ANALYSIS OF ZERO CARBON EMISSION BUILDINGS MODULE PAPER 01

ANDA KURSISA STUD. MSC. FUTURE BUILDING SOLUTIONS 2010/12 DANUBE UNIVERSITY KREMS

November 2010

Department for Building and Environment Future Building Solutions 2010/12 2. Abstract Modulpaper
Title: Analysis of Zero Carbon Emission Buildings Name of Author: Anda Kursisa Number of Pages: 25 Background: Objective of this Paper is to investigate does specific Velux Model house applies to definition of Zero Carbon Emission building. Analysis of the goals of European Union legislation are introduced, example of country code (United Kingdom) used for Velux building analysis, and different methodologies compared. Hypothesis: 1. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Nearly-Zero Energy building according to The Directive 2010/31/EU of the Energy performance of buildings? 2. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon building, Level 6, by UK Code for sustainable homes? 3. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon Emission building by full Life Cycle Assessments analysis? Method of evidence: The hypotheses were proven, by using following calculations and methodology: - U value calculations for building envelope; - Use of LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) tool for End Energy demand, Primary Energy demand, Global Warming Potential (GWP); - Calculations of use of Primary Energy Non-renewable, Primary Energy Renewable, and Global warming factor, using Excel sheet data basis for material emissions; - Energy Efficiency and the Code for Sustainable homes, SAP 2005 guidelines. Results: Hypothesis 1. According to LCA tool results regarding End Energy demand and Primary Energy renewable, Velux House meets nearly-zero energy building, because End energy demand is covered by Primary energy renewable for 98%. For long-term maintenance the additional building information must be provided and checked. Hypothesis 2. Even if major aspects are taken into account: building envelope, use of renewable, recuperation ventilation system, positive CO 2 emission factor (equivalent to GWP derived from LCA tool) is not sufficient to meet Zero Carbon Criteria here, and solar water heating is strictly not recommended. By adding the data missing, or improving the efficiency for the use of renewables, the Code requirements could be reached. Hypothesis 3. After LCA calculations through the building life cycle, both for building energy services, and building materials,Global Warming factor is not Zero or negative over the given life cycle; and Primary Energy use through the given life cycle for heating and production of building itself is not covered either by production of renewable resources onsite or by use of renewable building materials. Summarizing all the tools, Author suggests that for the future, the tool which combines the benefits of UK Code system (detailed recommendations and clear evaluation criteria); and LCA tool for building materials should be used. Transmission prohibited: Yes Date: 22.11.2010. No X

3. Contents
Nr. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 6. 6.1. 6.2. 7. 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 8. 9. a b c Title Abstract Contents Introduction Legal framework and standards European Union, Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of the Energy performance of buildings, May 19 2010. UK Energy Efficiency and the Code for Sustainable homes (edition May 2008). Other definitions and approaches to standards, comparison Velux model home Input data about the building System boundaries Hypotheses 1-Does the Velux model home meet the requirements of Nearly-Zero Energy building according to The Directive 2010/31/EU of the Energy performance of buildings? 2- Does the Velux model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon building, Level 6, by UK Code for sustainable homes? 3- Does the Velux model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon Emission building by full Life Cycle Assessments analysis? Conclusions and recommendations. Summary Directories Bibliography List of tables Abbreviations Page 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 12 12 13 14 15 17 19 22 24 25 25 25 25

4. Introduction.
Objective of this Paper is to investigate does specific Velux Model house applies to definition of Zero Carbon Emission building. Analysis of the goals of European Union legislation are introduced, example of country code (United Kingdom) used for Velux building analysis, and different methodologies compared. With increase of energy saving measures local and international standards in this field became issues of higher importance. While European Directive states overall goals for member states, the technical standards of the goals in a lot of cases are defined in different ways. In some countries standards are already defined. For European countries few different approaches exist, both drawn by public bodies, state bodies or private initiatives. As European Union tries to reach challenging targets regarding Zero energy building in next 10 years, proper and comprehensive technical standards, calculations methods and state recognized data bases are crucial for reaching even the minimum country levels. Both successful examples and innovative trials which do not reach some criteria should be carefully analysed before setting Zero Carbon goals as national standards or Building Codes.

5. Legal framework and standards

With increase of energy saving measures local and international standards in this field became issues of higher importance. While European Directive states overall goals for member states, the technical standards of the goals in a lot of cases are defined in different ways. In some countries standards are already defined (UK, Energy Efficiency and Code for Sustainable comes, CE 292). For European countries few different approaches exist, both drawn by public bodies (sterreichische Gesellschaft fr nachhaltiges Bauen), state bodies (sterreichische Energieagentur; Klima:active) or private initiatives (Passivhaus Institut Deutshland). As climate and energy data bases in Europe are quite different, the range of definitions may differ by country from country, and in most cases for the following reasons: 1. The state goals towards Zero Carbon goals are not stated in technical terms, therefore detailed definitions are not developed (Latvia, for example); 2. The data about emissions for Primary Energy production are not available, or available just in Universities or for special projects; 3. The data basis about Life Cycle Assessments for building materials are not developed for local building products and supply chains. Regionally, definitions of Zero Carbon emission buildings are limited by the data and information available. Therefore, in this Module Paper analysis the goals of European Union legislation will be introduced, example of country code (United Kingdom) used for Velux building analysis, and different methodologies compared.

5.1. European Union, Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of the Energy performance of buildings, May 19 2010
The Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of the Energy performance of buildings (the Directive) in general and comprehensible way describes overall energy goals in building sector, definition of near- Zero energy buildings, and the methodology of energy calculations. Towards the goals: Article 1, (17) states, that Measures are needed to increase the number of buildings which not only fulfil current minimum energy performance requirements, but are also more energy efficient, thereby reducing both energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. For this purpose Member States should draw up national plans for increasing the number of nearly zero-energy buildings and regularly report such plans to the Commission. Also, being more specific, Article 9 states: Member States shall ensure that: (a) by 31 December 2020, all new buildings are nearly zero- energy buildings; and (b) after 31 December 2018, new buildings occupied and owned by public authorities are nearly zero-energy buildings. Next, facing the issue, what nearly zero-energy building is, from Article 2: ... nearly zeroenergy building means a building that has a very high energy performance, as determined in accordance with Annex I. The nearly zero or very low amount of energy required should be covered to a very significant extent by energy from renewable sources, including energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby. Regarding methodology and calculations, Article 9 provides us with explanation: 3. The national plans shall include, inter alia, the following elements: (a) the Member States detailed application in practice of the definition of nearly zero-energy buildings, reflecting their national, regional or local conditions, and including a numerical indicator of primary energy use expressed in kWh/m 2 per year. Primary energy factors used for the determination of the primary energy use may be based on national or regional yearly average values and may take into account relevant European standards; Furthermore, at Annex I the Common general framework for the calculation of energy performance of buildings is given (highlights by author): 1. The energy performance of a building shall be determined on the basis of the calculated or actual annual energy that is consumed in order to meet the different needs associated with its typical use and shall reflect the heating energy needs and cooling energy needs (energy needed to avoid overheating) to maintain the envisaged temperature conditions of the building, and domestic hot water needs. 2. The energy performance of a building shall be expressed in a transparent manner and shall include an energy performance indicator and a numeric indicator of primary energy use, based on primary energy factors per energy carrier, which may be based on national or regional annual weighted averages or a specific value for on- site production. The methodology for calculating the energy performance of buildings should take into account European standards and shall be consistent with relevant Union legislation, including Directive 2009/28/EC. 3. The methodology shall be laid down taking into consideration at least the following aspects: (a) the following actual thermal characteristics of the building including its internal partitions:

(i) thermal capacity; (ii) insulation; (iii) passive heating; (iv) cooling elements; and (v) thermal bridges; (b) heating installation and hot water supply, including their insulation characteristics; (c) air-conditioning installations; (d) natural and mechanical ventilation which may include air-tightness; (e) built-in lighting installation (mainly in the non-residential sector); (f) the design, positioning and orientation of the building, including outdoor climate; (g) passive solar systems and solar protection; (h) indoor climatic conditions, including the designed indoor climate; (i) internal loads. 4. The positive influence of the following aspects shall, where relevant in the calculation, be taken into account: (a) local solar exposure conditions, active solar systems and other heating and electricity systems based on energy from renewable sources; (b) electricity produced by cogeneration; (c) district or block heating and cooling systems; (d) natural lighting. Summarizing the issues described in the Directive, we can find definite local framework for each country how to set local code and criteria for Zero Carbon Energy building. As European Union tries to reach challenging targets regarding Zero energy building in next 10 years, proper and comprehensive technical standards, calculations methods and state recognized data bases are crucial for reaching even the minimum country levels. Both successful examples and innovative trials which do not reach some criteria should be carefully analysed before setting Zero Carbon goals as national standards or Building Codes. As United Kingdom is pioneering not just setting the Zero Energy goals at state level, but defining them also in a numeric way, author include short survey about British methodology.

5.2. Energy Efficiency and the Code for Sustainable homes, (edition May 2008).
Code for Sustainable homes (the Code) is developed to help housing professionals meet national in European targets, and provides guidance for energy reductions in housing sector: - Code levels 1,2 refers to minor improvements, - Code level 3 goes for 25% carbon reductions, - Code level 4 reaches 44% carbon reduction, - Code level 5 challenges to achieve 100% reductions, - and Code level 6 describes Zero Carbon target values. The Level 6 of the Code is scheduled to become mandatory in Wales by 2013. Yet, the guidance also states that research and use of definite targets is still at development and experiment stage; therefore the Zero Carbon scenarios are defined for demonstration and learning purpose (the Code, p.3.)1. Nevertheless, it is said that: All of the aspects, strategies, and components required by the guidance have been successfully built on the developments in the UK. The guidance brings these together to form a rounded approach that is achievable using proven and available products and technologies. So, as Author considers, the Code is sufficient set of criteria to compare to Velux Model house and prove its compliance. Specifics of methodology: - Emissions from cooking and other domestic appliances must be accounted; - strict rules regarding energy saving for internal and external lighting must be used; - a ventilated drying space for clothes should be provided; - mechanical cooling is not permitted; - provision of information and maintenance manuals to keep the systems at optimum energy efficiency; - providing the space or technical availability for future energy cutting measures: roof space for PV, installation of renewals, additional electricity cabling. The recommended life cycle of the building is 100 years, so all the building materials, junctions, finishing must be proof and reliable; also taking into account, that heating and renewable systems will be changed over the life cycle. To reach zero carbon, all emissions that are accounted for under the SAP 2005 methodology (space heating, water heating and lighting) must be zero or negative. SAP2 describes the UK Governments Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) for assessing the energy performance of dwellings. The indicators of the energy performance are energy consumption per unit floor area, an energy cost rating (the SAP rating), an Environmental Impact rating based on CO2 emissions (the EI rating) and a Dwelling CO2 Emission Rate (DER). The SAP rating is based on the energy costs associated with space heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting, less cost savings from energy generation technologies. It is adjusted for floor area so that it is essentially independent of dwelling size for a given built form. The SAP rating is expressed on a scale of 1 to 100, the higher the number the lower the running costs.

Here and after references are used from May 2008 edition, printed version, Energy Efficiency and the Code for Sustainable homes, adopted for use in England and Wels. 2 http://projects.bre.co.uk/sap2005/pdf/SAP2005_9-83.pdf

5.3. Other definitions and approaches to standards With the use of World Wide Web access, it is easy to look through different approaches regarding Zero Carbon Emission buildings through Europe, United States, Australia and New Zealand and all around the world. Yet, one must be sure about the data cited, because Zero Energy building is also a training field for commercial use (material producers, energy service providers); in a lot of cases presenting just part of information, and not all the building materials and technical solutions are always environmentally friendly. Moreover, the content of information is strongly related to financing models used for surveys, data bases and Model projects. The positive consequences are that information is available via web, yet sometimes life cycle of highly efficient web resources is related to project financing (e.g. Intelligent Energy programs), or in the case of private bodies information of higher quality is part of consultation business and thus not available for public use free of charge. Therefore web could not be used for deep analysis of Building Codes, national standards, and evaluation criteria. So, Author summarized most frequently used definitions out of www.wikipedia.org, which represents the information provided for non-professionals of the energy saving field, and general public. Table 1. Definitions of Zero energy building and Zero emission buildings Definition Description Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-energy_building 11.11.2010. 1. Zero energy building/ or A building with zero net energy consumption and zero net zero energy building carbon emissions annually. Zero energy buildings can be used autonomously from the energy grid supply energy can be harvested onsite. 2. Off-the-grid Off-the-grid buildings are not connected to an off-site energy utility facility. They require distributed renewable energy generation and energy storage capability. An energy autarkic house is a building concept where the balance of the own energy consumption and production can be made on an hourly or even smaller basis. 3. Near-zero energy A building approaching net zero-energy building/ or ultra-low energy house 4. Energy-plus building A building that yearly produce a surplus of energy Net zero site energy use The amount of energy provided by on-site renewable energy sources is equal to the amount of energy used by the building. In the United States, zero energy building generally refers to this type of building. 5. Net zero source energy Building generates the same amount of energy as is use used, including the energy used to transport the energy to the building3. This type accounts for losses during electricity transmission, and must generate more electricity than net zero site energy buildings.
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This definition is close to defining the use of Primary energy

6.

Net zero energy emissions

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Outside the United States and Canada, a Zero Energy Building is generally defined as one with zero net energy emissions, also known as a zero carbon building or zero emissions building. The carbon emissions generated from on-site or off-site fossil fuel use are balanced by the amount of on-site renewable energy production. Other definitions include not only the carbon emissions generated by the building in use, but also those generated in the construction of the building and the embodied energy of the structure. Others debate whether the carbon emissions of commuting to and from the building should also be included in the calculation. Net zero cost In this type of building, the cost of purchasing energy is balanced by income from sales of electricity to the grid of electricity generated on-site. Such a status depends on how a utility credits net electricity generation and the utility rate structure the building uses. Net off-site zero energy A building may be considered a Zero Energy if 100% use of the energy it purchases comes from renewable energy sources, even if the energy is generated off the site. Source: http://www.betterbricks.com/DetailPage.aspx?Id=947, 11.11.2010. Net Zero Energy Building A NZEB is a building that, on an annual basis, (NZEB) produces as much energy as it uses. This means that at certain times of the year it may produce more energy than it needs, while at other times it produces less. The balance is traded back and forth between the building and utility company in the form of electricity. Its also possible to go beyond net zero and design buildings that produce more energy than they use each year. Carbon Neutral Building A building that is Carbon Neutral uses no fossil fuels in its operation, creates no direct greenhouse gases, and, as a result, does not contribute to global warming. The energy it uses may be produced on site or may be drawn from a utility grid but it must be clean, produced by wind turbines, photovoltaics, or other renewable energy system. Thus, a building that is both Carbon Neutral and Net Zero Energy produces at least as much renewable energy as it uses each year.

There are some environmental and behaviour issues, not covered in definitions above. As far as Author, beyond the scope of the paper, has analysed the largest building related environmental criteria systems (BREEAM, LEED), they use energy saving as one factor from the larger set of criteria, thus not concentrating on reaching thoroughly certain level of energy use. Moreover, under certain conditions, the building under well known Passive House standard could be Zero Carbon Energy building by careful choice of materials and energy sources. Also, the planners and analysts should take into account that not every location or building situation is appropriate for Zero Emissions target because of location, existing district heating systems, or too large investment costs for particular climate. In these cases, client or architect must consider reasonable low energy goals.

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Summarizing the descriptions given, one must consider that combining the options: - Nr. 5 - Net zero source energy use from the primary energy source, and - Nr. 6 - Net zero energy emissions, of building constructions, analysis will be as deep as possible, taking into account all the emissions created by the life cycle of the building. Thus, weighting all the information available, we are close to conclusion, that full Life cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis is the most proficient way of calculating Carbon emissions thorough whole life cycle of the building, thus including both the emissions created by production of building materials, and Primary energy factors from building service systems. Due to amount of data involved, this method is still not widespread for common use. In most cases, the definitions are limited to recommend to use environmentally friendly building materials, allowing each party to describe materials according to their level of knowledge. As the goal of the Paper is to compare Velux building according to Zero Carbon Emission building, author will use the terms, in a following way: - The term Zero Carbon Energy building will be used for analysis, which does not apply to Life Cycle Assessment, and does not include embedded energy for extraction, production and transport of building materials; - The term Zero Carbon Emission building will be used for analysis, which does apply to Life Cycle Assessment, and include embedded energy for extraction, production and transport of building materials.

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6. Velux Model house

Objective of this Paper is to investigate does specific Model house applies to definition of Zero Carbon Emission building.

6.1. Input data about the building.

The certain data are given in the work package, and some could be extracted from the data given. Table 2. Input data of Velux Model house The data given in the work package A Net energy demand: Heating Domestic hot water Light and appliances Cooling B Heating, Ventilation and Cooling concept Room heating plus domestic hot water by brine/water heat pump Thermal collectors for hot water, additional Monocrystaline PV cells Mechanical ventilation system with efficient heat recovery Energy efficient electric devices Water saving appliances C Building geometry D Building constructions The data extracted from the work package Building geometry Building constructions: ceiling over Basement Characteristics 27 kWh/(m2a) 10 kWh/(m2a) 10 kWh/(m2a) 0 kWh/(m2a) No data given 8 m2 46 m2 No data given No data given No data given General drawings, without room areas, without number of inhabitants Wall, floor, window and roof constructions, materials, thicknesses and areas given. No data about doors Characteristics Heated floor area = 256,5 m2 Area D02_UG= 40,03 m2

C D

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6.2. System boundaries.

System boundaries are defined by the data given, and the data not available for the case analysis; thus either data are not taken into account, or assumptions are made about these. The following system boundaries and assumptions are taken into account: - The limitations of the data given, and the data missing; - The boundaries related energy data and use of data bases for calculations; - The boundaries related use of methodology. The limitations of the data given, and the data missing: - Recuperation ventilation: Author assumes that the energy demand is included both in heat demand and electricity demand for appliances; and the ratio of air exchange corresponds to regulations for living area, and the air tightness is at least n<3.0 h-1 - The number of inhabitants - even for Model house there theoretically should be some number of people which generates heat, with certain model of behaviour. Author assumes that the heat gains from inhabitants is included in energy demand calculation; - The number of electrical appliances and cooking: Author assumes that the heat gains from electrical appliances are included in energy demand calculation. - The data about doors are not given, Author assume that total area is included in window areas; - The data about Velux window type and U-values are not available, Author assumes, that Velux company, as market leader and innovator, for that particular case uses the window and door construction with at least U<0.8. - As the technical t data about building services and appliances are not sufficient, these building parts are not included in LCA material calculations, and this should be taken as disadvantage of the analysis made. The boundaries related energy data and use of data bases for calculations is limited by the tools and data bases presented in MSc academic course: - LCA tool, including summary of conversion factors from Gemis, Austria and Germany; - Life cycle Assessment for building materials, using Excel sheet data base h_buildingmaterials_1997_2003. The boundaries related use of methodology are defined by the following: - Compare given building data and calculation results to highest rank legislation available, e.g. EU Directive; - Compare given building and calculation results to existing country Code available complying to EU Directive; - Compare given building and calculation results to the most detailed analysis tool full Life Cycle Assessment methodology. As the investments costs for building are not given, the economical impact, and annuities are not analysed in this Paper.

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7. Hypotheses
According to the data analysis, and comparison tools available, three different hypothesis were drawn: - Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Nearly-Zero Energy building according to The Directive 2010/31/EU of the Energy performance of buildings? - Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon building, Level 6, by UK Code for sustainable homes? - Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon Emission building by full Life Cycle Assessments analysis? The hypotheses were proven, by using following calculations and methodology: - U value calculations for building envelope; - Use of LCA tool for End Energy demand, Primary Energy demand, Global Warming Potential (GWP); - Calculations of use of Primary Energy Non-renewable, Primary Energy Renewable, and Global warming factor, using Excel sheet data basis for material emissions; - Energy Efficiency and the Code for Sustainable homes, SAP 2005 guidelines.

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7.1. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of NearlyZero Energy building according to The Directive 2010/31/EU of the Energy performance of buildings?
Definition of standard: ... nearly zero-energy building means a building that has a very high energy performance, as determined in accordance with Annex I. The nearly zero or very low amount of energy required should be covered to a very significant extent by energy from renewable sources, including energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby. Explanation of standard: The energy performance of a building shall be expressed in a transparent manner and shall include an energy performance indicator and a numeric indicator of primary energy use, based on primary energy factors per energy carrier, which may be based on national or regional annual weighted averages or a specific value for on- site production. Table 3. Primary Energy calculations with LCA tool, Output Summary Criteria Value Net energy demand 47 Room heating 27 Hot water 10 Light and appliances 10 End energy demand Room heating +domestic hot water by water heat pump Thermal collectors 8m2 for hot water Light and appliances from grid Monocrystaline PV cells 46m2 Subsystems Room heating +domestic hot water by water heat pump Thermal collectors 8m2 for hot water Light and appliances from grid Monocrystaline PV cells 46m2 Global warming potential Primary energy total Primary energy non renewable Primary energy renewable Coverage ratio (PE re/PE
total

Measure kWh/m2a kWh/m2a kWh/m2a kWh/m2a kWh/m2a kWh/m2a kWh/m2a kWh/m2a kWh/m2a

50 6 13 10 22 COP 4.54 0.785 1.0 1.0 1 56 1 55 98

KgCO2 /m2a kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a %

Considering LCA tool results regarding End Energy demand and Primary Energy renewable, evidence is that Velux House for Energy criteria meets nearly-zero energy building, because End energy demand is covered by Primary energy renewable for 98%. Also Primary energy calculations are developed using national (Austria) or regional (Germany) annual weighted averages, as requested in EU document.

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- GEMIS - SCHUECO Premium H, Flat plate solar collector, www.schueco.com

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Table 4. The important aspects of nearly-zero energy building Aspects Considered: Yes, or Not, explanations 1. Thermal characteristics thermal capacity Considered, construction mass is substantial because of use of reinforced concrete insulation Considered, U-values of building envelope (except windows) varies from 0.08 to 0.17 passive heating Considered, by use of insulated walls; and heat gains from people and appliances thermal bridges Considered, as design shows no evidence 2. Heating installation and hot water supply, Heating and hot water from heat including their insulation characteristics pump and PV, information about insulation not available 3. Air-conditioning installations Considered as not necessary 4. Natural and mechanical ventilation which High efficiency recuperation may include air-tightness ventilation, rate not displayed, air tightness not displayed 5. Built-in lighting installation (mainly in the Not applicable non-residential sector 6. The design, positioning and orientation of the Considered, taking into account building, including outdoor climate restrictions of building site 7. Passive solar systems and solar protection Not displayed, could be problem, if not installed for roof windows 8. Indoor climatic conditions, including the Not displayed designed indoor climate 9. Internal loads Minimized by energy saving appliances 10. Local solar exposure conditions, active solar PV panels and Thermal solar for hot systems and other heating and electricity water systems based on energy from renewable sources 11. Electricity produced by cogeneration Not discussed 12. District or block heating and cooling systems Not discussed 13. Natural lighting Not discussed, considering the design, could be problematic in some rooms Conclusions. Analyzing the building aspects of Velux Model home, general conclusion is that major aspects are taken into account: building envelope, use of renewable, recuperation ventilation system. Nevertheless, a lot of information is not displayed (see also #6.2. System boundaries), or taken as assumptions. Even if this information could be considered as not very important for energy demand calculations, it could be critical for operation and maintenance of real building, if not properly designed. For example, luck of daylight could increase energy consumption for lighting; lack of sunblinds may cause overheating. Summarizing all the criteria about energy and building performance, conclusion is that building matches the main energy criteria of near-zero carbon building, but for long-term maintenance the additional building information must be provided and checked.

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7.2. Does the Velux model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon building, Level 6, by UK Code for sustainable homes?
The Environmental Impact rating is based on the annual CO2 emissions associated with space heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting, less the emissions saved by energy generation technologies. It is adjusted for floor area so that it is essentially independent of dwelling size for a given built form. The Environmental Impact rating is expressed on a scale of 1 to 100, the higher the number the better the standard. The Dwelling CO2 Emission Rate is a similar indicator to the Environmental Impact rating, which is used for the purposes of compliance with building regulations. It is equal to the annual CO2 emissions per unit floor area for space heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting, less the emissions saved by energy generation technologies, expressed in kg/m/year. The Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) is adopted by Government as the UK methodology for calculating the energy performance of dwellings. The calculation is based on the energy balance taking into account a range of factors that contribute to energy efficiency: materials used for construction of the dwelling thermal insulation of the building fabric ventilation characteristics of the dwelling and ventilation equipment efficiency and control of the heating system(s) solar gains through openings of the dwelling the fuel used to provide space and water heating, ventilation and lighting renewable energy technologies The calculation is independent of factors related to the individual characteristics of the household occupying the dwelling when the rating is calculated, for example: household size and composition; ownership and efficiency of particular domestic electrical appliances; individual heating patterns and temperatures. The true zero carbon solutions show the full benefit of 100% low energy building, as well as zero secondary heating. The SAP scale - dwelling CO2 Emission Rate (DER) is from 1 to 100, where 100 represents zero energy cost. It can be above 100 for dwellings that are net exporters According to recommendations given, Detached house (104m 2) scenario is used for comparing Velux Model House (256.5 m2).

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Table 5. Comparison of Velux data to Zero Carbon criteria, UK Code. Criterion Description Code, Level 6 value U-values W/m2*K Roof 0.13 Walls 0.15 Exterior wall/earth Ground floor 0.15 Ceiling over loggia 0.15 Windows 0.70 Doors 0.80 y-value6 0.04 Ventilation Airtightness m3/(hr.m2) 3.0 Heating Mechanical ventilation MHVR 7 85% efficiency, 1 W/(l.s) specific fan power Electric ground to water Recommended as heat pump one of the options Controls Programmer and at least 2 room thermostats Water heating 160 litre cylinder, 80 mm insulation Renewables Solar water heating Not recommended Photovoltaic (kWp)8 5.95 Lighting low energy CO2 100%

Velux Model House 0.08 0.09; 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.17 Information n/a Information n/a Information n/a Information n/a Information n/a Provided Information n/a Information n/a Provided Thermal output 2.0 kWth9 per 2.52 m2 Information n/a

Actual emissions -1.82 kg/ma 1.0 kg/ma Level 6 offset 12.24 kg/ma n/a Final DER10 -10.42 kg/ma n/a Energy efficiency rating 114 (A) n/a Environmental Impact rating 112 (A) n/a Running costs (/yr) -124 n/a n/a not available or not calculated because of missing input data, see also # 6.2. Conclusions. For the UK Code for Sustainable homes, Level 6, SAP calculation, general conclusion is that major aspects are taken into account: building envelope, use of renewable, recuperation ventilation system. Nevertheless, a lot of information is not displayed, so calculations could not be developed properly. Moreover, positive CO2 emission factor (derived from LCA tool) is not sufficient to meet Zero Carbon Criteria here. Also solar water heating is not recommended (not allowed to use, in fact). Summarizing the analysis made, it is evident, that Code and SAP tool could be used as very accurate calculation tool for Zero Carbon housing, and it needs all the building data, especially about building service systems. In that case, recommendations for Model house include increase the use of renewable, or decrease heating demand, otherwise the building most likely would not reach UK Zero Carbon standard.
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Here - the psi value of a thermal bridging Mechanical ventilation heat recovery 8 The power output of photovoltaic systems for installation in buildings described in kilowattpeak units (kWp) 9 The installed capacity ([kWth] Kilowatt thermal) shall be calculated by multiplying the aperture area of the solar collector area [m2] by the conversion factor 0.7 [kWth/m2]. 10 The dwelling CO2 Emission Rate (DER)

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7.3. Does the Velux model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon Emission building, by full Life Cycle Assessment analysis?
Full Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis consists of two substantial calculations, which together give LCA Building Synthesis: - Calculation of LCA for building service systems; - Calculation of LCA for building materials. For Zero Carbon Emission building, using LCA methodology: - Global Warming factor must be Zero or negative over the given life cycle; - Primary Energy use through the given life cycle for heating and production of building itself must be covered either by production of renewable resources on-site or by use of renewable building materials. Methodology and key figures:11 - To measure the impact on the Worlds climate balance, the criterion of Global Warming Potential is used (GWP); - To measure the goal of preserving the Worlds resources, the criterion of Primary Energy Demand (PE) is used. As LCA tool calculates the impact from building energy services, the additional calculation of material impact is needed. The data bases of building material emissions gives full information about environmental impact from extraction, production, and transport of materials; including factors of Global warming; Ozone layer depletion; Photochemical oxidation; Acidification. For the scope of Zero Carbon Emission building calculations, Author uses summarized factors: - PEINE Primary Energy used, from Non-renewable resources, MJ; - PEIE Primary Energy used, from Renewable resources, MJ; - GWP - Global Warming Potential, kg CO2 equivalent. The calculation is made for building life cycle of 50 years, and 256.5 m2 of treated floor area. Table 6. Calculation results of environmental impact of building materials Number Description PEINE, MJ PEIE, MJ GWP, kg CO2 eq. AW01_EG Exterior wall 221 304,45 204 675,01 12 618,22 AW01_UG Exterior wall 17 669,89 14 271,90 1 325,30 EW01_UG Exterior wall / earth 88 938,25 1 136,51 3 382,53 IW01 Interior wall /Garage 137 532,35 81 674,90 7 938,27 DA01/ DA02 Roof (OST, WEST) 297 748,87 285 981,51 17 343,94 AD02_UG Ceiling over BM loggia 49 329,28 31 848,46 2 965,69 ZD01_EG Intermediate ceiling 59 249,83 171 276,55 3 857,96 ZD02_UG Ceiling over Basement 85 902,54 18 302,59 5 498,85 EB01_UG Floor / earth 207 478,00 38 026,59 14 739,21 FE01 Window 81 092,07 39 615,47 3 878,83 FE02 Window 34 420,57 16 815,29 1 646,42 sum 1 280 666,10 903 624,79 75 195,23 kWh 355 740,58 251 006,88 kWh/m2a 27,74 19,57 totals 47,31 5,86

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- here and further, Methodology of LCA for building materials and building service systems is used, according to LCA tool, GEMIS and building material databases.

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Table 7: LCA tool calculations, LCA for building materials added, in A Building service systems Net energy demand Room heating Hot water Light and appliances End energy demand Room heating +domestic hot water by water heat pump Thermal collectors 8m2 for hot water Light and appliances from grid Monocrystaline PV cells 46m2 Subsystems Room heating +domestic hot water by water heat pump Thermal collectors 8m2 for hot water Light and appliances from grid Monocrystaline PV cells 46m2 Primary energy total Primary energy non renewable Primary energy renewable Coverage ratio (PE re/PE total ) Global warming potential Scenario 1 Velux data given B Building materials Primary energy total Primary energy non renewable Primary energy renewable Coverage ratio (PE re/PE total ) Global warming potential C LCA summary Primary energy total Primary energy non renewable Primary energy renewable Coverage ratio (PE re/PE total ) Global warming potential

life span of 50 years. Value Measure 47 kWh/m2a 27 kWh/m2a 10 kWh/m2a 10 kWh/m2a 50 kWh/m2a 6 kWh/m2a 13 kWh/m2a 10 kWh/m2a 22 kWh/m2a COP 4.512 0.7813 1.0 1.0 56 kWh PE/m2a 1 kWh PE/m2a 55 kWh PE/m2a 98 % 1 KgCO2 /m2a

47.31 27.74 19.57 41 5.86

kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a % KgCO2 /m2a

103.31 28.74 74.57 72 6.86

kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a % KgCO2 /m2a

Scenario 2 building materials recommended (see explanations p. 21) B Building materials Primary energy total 13.14 kWh PE/m2a Primary energy non renewable 7.71 kWh PE/m2a Primary energy renewable 5.44 kWh PE/m2a Coverage ratio (PE re/PE total ) 41 % Global warming potential 2.06 KgCO2 /m2a C LCA summary Primary energy total Primary energy non renewable Primary energy renewable Coverage ratio (PE re/PE total ) Global warming potential

69.14 8.71 60.44 87 3.06

kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a kWh PE/m2a % KgCO2 /m2a

12 13

- GEMIS - SCHUECO Premium H, Flat plate solar collector, www.schueco.com

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Conclusions. Given the system boundaries, use of LCA shows full calculations through the building life cycle, both for building energy services, and building materials. After calculations, - Global Warming factor is not Zero or negative over the given life cycle; - Primary Energy use through the given life cycle for heating and production of building itself is not covered either by production of renewable resources on-site or by use of renewable building materials. For the Velux Case, LCA calculations for energy services show, that possibly the building could be close to Zero Energy Building by the primary energy calculations. But adding the emissions created from the building materials, we clearly see that the building creates far more emissions from non-renewable sources than creates or uses renewable ones. It is approved by both factors in Scenario 1: - GWP total = 5.86 KgCO2 /m2a; - Primary Energy renewable (74.57 kWh PE/m2a) does not cover Primary Energy total (103.31 kWh PE/m2a), thus reaching just 72% coverage by use of renewable. So, the conclusion is that by full LCA analysis, Velux Model house does not reach the criteria of Zero Carbon Emission building. For the reason of comparison, Author made Scenario 2 - draft calculation, by subtracting the building materials with larger emissions: reinforced concrete, XPS insulation, aluminium foil. And, draft calculation showed, that elimination of these materials substantially improves the GWP factor and Primary Energy data. Finally, revising the energy and design solutions of the building for LCA of 50 years, recommendation for similar buildings is to reduce embedded energy in building materials, and increase the use of renewable.

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7.4. Conclusions and recommendations.

In the scope of the Paper, three different hypotheses where analysed. Hypothesis 1. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Nearly-Zero Energy building according to The Directive 2010/31/EU of the Energy performance of buildings? According to LCA tool results regarding End Energy demand and Primary Energy renewable, Velux House meets nearly-zero energy building, because End energy demand is covered by Primary energy renewable for 98%. But, even if the major building aspects of Velux Model home (building envelope, use of renewable, recuperation ventilation system), a lot of information is not displayed, or taken as assumptions. This information could be critical for operation and maintenance of real building, if not properly designed. Therefore, in long-term maintenance the additional building information must be provided and checked. Hypothesis 2. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon building, Level 6, by UK Code for Sustainable homes? For the UK Code for Sustainable homes, Level 6, SAP calculation, general conclusion is that major aspects are taken into account: building envelope, use of renewable, recuperation ventilation system. Yet, a lot of building and energy service information is not displayed, so calculations could not be developed properly. Moreover, positive CO2 emission factor (equivalent to GWP derived from LCA tool) is not sufficient to meet Zero Carbon Criteria here, and solar water heating is strictly not recommended. Concluding the analysis, it is evident that Velux building does not meet the Code requirements regarding CO2 emission factor, but is very close to overall criteria. By adding the data missing, or improving the efficiency for the use of renewables, the Code requirements could be reached. Hypothesis 3. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon Emission building by full Life Cycle Assessments analysis? After LCA calculations through the building life cycle, both for building energy services, and building materials, - Global Warming factor is not Zero or negative over the given life cycle; - Primary Energy use through the given life cycle for heating and production of building itself is not covered either by production of renewable resources on-site or by use of renewable building materials. So, the conclusion is that by full LCA analysis, Velux Model house does not reach the criteria of Zero Carbon Emission building, and the main reasons are: - Large amount of embedded non-renewable energy in building materials; - Not sufficient use of renewable energy sources on-site.

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Comparison of methods for practical use. In terms of different approaches to Zero Energy building, all three methods could give feedback for further use of these or similar tools, both for use as guidelines or practical calculations. The Directive 2010/31/EU on the Energy performance of buildings gives general guidelines for Member states, public bodies, Universities about criteria and aspects which should be included in building design aiming to reach Zero or Nearly-Zero Primary energy use for energy service systems. It could be used as a basis for further development of local standards, or together with complying EN and ISO standards. UK Code for Sustainable homes and SAP tool could be used as very accurate calculation tool for Zero Carbon housing, and it needs all the building data, especially about building service systems. Also the benefits of the Code are detailed recommendations and clear evaluation criteria. Yet, some restrictions, like use of Thermal solar for hot water, give certain limitations to the use of Code. Life Cycle Assessment tool together with Austrian and German energy and material data bases gives deep insight in full life cycle emissions of the building, and allows by simple calculations compare different scenarios of building materials and renewable energy sources. Yet, the use of tool would be more applicable with clear criteria system, and undisputable definitions for Zero Carbon Emission building. Summarizing all the tools, Author suggests that for the future, the tool which combines the benefits of UK Code system (detailed recommendations and clear evaluation criteria); and LCA tool for building materials should be used. Also the rating system should be introduced, because not all the buildings will be applicable for reaching Zero Carbon Emission building qualities, but lots of buildings could make considerable CO2 economies keeping in line with best practice. General recommendations for design. General recommendations are concluded from full LCA analysis and building design itself. As the Velux site shows considerable relief (topography), part of the building is built under the ground level, both walls and foundations. This design solution asks for massive reinforced concrete walls, XPS insulation under ground level, which all together makes considerable emissions for quite small housing unit. Moreover, use of aluminium foil as a vapour barrier should be strongly avoided. Also the U-values for the building envelope must be lower, thus decreasing heating demand. Careful dimensioning of south windows and respective solar gains could help to passive heating too. Combining methods of reducing heating demand and smartly using more renewable could help reach Zero Carbon Emission goals without cardinal design changes.

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8. Summary.
Objective of this Paper is to investigate does specific Velux Model house applies to definition of Zero Carbon Emission building. Therefore, in this Module Paper analysis the goals of European Union legislation were introduced, example of country code (United Kingdom) used for Velux building analysis, and different methodologies compared. According to the data analysis, and comparison tools available, three different hypothesis were drawn, and proven, by using following calculations and methodology: - U value calculations for building envelope; - Use of LCA tool for End Energy demand, Primary Energy demand, Global Warming Potential (GWP); - Calculations of use of Primary Energy Non-renewable, Primary Energy Renewable, and Global warming factor, using Excel sheet data basis for material emissions; - Energy Efficiency and the Code for Sustainable homes, SAP 2005 guidelines. Hypothesis 1. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Nearly-Zero Energy building according to The Directive 2010/31/EU of the Energy performance of buildings? According to LCA tool results regarding End Energy demand and Primary Energy renewable, Velux House meets nearly-zero energy building, because End energy demand is covered by Primary energy renewable for 98%. For long-term maintenance the additional building information must be provided and checked. Hypothesis 2. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon building, Level 6, by UK Code for Sustainable homes? Even if major aspects are taken into account: building envelope, use of renewable, recuperation ventilation system, positive CO2 emission factor (equivalent to GWP derived from LCA tool) is not sufficient to meet Zero Carbon Criteria here, and solar water heating is strictly not recommended. By adding the data missing, or improving the efficiency for the use of renewables, the Code requirements could be reached. Hypothesis 3. Does the Velux Model home meet the requirements of Zero Carbon Emission building by full Life Cycle Assessments analysis? After LCA calculations through the building life cycle, both for building energy services, and building materials, Global Warming factor is not Zero or negative over the given life cycle; and Primary Energy use through the given life cycle for heating and production of building itself is not covered either by production of renewable resources on-site or by use of renewable building materials. The main reasons of not meeting criteria are large amount of embedded non-renewable energy in building materials, and not sufficient use of renewable energy sources on-site. Summarizing all the tools, Author suggests that for the future, the tool which combines the benefits of UK Code system (detailed recommendations and clear evaluation criteria); and LCA tool for building materials should be used. Also the rating system should be introduced, because not all the buildings will be applicable for reaching Zero Carbon Emission building qualities, but lots of buildings could make considerable CO2 economies keeping in line with best practice. General recommendations for design include minimising reinforced concrete walls, XPS insulation under ground level, and use of aluminium foil as a vapour barrier. Also the Uvalues for the building envelope must be lower, thus decreasing heating demand. Careful dimensioning of south windows and respective solar gains could help to passive heating too.

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9. Directories
a Bibliography - Directive 1010/31/EU of European Parliament and of the Council of the Energy performance of buildings, May 2010. - Energy Efficiency and the Code for Sustainable homes, adopted for use in England and Wels; edition May 2008, printed version; - SAP 2005 The UK Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings; - http://projects.bre.co.uk/sap2005/pdf/SAP2005_9-83.pdf - www.wikipedia.org; - www.betterbricks.com; - www.schueco.com; - www.velux.com; www.velux.lv; - www.gemis.de b List of Tables Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 1. Definitions of Zero energy building and Zero emission buildings 2. Input data of Velux Model house 3. Primary Energy calculations with LCA tool, Output Summary 4. The important aspects of nearly-zero energy building 5. Comparison of Velux data to Zero Carbon criteria, UK Code. 6. Calculation results of environmental impact of building materials 7: LCA tool calculations, LCA for building materials added, in life span of 50 years.

c Abbreviations GWP - Global Warming Potential, annual mass of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions (kgCO2/a); PE - Primary Energy Demand, annual sum of primary energy emissions (kWh PE/a); LCA Life Cycle Assesment; XPS Extruded polystyrene; SAP - Standard Assessment Procedure, for Energy Rating of Dwellings, UK; PV - Photovoltaic panels; EU European Union; UK - United Kingdom .

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