacy NOS is therefore 14-9=5.
2 3 1 5 6 8 9 7
Q5
Q4
Q6
Q8
Q7
Q9
Q3
Q12
Q1
Q13
Q14
Q10
Q2
Q11
If we can neglect axial deformations in members a, b, c and d, then we are not interested in the contribution of basic forces Q1 , Q4 , Q7 and Q10 to virtual work. We can, therefore, leave them aside, putting at the same time aside 4 equilibrium equations that involve these forces. The degree of static indeterminacy is obviously not affected by this process. The relevant basic forces are shown in the following figure. The relevant equilibrium equations are also indicated by renumbered dofs. We note that the horizontal force equilibrium involves the combination of original equations 1, 4 and 7 into a single equation with dof number 1.
Page 643
2 1
Q3
Q4
3 4
Q5
Q6
1
5 1
Q2
Q7
Q9
Q10
Q1
Q8
Element properties:
La := 8 Lf := Le
Lb := 6
Lc := 6 EI := 40000
Ld := 8
Le :=
6 +8
Le = 10
EA := 5000
On account of the symmetry in geometry, properties and loading we renumber the internal forces, noting that moments and axial forces are symmetric about the symmetry axis under symmetric loading. We note that there are now only 5 pairs of unknown internal forces with 2 available equations of equilibrium at the symmetric global dof's: sum of vertical forces at node 3 and sum of moments at node 4. The degree of static indeterminacy of the symmetric problem is therefore 3 (there is an uncoupled set of equations for the anti-symmetric loading with degree of static indeterminacy of 2; thus, the combined system of equations has the same degree of static indeterminacy as the original problem) The following figure shows the numbering of internal forces for the right half of the structure. The orientation of internal and external forces that obeys symmetry in the left half of the structure is indicated.
P2
P1
3
Q1
Q2
4
P2
Q3
Q5
Q4
symmetry axis
Page 644
In the following we propose to work only with the right half of the structure. Note the appropriate boundary condition on the axis of symmetry.
P1
Q1
Q2
P2
Q3
P1 =
Q1 + Q2 Lc
+ Q5
Y Lf
Q5
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3
Q4
symmetry axis
1. We select basic element forces Q1 , Q2 and Q4 as redundant forces of the problem Qx. 2. Determine the remaining basic element forces for unit forces at the symmetric free dof's and Q 1 =0, Q2 =0 and Q4 =0. The unit forces at the symmetric free dof's are applied each one in turn, with the others equal to zero, and their influence on the basic element forces is recorded in a force influence matrix denoted by Bi
P1
Q1 = 0
Q2 = 0
P2
Q3
P1 =
Q1 + Q2 Lc
+ Q5
Y Lf
Q5
P2 = Q 2 + Q 3
Q4 = 0
symmetry axis
For For
P1 = 1 P1 = 0
and and
P2 = 0 P2 = 1
and and
Q1 = 0 Q1 = 0
Q2 = 0 Q2 = 0
Q4 = 0 we have: Q4 = 0 we have:
Q3 = 0 Q3 = 1
Q5 =
Lf Y
Q5 = 0
Page 645
We have the following values for the force influence matrix Bi
0 0 0 Bi := 0 5 4
0 1 0 0

with the given loading
25 2 Pf := 0
3. Determine the remaining basic element forces for the following combinations: Q1 =1, Q2 =0 and Q4 =0; Q1 =0, Q2 =1 and Q4 =0; Q1 =0, Q2 =0 and Q4 =1. This establishes the three columns of the force influence matrix denoted by Bx The equilibrium equations are:
0=
Q1 + Q2 Lc
+ Q5
Y Lf
Q1 = 1
Q2 = 0
Q3
0 = Q2 + Q3
for
Q1 = 1 Q2 = 0 Q4 = 0
1 0 0 Bx 1 := 0 5 24
Q5
Q4 = 0
symmetry axis
0=
Q1 + Q2 Lc
Y + Q5 Lf
Q1 = 0
Q2 = 1
Q3
0 = Q2 + Q3
for
Q1 = 0 Q2 = 1 Q4 = 0
0 1 1 Bx 2 := 0 5 24
Q5
Q4 = 0
symmetry axis
Page 646
0=
Q1 + Q2 Lc
+ Q5
Y Lf
Q1 = 0
Q2 = 0
Q3
0 = Q2 + Q3
for
Q1 = 0 Q2 = 0 Q4 = 1
0 0 Bx 3 := 0 1 0
Q5
Q4 = 1
symmetry axis
With the unknown basic forces denoted by Qx we can write Q = Bi Pf + Bx Qx. In words this reflects the fact that the basic element forces will result from the superposition of the forces under the applied forces and the forces under the redundant forces. 4. The basic element deformations under the basic forces Q are simply: V = F s Q in the absence of initial deformations. 5. To determine the value of the unknown basic forces Qx we write the compatibility conditions. BxT V = 0 After substituting the expression for V in terms of Q and then Q in terms of P f and Qx we obtain T Bx F s ( B0 Pf + Bx Qx) = 0 where Fs in the collection of element flexibility matrices for the right half of the structure
Lc Lc 0 0 0 6 EI 3 EI Lc Lc 0 0 0 6 EI 3 EI Ld Ld Fs := 0 0 0 3 EI 6 EI Ld Ld 0 0 0 6 EI 3 EI Lf 0 0 0 0 EA
Page 647
We define the following terms:
T Fxi := Bx Fs Bi
Fxi
0 0.521 3 = 0.521 0.067 10 0 0.033
T Fxx := Bx F s Bx
0.137 0.062 0 3 Fxx = 0.062 0.203 0.033 10 0 0.033 0.067

Fxi Pf + Fxx Qx = 0
With these terms the compatibility condition becomes: and we can solve for the unknown Qx
1 Qx = Fxx F xi Pf
We obtain
1 Qx := F xx Fxi Pf
Qx
37.44 = 22.46 11.23
The basic element forces become
Q := Bi Pf + Bx Qx T Q = ( 37.44 22.46 22.46 11.23 3.14 )
Note that it is easier from the standpoint of hand calculations to factor some stiffness value, e.g. EI, out of the composite flexibility matrix. In this case we have:
Lc Lc 0 0 0 6 3 Lc Lc 0 0 0 6 3 Ld Ld EIFs := 0 0 0 3 6 Ld Ld 0 0 0 6 3 Lf 0 0 0 0 EI EA
We define the following terms: T EIFxi := Bx EIFs Bi EIFxi
20.83 0 = 20.83 2.67 0 1.33
T EIFxx := Bx EIFs Bx
5.47 2.47 0 EIFxx = 2.47 8.14 1.33 0 1.33 2.67
Page 648
We note that the values are much more manageable from the standpoint of hand calculations. Naturally, the value of Qx does not change when we determine it from
Qx := EIFxx 1 EIFxi Pf
Qx
37.44 = 22.46 11.23

T Uf = Bi V
6. Determination of displacements at global dof's
After substituting the expression for V in terms of Q and then Q in terms of P f and Qx we obtain T Uf = B0 Fs ( Bi Pf + Bx Qx) and with the definitions we obtain T Fii := Bi F s Bi T Fix := Bi Fs Bx
Uf := Fii Pf + F ix Qx Uf =
The result is
7.862 3 10 1.123
T Fix = Fxi since Fs is symmetric
It is worth noting that
For a general result we substitute the expression of Qx into the global displacement equation and have Uf = F ii Pf + Fix Qx = Fii F ix F xx 1 Fxi Pf = F Pf F is the structure flexibility matrix; its coefficient F ij corresponds to the displacement at global dof i due to a unit force at dof j. In our case we have: F := F ii Fix Fxx 1 F xi F =
0.629 0.09 3 10 0.09 0.034
The inverse of the system flexibility matrix F is the system stiffness matrix K (also denoted as Kf in the course)
Page 649
Anti-symmetric Loading Case

We now would like to solve the following load case with anti-symmetric loading.
30
which is identical to the following case if axial deformations can be neglected in members b and c
15 15
Page 650
We note that there are initially 5 pairs of unknown internal forces with asymmetric values as shown in the following figure. There are 3 available equations of equilibrium at the asymmetric global dof's: sum of horizontal forces at node 4, sum of moments at node 3 and sum of moments at node 4. The degree of static indeterminacy for this problem is therefore 2.
P1
P2
P3
Q1
3
Q2 P2
4
P1
Q3
Q5
Q4
symmetry axis
Because the external moment at dof 3 is zero, and the internal forces are anti-symmetric we conclude that Q1 is zero. We therefore re-number internal forces and relevant dofs for the right half of the structure in the following figure. The orientation of internal and external forces that obeys asymmetry in the left half of the structure is indicated. P2 P2 P1 Q1 P1 The equilibrium equations are: 3 Q2
P1 =
Q4
Q2 + Q3 Ld
Q5
X Lf
P2 = Q 1 + Q 2
Q3
symmetry axis
Page 651
In the following we propose to work only with the right half of the structure. Note the appropriate boundary condition on the axis of symmetry.
Q1
3
P2
P1 Q2
Q4
Q3
symmetry axis
1. We select basic element forces Q1 and Q3 as the redundants of the problem Qx. 2. Determine the remaining basic element forces for the given loading at the asymmetric free dof's and Q1 =0 and Q3 =0. This produces basic force vector QP. The equilibrium equations are:
Q1 = 0
15
15 =
Q2 + Q3 Ld
X Q4 Lf
Q4
Q2
0 = Q1 + Q2
Q3 = 0
symmetry axis
We have the following values for the forces under the applied nodal forces with
Q1 = 0
Q3 = 0 we have:
Q2 = 0
Q4 = 15
Lf X
0 0 Qp := 0 25
Page 652
3. Determine the remaining basic element forces for the following combinations: Q1 =1 and Q3 =0; Q1 =0 and Q3 =1. This establishes the two columns of the force influence matrix denoted by B x The equilibrium equations are:
0=
Q2 + Q3 Ld
Q4
X Lf
Q1 = 1
4 3
0 = Q1 + Q2
Q2 Q4
for
Q1 = 1 Q3 = 0
1 1 Bx 1 := 0 5 24
Q3 = 0
symmetry axis
0=
Q2 + Q3 Ld
Q4
X Lf
Q4
Q1 = 0
0 = Q1 + Q2
Q2
for
Q1 = 0 Q3 = 1
0 0 Bx 2 := 1 5 24 1 0 1 0 Bx := 0 1 5 5 24 24
Q3 = 1
symmetry axis
Thus
we need to make sure to redefine the Bx matrix completely, so as to avoid confusion with the symmetric case
With the unknown basic forces denoted by Qx we can write Q = Qp + Bx Qx. In words this reflects the fact that the basic element forces will result from the superposition of the forces under the applied forces and the forces under the unknown basic forces.
Page 653
4. The basic element deformations under the basic forces Q are simply: V = F s Q in the absence of initial deformations. 5. To determine the value of the unknown basic forces Qx we write the compatibility conditions BxT V = 0 After substituting the expression for V in terms of Q and then Q in terms of QP and Qx we obtain T Bx F s ( Qp + Bx Qx) = 0 where Fs in the collection of the element flexibility matrices for the right half of the structure
Lc 0 0 0 3 EI Ld Ld 0 0 3 EI 6 EI Fs := Ld Ld 0 0 6 EI 3 EI Lf 0 0 0 EA
We define the following term: T Fxx := Bx F s Bx Fxx =
0.203 0.053 3 10 0.053 0.153
With these term the compatibility condition becomes: and we can solve for the unknown Qx T 1 Qx := F xx Bx F s Qp
T Bx F s Qp + F xx Qx = 0
T 1 Qx = Fxx Bx Fs Qp Qx =
We obtain
36.72 55.08
T Q = ( 36.72 36.72 55.08 5.88 )
The basic element forces become
Q := Qp + Bx Qx
Page 654
Ex. 47 - Vierendeel Truss with double symmetry
Example 47 - Vierendeel Truss with Double Symmetry

We investigate the following Vierendeel truss with double symmetry.
s1 4 c 5 e d
La := 8
g s2 6
Lb := 8
Lc := 8
f s2
Ld := 8 Le := 6 EI := 50000 Lf := 6 Lg := 6
2 a 8 s1 b 8
The planes of symmetry as s1 and s2, as shown in the figure. Under the assumption that all elements are inextensible the structural model has 8 independent free global dofs, as shown in the following figure.
5 4 6 8 7
We reorganize these dofs now into 4 groups: one group of dofs that are symmetric about both planes (we denote these with ss), one group of dofs that is symmetric about the first and anti-symmetric about the second (sa), one group of dofs that is anti-symmetric about the first and symmetric about the second (as), and one group of dofs that is anti-symmetric about both planes (aa). We have:
1 ss - dof
only one ss dof

1
Page 655
2 3 sa - dofs 3
two sa dofs
3 2
4 as - dof's
two as dofs
7 6 aa - dof's
7 6
three aa dofs
8 7
By selecting these 8 dofs instead of the original 8 the structure stiffness matrix separates into 4 uncoupled block-diagonal stiffness matrices: one submatrix is 1x1 and corresponds to the ss dof, the second and third submatrix are 2x2 and correspond to the sa and as dofs, respectively, and the final submatrix is 3x3 and corresponds to the aa dofs. In the following we solve this problem only for a particular loading. In this regard we would like to find out to which dofs the loading contributes non-zero terms. Let us see.
Page 656
Symmetric - symmetric dofs

w=10
w := 10
w=10
1 ss - dof
ss dof clearly not excited by this loading

1
P0ss = 0
Just in case the stiffness coefficient is:
EI EI K11 := 4 4 + 4 2 L L a e
K11 = 166.67 10
Page 657
Symmetric - anti-symmetric dofs

w=10
w=10
sa - dof's
sa dofs clearly excited by this loading we have
w La w Ld 2 + 2 P0sa := w La2 w Ld 2 + 12 12
P0sa =
sa - dof's
80 106.67
The stiffness coefficients are:
K22 := 4 12
EI La
3
EI EI K33 := 4 4 + 4 6 L L a e
free dof displacements
K23 := 4 6
EI
La
Usa =
K32 := K23
K22 K23 Ksa := K32 K33
Usa := lsolve ( Ksa , P0sa)
24.652 3 10 1.896
Page 658
Anti-symmetric - symmetric dofs

w=10
w=10
as dofs clearly excited by this loading we have
4 as - dof's
w La2 w Ld 2 12 12 P0as := 2 2 w La w Ld 12 + 12
P0as =
106.67 106.67
as - dof's
The stiffness coefficients are:
EI EI K44 := 4 4 + 4 2 L L a e
EI EI K55 := 4 4 + 2 2 L L a e
EI K45 := 4 2 L a
K54 := K45
Kas :=
K44 K45 K54 K55
free dof displacements
Uas := lsolve ( Kas , P0as)
Uas =
0.992 3 10 1.172
Page 659
Anti-symmetric - anti-symmetric dofs

w=10
w=10
aa - dof's
aa - dof's
aa dofs clearly not excited by this loading
0 P0aa = 0 0
aa - dof's
Page 660
Combination of solutions
We are interested in the displacement values at the original set of 8 independent free dofs, i.e.
5 4 6 8 7
2 3 sa - dofs 3
we denote these dofs with a prime and include only those who are non-zero, i.e. the sa and as dofs we have
U1 = U'3 + U'4 U2 = U'5
3 2
U3 = U'3 + U'4 U4 = U'3 U'4 U5 = U'2
4 as - dof's
U6 = U'5 U7 = 0
U8 = U'3 U'4
U'2 U'3 := stack ( Usa , Uas) U'4 U'5
U'2 24.652 U'3 1.896 3 10 = U'4 0.992 U'5 1.172
Page 661
thus, the original free dof displacements become
U1 := U'3 + U'4 U2 := U'5 U3 := U'3 + U'4 U4 := U'3 U'4
U1 = 0.905 10 U2 = 1.172 10 U3 = 2.888 10
3 3
U5 := U'2 U6 := U'5 U7 := 0 U8 := U'3 U'4
U5 = 24.652 10 U6 = 1.172 10 U7 = 0 U8 = 0.905 10
3 3
U4 = 2.888 10
You can compare the answers with FEDEASLab file Example_47m. The moment distribution has point symmetry, as can be observed from the following figure.
111.3 19.5 55.4 75
78.3
78.3 78.3
19.5 55.4 75
111.3
deformed shape with magnification factor of 50 shows clearly the dominance of sa dof 2.
Page 662
Structural model with infinitely rigid vertical elements
This is an interesting simplification of the earlier problem.

2 3 4
there are now only 4 independent free global dofs, i.e. 4 = 8 - 2x2
0 0 ss - dof
in such case there is no ss dof
there is only one sa dof
sa - dofs
there is only as dof

2 as - dof's
Page 663
3 4 aa - dofs 4
there are 2 aa dofs

3
w=10
EI = 50000 w = 10
w=10
with the given loading we have to solve now two problems with one unknown displacement value each symmetric - anti-symmetric dof case
Ksa := 4
12EI 3 La
2 + 2
same as K22 earlier
K22 = 4687.5
Ksa = 4687.5 P0sa Ksa
P0sa :=
w La
w Ld
P0sa = 80
Usa :=
3 Usa = 17.07 10
thus the vertical midspan translation reduces now to 0.017 from the earlier value of anti-symmetric - symmetric dof case
U5 = 24.65 10
Kas := 4 4
EI + 2 2 EI L La e
w La 12
2
same as K55 earlier
K55 = 133.33 10
Kas = 133.33 10
P0as :=
w Ld 12
2 P0as = 106.67 Uas :=
P0as Kas
3 Uas = 0.8 10
Page 664
Example 48 - Substructuring with symmetry
Example 48 - Substructuring with Symmetry

Problem Statement
Determine the vertical displacement at the point of application of the vertical force of 20 units for the structure in the figure. The flexural stiffness EI of the sloping members is 20,000 units and axial deformations can be neglected throughout.
20
12
20
20
A separate analysis of the portal frame in the following figure yielded the following relation between the horizontal force and moment at the upper right node and the corresponding displacements 2.340 103 F= 5 9.000 10 9.000 10 5 3.643 105
2 1
12
20
Page 665
We demonstrate the solution process thoroughly but succinctly.
Identification of independent free global dof's under symmetry considerations Without regard for inextensible elements and with the portal frame as substructure (i.e. an element with its own force-deformation relation) the structural model has the following dof's (i.e. 3 dof's/node).
Accounting for the inextensibility of all frame elements and separating dof's into a symmetric and anti-symmetric set we obtain the following independent free symmetric dof's.
Page 666
The corresponding basic forces Q are shown in the following figure

1
Q1
Q4
Q3
Q2
Equilibrium equations, equilibrium and compatibility matrix We write the equilibrium equations by application of the principle of virtual displacements. We have:
IC
0.75
0.75
1 P1 = ( Q1 + Q2) + 0.75 Q3 8 P2 = Q 2 + Q 4
The degree of static indeterminacy is NOS=2. Under these conditions, the displacement method seems to be the most straightforward choice (NFD = 2).
The compatibility matrix is the transpose of the equilibrium matrix:
1 8 1 Af := 8 0.75 0
0 1 0 1
Page 667
Solution by displacement method
EI := 20000
L := 10
In forming the stiffness matrix we need the stiffness matrix of the subassembly. To this end we need to invert the given flexibility matrix. We should factor out 1/EI in this calculation F* :=
234.0 9 5 10 9 3.643
F* =
46.8 1.8 1 1.8 0.729 EI
k* := F*
k* =
0.024 0.058 EI 0.058 1.517
Now we have for the collection of element stiffness matrices Ks
4 EI 2 EI L L 2 EI 4 EI Ks := L L 0 0 0 0
0 0
k* 1,1 k* 2,1
0 k* 1,2 k* 2,2
0
Ks
0.4 0.2 = 0 0
0.4 0 0 EI 0 0.024 0.058 0 0.058 1.517

0.2 0 0
The stiffness matrix for the left half of the structural model is
T K := Af Ks Af
K =
0.032 0.031 EI 0.031 1.917
The loading for half the structure is
Pf :=
10 0
Uf =
The resulting displacements are:
Uf := lsolve ( K , Pf)
317.24 1 5.17 EI
We can now determine the basic forces from the element deformations Q := Ks Af Uf T Q = ( 22.759 21.724 5.92 21.724 )
To obtain the forces in the substructure we need to perform an analysis of it under the following loading
21.724 5.92
12
20
Page 668
Solution by force method The solution by the force method of analysis is equally straightforward. We start from the equilibrium equations and select the basic forces of the substructure as redundants Qx. We solve the equilibrium equations for the three equilibrium states: (1) equilibrium state under applied loading with both redundants set to zero (particular solution), (2) equilibrium state under a unit value of the first redundant without applied loads, and (3) equilibrium state under a unit value of the second redundant without applied loads Equilibrium equations for given loading (half the structure).
1 10 = ( Q1 + Q2 ) + 0.75 Q3 8 0 = Q2 + Q4
First equilibrium state: from the equations it follows:
Q3 := 0 Q2 := 0
Q4 := 0 Q1 := 80
Q1 Q2 Qp := Q3 Q4
Qp
80 0 = 0 0
Second equilibrium state:
Q3 := 1
Q4 := 0
from the equations without any loading on the left hand side
1 0 = ( Q1 + Q2) + 0.75 Q3 8 0 = Q2 + Q4
Third equilibrium state:
it follows
Q2 := 0
Q1 := 6
Q1 Q2 Bbarx 1 := Q3 Q4
Q3 := 0
Q4 := 1
from the equations without any loading on the left hand side
1 0 = ( Q1 + Q2) + 0.75 Q3 8 0 = Q2 + Q4
it follows
Q2 := 1
Q1 := 1
Q1 Q2 Bbarx 2 := Q3 Q4
Thus:
Bbarx
6 0 = 1 0
1 1 0 1
Page 669
Collection of element flexibility matrices
L L 3 EI 6 EI L L Fs := 6 EI 3 EI 0 0 0 0
0 0
F* F* 1,1 2,1
0 F* 1,2 F* 2,2
0
Fs
0 3.33 1.67 0 1.67 3.33 0 0 1 = 0 0 46.8 1.8 EI 0 1.8 0.73 0
Compatibility condition for redundant basic forces T Vhp := Bbarx F s Qp Vhp =
T Fxx := Bbarx Fs Bbarx
Fxx =
1600 1 400 EI 5.92 21.72
166.8 28.2 1 28.2 10.73 EI
1 Qx := Fxx Vhp
Qx =
Final basic forces are obtained by superposition of three equilibrium states: Q := Qp + Bbarx Qx T Q = ( 22.76 21.72 5.92 21.72 ) same as before
To determine the vertical displacement at dof 1 with this solution approach, we need to use either geometry (i.e. the compatibility equations) or the principle of virtual forces. Let us try PVF first.
1 P1 = Q1 + Q2 + 0.75 Q3 8
set
P1 = 1
Q3 := 0 Q4 := 0
0 = Q2 + Q4
then it follows that
Q2 := 0
with
Q1 := 8
Thus, the vertical displacement is
U1 = 8 V1 U1 := 8 V
1
L 3 V := 2 Q Q V = 1.983 10 1 1 2 1 6 EI 2 U1 = 1.586 10 it agrees with displ. method
A faster solution than that by the principle of virtual forces is obtained by "geometry", i.e. by the compatibility equations directly. We note that
V = Af Uf
where
Af
0.125 0.125 = 0.75 0
1 0 1
from the first row we can see clearly that
U1 = 8 V1
Page 670
Filip C. Filippou
Betti's Theorem was published in 1872. It deals with the effect of one system of forces on the displacements of another, independent system of forces under linear elastic material behavior. Consider a structural model and two independent sets of forces and the corresponding set of displacements. First set of forces and corresponding displacements (subscript m) Second set of forces and corresponding displacements (subscript n)
P4
U4
P1 U3
P2
U1
P3
U2
Pm U m
The figure singles out two dofs with applied forces and two separate dof's with resulting displacements.
Pn U n
The figure singles out two dofs with applied forces and two separate dof's with resulting displacements.
Betti's Theorem states that the work done by the first set of forces on the displacements caused by the second set is equal to the work done by the second set of forces on the displacements caused by the first set. In compact mathematical notation this is stated as
T PnT Um = Pm Un
Proof: apply first set of forces followed by the second set and calculate the work done in the process: W = Reverse order of application and calculate work: W =
1 T 1 T Pm U m + Pm U n + PnT U n From conservation of energy (work) follows Betti's theorem. 2 2
1 T 1 T Pn U n + PnT U m + Pm U m 2 2
If the first set of forces only included P1 and P2 and the second set of forces only P3 and P4 in the above figures, then this statement specializes to
P1U1 + P2 U 2 = P3 U 3 + P4 U 4
note, however, carefully the meaning of the terms: displacements on the left hand side of equation are caused by force set on the right hand side of equation, and displacements on the right hand side by force set on the left hand side, as the above figures illustrate. Another proof of Betti's theorem is instructive. We show it on the following page.
Another proof of Betti's theorem (1) Start with equality of external and internal work between forces of set m on displacements or deformations of set n (2) Use the linear elastic force-deformation relation to express the deformations of set n in terms of the corresponding basic forces (3) Make use of the symmetry of the element flexibility matrix (4) Use the linear elastic force-deformation relation to deformations of set m resulting from the actions of the corresponding basic forces (5) Use the equality of internal and external work between forces of set n on displacements or deformations of set m this time
T Pm U n T Pm Un = QT Vn m
Note: by limiting the requirement on P and Q to equilibrium only we have the principle of virtual forces.
QT Vn = QT Fs Qn m m
Q T Fs Q n = QT Fs Q m m n
Q T Fs Q m = Q T Vm n n
Q T Vm = PnT U m n
PnT U m
Q.E.D.
A special case of Betti's theorem is Maxwell's reciprocal theorem which was enunciated a few years earlier (1864) independently. It states that the displacement of a particular dof under a unit force at a second dof is equal to the displacement of the second dof under a unit force at the first dof. Note that one displacement resp. force can be a rotation, resp. moment. In the following figure this means
U1
U1 = U 2
U2
This directly implies the symmetry of the flexibility matrix F (recall definition of flexibility coefficient) and, consequently, the structural stiffness matrix K as its inverse.
Page 671
Filip C. Filippou
Example: application of Maxwell's theorem unit force

m EI EI n
unit force
given Um and Un under a unit force at n, and Um under a unit force at m determine the vertical translations at m and n under the loading given below i.e. given Fmn , Fnn , Fmm Maxwell's theorem states that Fmn = Fnm
30
m EI EI n
20
Thus,
U n = Fnn ( 20 ) + Fnm ( 30 )
U m = Fmn ( 20 ) + Fmm ( 30 )
Betti's theorem
First set of forces and corresponding displacements (subscript m) Second set of forces and corresponding displacements (subscript n)
P4
U4
P1 U3
P2
U1
P3
U2
Pm U m
Pn U n
Betti's Theorem states that the work done by the first set of forces on the displacements caused by the second set is equal to the work done by the second set of forces on the displacements caused by the first set. In compact mathematical notation this is stated as
T PnT Um = Pm Un
Maxwell's theorem
U1
1
U1 = U 2
U2
Page 672
Filip C. Filippou
Mller-Breslau Theorem (1885) - Generation of influence lines for moving loads What is an influence line? It is the graphical representation of the effect of a unit moving force on a displacement or internal force. The abscissa of the graph represents the location of the moving force and the ordinate its quantitative influence on the displacement or internal force of interest. Let us first look at the generation of influence lines for displacements, since the procedure results from a straightforward extension of Maxwell's theorem. We use the earlier cable-stayed bridge structural model and assume that a unit force is moving over the bridge deck (a number of nodes have been inserted for this purpose). Two locations of the unit force have been singled out and identified with letters m and n. We are interested in effect of the moving force on the translation at the top of pylon. The latter is now denoted with a double subscript (first for the location of the displacement and the second for the location of the force causing the displacement).
U tm
1
U mt
m
by Maxwell
U tm = U mt
1
U tn
U nt
n
by Maxwell
Ut
U tn = U nt
1
influence line = deformed shape under unit force

moving unit force
influence coefficient
sign convention: positive in direction of force (work!)
Influence line of horizontal translation at top of the pylon
Ut
20
moving unit force
m
30 30 30 20
influence line for displacement Ut at top of the pylon = deformed shape under unit force
Page 673
Filip C. Filippou
Influence lines for support reactions We return to Betti's theorem and specialize it to the case that the first set of forces consists of a unit force at a free dof and another force at a restrained (support) dof. We demonstrate again with the cable-stayed structural model
Um
influence line = deformed shape under unit displacement influence coefficient
m = U m
P1
first set of forces and corresponding displacements
U1 = 1
second set of forces and corresponding displacements
Apply Betti's theorem: selecting U1 = 1
(1) U m + P1U1 = 0
we get
Note that there are no forces of the second set doing work on the displacements of the first
(1) U m + P1 ( 1) = 0
P1 = U m
1[ force unit ] 1[ displ. unit ]
if the unit force is moving, then Um represents the displacement at the point of load application, under a unit support displacement in the negative direction. This gives the procedure for determining the influence line for a support reaction.
Influence line of vertical support reaction under the pylon
20 moving unit force
m
30 30 30 20
unit vertical translation
U1 = 1
Page 674
Filip C. Filippou
critical force location
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
support reaction is 1.6 times applied force value
-1.8
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
distance from left support
Influence lines for axial force N(x), shear force V(x), and bending moment M(x)
In case that we are interested in the influence line for an internal force, then we introduce a release at the particular location and study the case that we impose a unit release deformation, so that only the particular internal force does work. We have studied this in Part II and we summarize below the findings
Normal force release or axial translation device
vah
v1h
v1h = v ah
for unit v1h
v0 = 1 fixed-end force q 0 =
EA L
Bending moment release or rotational device
i
v 2h
v fh
x L L-x
j
v3h
v 2h =
v3h
Lx v fh L x = v fh L
for unit v fh
x 1 v0 = L fixed-end force x 6 EI x 1 2 EI 2 L q0 = L L 1 L 1
Shear force release or transverse translation device
for unit vth
vth
v 2h
v3h
v2h = v3h =
vth L
1 v0 = L 1 L
fixed-end force q 0 =
6 EI 1 2 L 1
x L
L-x
Page 675
Filip C. Filippou
It is important to note the difference between internal and external work at the release. We show it for the shear force and moment release
positive internal work
positive internal work
negative external work
negative external work
vth
From Betti's theorem we have
moving unit force
Um
first set of forces and corresponding displacements Apply Betti's theorem:
second set of forces and corresponding displacements
(1)U m M (1) = 0
M = Um
Note that there are no forces of the second set doing work on the displacements of the first
1[ rotation unit ]
1[ force unit ]
Influence line for bending moment M at specific location
moving unit force
Um
Page 676

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STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING MECHANICS AND MATERIALS

CE 220 - STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

FALL SEMESTER 2009

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

Matrices relating static and kinematic variables

Interpretation plastic capacity elastic at incipient collapse plastic at incipient collapse

Variables by section Statics or Equilibrium P

Fix Fxi Fxx

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

INTRODUCTION - STRUCTURAL MODELING

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Introduction; structural model

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Structural model: Geometric description, degrees of freedom

global coordinate system

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Structural model: Partition of global degrees of freedom

global coordinate system

is the free dof displacement vector

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Structural model: Generalized forces

the applied force vector is partitioned according to

is the vector of the applied forces at the free dofs

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Structural model: Loading

We can avoid element loading by approximation

requires element with distributed element loading

no element loading required, but more computational effort

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Structural model: Free bodies and element variables

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Structural model: Node equilibrium equations

Node free bodies 6 2

element force term is assigned to the appropriate dof equilibrium equation

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Structural model: Element equilibrium equations

the element equilibrium equations are

Structural model: Degree of redundancy or static indeterminacy

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Element variables: global, local and basic reference system

end forces in global system

end forces in local system

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Element variables: basic element forces

with this definition we have

or, in compact form

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Force component transformation from local to global coordinate system

X Y p5 L L Y X p5 = p4 sin + p5 cos = p4 + p5 L L p4 = p4 cos p5 sin = p4

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Element equilibrium: from basic forces to global element force components

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Element equilibrium: from basic forces to global element force components

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Special cases of basic element forces for 2d frame elements

longitudinal basic force release

flexural basic force release

Prof. Filip C. Filippou, 2000

Relation between element and section static variables

2d frame element with shear force release