The Origin of Dragons Author(s): Robert Blust Reviewed work(s): Source: Anthropos, Bd. 95, H. 2. (2000), pp.

519-536 Published by: Anthropos Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40465957 . Accessed: 13/01/2012 01:55
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ANTHROPOS
95.2000: 519-536

The Originof Dragons

RobertBlust

Abstract.- This paper addressesa questionthathas puzzled scholarsformorethana century: "Why is a beliefin dragons foundover muchof theearth?"It arguesthatdragonsevolved a the fromrainbowsthrough conceptof the rainbowserpent, extendsfarback intothePleistocene.In this conceptthatitself traitswhich are widely arbitrary many seemingly perspective are associatedwithdragons seen to have a physicalexplanation. rainbow] [Dragon, rainbowserpent, of at of Robert Blust is a Professor Linguistics the University Hawai' i at Mnoa in Honolulu. He is the authorof some 160 comparative mainlyin the area of Austronesian publications, and history. linguistics culture

1 Introduction

is fact It is a striking thata beliefin dragons At traditions. leastsincethe cultural of part many Monof publication CharlesGould's "Mythical "The Smith's Elliott in sters" 1886,and Grafton has in 1919,there been of Evolution theDragon" is that a general recognition theideaofthedragon do But if dragons not a worldwide phenomenon. of exist,how could such a convergence beliefs from rainbows evolved The claimthat arise? dragons more in with was Smith so impressed thesimilarities restsupon a moregeneraland ultimately that beliefs he concluded of thesis,namelythatthe idea of the theform dragon they significant which of arosethrough musthave a common Others, processes reasoning following dragon origin. fromthoseunderlying that do not differ have suggested C. thepsychologist G. Jung, essentially - symbols the Far scientific in are being explanations. from acquired the modern dragons "archetypes" the of for transmitted millen- product a capricious remote andgenetically imagination, dragon past in constructed manypartsof the mind. Still was mentally of niaas an innate property thehuman accurate of as wereinspired world a by-product 1. meticulously that have proposed dragons others and of bones or eggs of Archosauria,observations weather thefossilized phenomena, 2. an by to the but to unknown earnest unsuccessful of or by sightings livingorganisms attempt grasp cauof those of or events, science, that particularly relating they maybe symbols clouds, sality natural

or Noneof these mist, rain, thunder. explanations to even has everbeensatisfactory, failing answer are so most basicquestions: the Why dragons often with associated waterfalls, pools,andcaves?Why of as are theywidelyregarded controllers rain? as portrayed chimerical Why are theytypically or hair,feathers, other horns, sporting serpents, of characteristic warm-blooded bodilyattributes with in animals conjunction thebodyof a snake? Whyare theysexedat all, butmoreparticularly of are in parts theworld, separated why, widely live as androgynous? do they Why they regarded and yettakeflight at water sources in terrestrial attacked thetimeof therains?Whyare they by fire? breathe or thunder lightning? Whydo they in a often guard treasure, particular Whydo they of a hoard gold? of the Put somewhat simplistically, thesis this of are theend point a conis that dragons paper which rainbows, beganwith development ceptual hence: rainbow dragon

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traits ofdraconic distribution The dragonthus standsas one of Table 1: Thegeographical to rainfall. = Europe, = theNearEast,3 = India, = theFar 4 2 of thesupremely instructive examples convergent(1 6 America) East,5 = Mesoamerica, = North life in evolution thesymbolic of themind. as this Initially claimmayappearalmost pre(6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) What itself. as posterous theidea of thedragon The couldbe moredifferent? rainbow twothings + + + + + a) of a of is a product nature, figure exquisite beauty b) + + + + + + exscientific to reducible deterministic completely + + + + + c) an The is, planation. dragon atleasta priori, equal- d) + of ofthefecundity thehuman e) example ly striking + of untrammeledtheconstraintsthe f) + by + imagination, + + + + traditiong) the world. Within Judeo-Christian natural + + + + + a is therainbow thebow of thecovenant, signof h) + + + is the and divine + + + promise hope;bycontrast, dragon i) relic a sinister ofthepre-Christian commonly j) + + past, defenders k) with + combat + in + intrepid portrayedmortal + + be + How couldthere anyconnection 1) + + of thefaith. + + + of human m) + distinct suchradically between objects + n) perception?
o) P) of q) 2 The Mystery Dragons r) as the that Mostsources discuss dragon a universal s) it cultural report in six relatively t) phenomenon u) discrete regions: geographical v) (1) Europe w) (2) theNearEast (including Egypt) x) (3) India y) z) (4) theFarEast + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ +

+ +

(5) Mesoamerica a = America (6) North b = devel- c = is In areas (l)-(5) thedragon a fully in motif folklore, elaborated mythol- d = oped,highly in in some cases ritual; area (6) it is e = ogy and, or as described an inchoate vestigial f = generally = a dangerous g = the "horned serpent," phenomenon, h realms. and of watery guardian springs other i = distrib- j = for Thepreferred explanation a globally Since limited k = is trait convergence.1 utedculture to 1 = play possibilities no role here,we are forced have m = factors that conclude universal psychological = of in repeatedly thehistory ourspecies n = conspired o an But the tocreate ideaofthedragon. surely idea
1 For an account of the general schema used to describe and culturetraitdistributions theirproposed explanations see Blust (1981, 1999). The issue of whetherdecontexcan be comparedat all, a pointfirst tualizedculturetraits raisedby Boas (1896), cannotbe takenup here,as it would requireextendeddiscussion.It should,however,be noted that if such a view were allowed in other branches of science such well-developedfieldsas historical linguistics dismissedas and comparative anatomywould be wrongly methods. foundedon faulty

p = q = r = s = t = u = v = w= x = y= z =

ofrain giver/withholder bodiesof water or of springs other guardian capableof flight are where andrain closely sun interspersed appears can change disappear shapeor size,or suddenly has scales has horns has hair(mane, whiskers, etc.) has feathers is equineor hippophidian has ambivalent sexuality or the to is opposed thunder/lightning, sun is colorful/red woman is offended a menstruating by them / women canimpregnate with terrifies young child demonic breath has fiery breath or has fetid poisonous causestornados causesfloods causesearthquakes is an omenofcatastrophe of is an emblem war a guards treasure with is connected longevity/immortality with is connected fertility the encircles world 95.2000 Anthropos

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As otherscholars of couldnotarise have pointed as as elaborate that thedragon out,a diffuis problematic, it maybe sionist out of pureimagination. and What,then, explanation repeatedly the on the that couldbe therawmaterial which common worth considering possibility thedragon of motif a product widespread is of human beingsoperated paralleldevelprocess psychological Kordecki1980; Evans sucha distribution? to produce opment(Barnard1964; of a of the deThe cluesto solving mystery thedragon 1987: 31). However, theory independent must itself confront serious have long been available,but have been disre- velopment problems. fixedon Why would humanbeings all over the globe gardedin partbecause of a mind-set invent apparently an and whimsical creadiffusional explanations, in partbecause of repeatedly in detailed of from ture which features physical of to a tendency isolatethestudy dragons agrees The and Two for related cultural other, phenomena. key appearance behavior? motivations the clearly will 1. is in this to progress solving problem close atten- idea ofthedragon be considered, physical, traits attributedand2. symbolic. and to tion thephysical behavioral from somewhat place Sincethese todragons. vary to place (notunsurprisingly, thelikelihood given The of are that invention),2.2 PhysicalMotivation: DragonAs Reality they products independent here. will be anexhaustive inventory not attempted that be list eclectic of traits The hypothesis dragons a Table 1 provides somewhat might inspired by In has in to attributed dragons one or moreof thegeo- biological organisms takenseveralforms. to one of these, are to the (1) dragons assumed be mental regions - (6), enabling reader graphical of constructs traits widely are see at a glancewhich distributed, by inspired thediscovery fossilized archosaurians. Traditional of are andwhich characteristica particular region. eggsorbonesofextinct makes extensive of"dragon use the Chinese medicine of differences detailandemphasis, Despite fact mostremarkable aboutdragons goes, unquestion-bones,"and thesecould,so the argument But to ablyis theextent whichtheysharecommon, have givenrise to tales of livingdragons. into of re- the articulation bone fragments skeletal traits separated arbitrary in widely seemingly whichgive some idea of bodilystructure be agreements ex- forms gions.How can thesestriking of is an achievement twentieth-century paleontolplained? available Chinese to andwas hardly peasants ogy, in centuries thepast. In the second variation this themeit is on 2.1 The StandardTheory:Diffusion has arisenfrom assumedthatthe dragonmotif still of anachronisms direct observation biological common themost proffered explanation Probably such as the reto In is traits diffusion. unknown science- creatures of for agreement draconic the or first thisinterpretation, expressed and in itsmost putedLoch Ness monster, theequallyelusive in Columbia. was a Ogopogoof Lake Okanagan British thedragon form Smith extreme (1919), by is it Needlessto say,hardevidence yetto be found From of creation theEgyptian priesthood. Egypt of and intotheNearEast,Europe, India,and fortheexistence anysuchorganism. spread A thirdvariation was proposedby Sagan This Mesoamerica. and to thence China, ultimately that"The pervamediated as was conceived a gradual by (1977: 149ff.),who concluded process, in of of centuries. siveness dragon took which contacts trade-induced myths thefolklegends many is cultures probably accident." wayof no of cruderepresentationsthe many the As a result, first By he whether in as dragons Babylo- explanation asks rhetorically serpent theearliest dragon a horned a encodedmemory of reflect genetically of the of nianconception Tiamat, spirit chaos in might from remote the into overtime a much dinosaurs evolved theprimeval ocean, prehuman past:"Is it for in elaborate more posed a problem our particularlyChina. possiblethatdragons iconography, ancestors a fewmillion of all ago, years Egypto- protohuman rejectSmith's Although laterwriters and the his of centric they they theory worldcivilizations, general andthat terror evoked thedeaths of abouttheevolution human once causedhelped motif invented was that bring proposal thedragon dreams and .. of most theglobehasbeen intelligence? . Could thepervasive over borrowed andthen dewhichchildren fearsof 'monsters,' until in theliterature quiterecently.2 common endorsed areable to talk, evolube after velopshortly they of tionary vestiges quiteadaptive baboonlike to dragons owls?"Sagan's point and is includeLeach and responses of 2 Recentendorsements global diffusion of in that dreams monsters havebeenadaptive Fried (1972), and Hogarthand Clery (1979: 25). may
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a survival 1928: 13). This view encodestwo possibilities: theusualbiological senseofconferring to is if mammals dreamt a monster 1) thatthe dragon symbolically of equivalent advantage: early ofa nonbiological before arrived, it were less a physical and awakened nature, phenomenon they to is the thosewhich failed have or 2) that dragon symbolically to to equivalent likely be eatenthan force. the somepsychological such dreams.As a long-term consequence, that ofarchosau- Ingersoll for beganwhen suggests thedragon representations propensity mental laws by in was selectively fortified"primitive unlearned thenatural to rianpredators persist men, for which nowaccount theweather, we million differential survival. imagined years Sixty-five by of moodsto be theresult supernatural descen- itsvarying if later, we are to believetheargument, in somewhere space, on one stem rodent-like mammals powersstruggling dants thesuccessful of towards on withthe last of the dinosaurs side forgood conditions, the other whichcoexisted no and a retain destruction chaos,"buthe provides conwerenervous which those dreamers) (viz. of as the modelfor dragon a symbol natural mental accurate imageof thearchosau- crete relatively who Laterwriters, also notethecommon their which terrorized Cretaceous forces. rianantagonists are of with of This remarkable ancestors. piece of speculation connection thedragon control water, In model. a natural in in viewofthefact no more must challenged, be specific identifying especially of it that was proposed one of themostpublicly thewords Allenand Griffiths (1979: 6) "most by and of visible scientists ourtime, has beenquoted mythologies agree thathe was bornof clouds and he Like them is everywhere, his as withapprobation somelaterwriters, Allen and water. by . as theirs. . The dragon is that"the appearance as mutable and Griffiths (1979: 90 f.) who suggest and as if is one, power a symbol, yetremains argument a compelling particularlyit is has immense and in form meaning."3 of race memories nebulous thatdim and distant accepted view different ofdragon A fundamentally are suchcreatures a possibility." symCarl that bolismwas proposed the psychologist 42 ff.)suggested by (1928: Ingersoll Finally, In one passage (1956: 374) he describes from havearisen theideaofthedragon ophio- Jung. may of as of was misconstrued thedragon a symbol theunconscious the "perby latry: moulting snakes s the latter' suddenand unexand man as rebirth, consequently expressing serpents fectly early and its humanenvyof their pectedmanifestations, painful dangerous were worshipped through and its frightening in tothis intervention our affairs, according Gradually, immortality. imagined Elsewhere evolved intofanciful (1956: 362, 372) he speaks view,realsnakes dragons. effects." mother" as to some passingattempts show that of thedragon variously the"terrible Despite of an of as snakescan be conceived controllers waters or the "devouring mother," archetype the the which unconscious and somesnakeslive in thewater), collective represents dark (crocodilians and If theories convincing. thedragon side of thematernal is noneofthese persona, as representing of was inspired a biological (Jung model, experience thealchemist" whyhaveits "thevisionary by How could a 1968:291).4 bones notbeen foundin springs? is None of theseproposed bulk of creature suchreported been realreptilian explanations adthe need circumvents the How did it control rain,or equate. Radical diffusion capableof flight? these for a as traits; fire? breathe Whyis it conceived a guardian to suggest motivation draconic of a singleculture for of treasure, whatis the explanation its are simply and arbitrary products a haveacquired globaldistribution we which that it In ambivalent through sexuality? short, appears contacts But for borrowing. globaldiffusion can safelyeliminate implies biologicalexplanations the idea of the dragon.In so doing,however, if we findourselvesin another quandary: the cannot 3 Accordingto Evans (1987: 36), the Macedonian general traits in draconic widespread agreement or to be (3987-319 B.C.), and the Athenianplaywright Antipater plausibly attributedglobaldiffusion tothe Euripides (4807-406? B. C.) held "thatthe dragon-slayer howcan itbe of observation biological organisms, of derivesfromthe sun's drying watervapor,which myth explained? resemblesa coilingserpent." sometimes Many morerecent
The Dragon Motivation: 2.3 Symbolic of As a Reflection Natureor Psychology
withclouds and rain to references thedragonin connection could be cited, but none are more specific,or shed any sharedby attributes further arbitrary lighton theapparently dragonsin widelyseparatedregionsof theearth. 4 For a Freudian version ot the same theme see Koheim (1940), who describes a patient with "dragon-phobia," to attributes castration a problem the analyst ultimately anxiety. 95.2000 Anthropos

"No of In thewords one prominent draconologist dragonexists- none ever did exist"(Ingersoll

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for whichwe need some typeof independentthey think a spirit theform a gigantic that in of and does not snake evidence, in mostcases thissimply haunts seething the cauldron which receives exist. it for water." is easy to lose sight the It Similarly, hasbeenobserved centuries thefalling of thatdragonsare somehowconnected withthe significance such agreements of whentheyare "weather but these embedded therich in machine," without exception proseandfrequently shifting claimsare exasperatingly references Frazer' sometimes of s vague and uninformadistracting style. tive.Finally, contravene Butthese similar beliefs from Oyampsychological the archetypes strikingly thebasicgenetic that characters pi (Wayampi) theOyapockriver northeast on in principle acquired are not heritable. Barnard her South America theBasutoofSouth and (1964) expresses Africa are dissatisfaction explanations the dragon onlythetipof theproverbial with of iceberg. thatappeal to extreme contactwith Inhis"LeagueoftheHo-de'-no-sau-nee,Irodiffusion, or references theweather, quois,"originally to or archosaurians, in vague published 1851,LewisHenry In psychological described Senecalegend a archetypes. itsplaceshesuggests Morgan (1954: 149ff.) that common the human of an practice snake-dancingaboutthe"horned of H-no, assistant serpent." inpublic festivities the of for inspired form thedragon theGreatSpirit of responsible he formation the of and of through form the dance. But thisnovel cloudsandrain, a keeper thethunderbolts, suffers from sameshortcomingsthe was a guarantor fertility. one accounthe the as of In theory alternatives itcriticizes: fails explain it to either the madehis abode in a cave behind NiagaraFalls. motivation draconic for or sometimes A youngwomanat a village at the mouth traits, their of shared over of striking to similarity large regions the Cayugacreekabove thefallswas betrothed a earth. old disagreeable man,and to escape herfateshe Other that are: putherself a bark in canoeandreleased explanations havebeenproposed herself on are of travellers' thecurrent plungeto herdeathand freedom. to 1) dragons theresult exaggerated talesof realsnakes lizards or observed distant On herdescent in overthefalls,however, was she and are of lands, 2) dragons constructs pureimag- caught H-no, taken hiscavernous to home and by ination. first The was to Beforethisevent theory espousedby Gould married one of his helpers. often (1886). The second, though implied the thepeopleof hervillagehas been plaguedby a by remark thatdragons products fantasy are of or mysterious and to pestilence, H-nonowrevealed theimagination, rarely everbeenseriously herthecause:a gigantic has if water dwelt under serpent defended. hervillage CayugaCreek, on the poisoning waters In short, more for than century a scholars have andfeeding thebodiesofthedeadburied on there. of He told herto adviseherpeople to move to a puzzled over the reasonsfor the existence as denizens thehuman of which did.The serpent, dragons persistent imag- newlocation, they losing ination. Radicaldiffusion, from earth the mystical "archetypes,"its sourceof sustenance, emerged and obscure references "cloudsand water" to do to find cause,and entered lake to follow the the notassistus materially explaining of the thepeopleto their in new home.Whileswimming any relevant observations. can we turn in thechannel Buffalo of Where, then, the was Creek, monster for whostruck with thunderbolt. it a help? spotted H-no, by As Morgan (1954: 160) putsit: "The Snecasyet to a place in the creekwherethe banks point 3 Dragonsand Waterfalls are semicircular either on side,as thespotwhere theserpent, he was struck, after to turning escape it to intothedeep waters thelake,shovedout the of Although may seem an unpromising place let a association: side. . . . The hugebodyof the begin, us consider curious drag- bankson either ons are often connected withwaterfalls. Frazer serpent floated downthestream, lodgedupon and of (1922/2:156) notedthat"The OyampiIndians theverge thecataract, across stretching nearly of French Guianaimagine each waterfall that has theriver. partof thebodyarchedbackwards A a guardian the shape of a monstrous in the shore The snake, near northern in a semicircle. raging who lies hidden under eddyof thecascade, waters dammed bythebody the thus broke up through buthas sometimes been seen to liftup its huge therocks and the of behind; thus wholeverge the head."A page laterhe adds "in Basutoland the falluponwhich bodyrested the was precipitated rivers Ketaneand Maletsunyane witha withit intothe abyss beneath. thismanner, In tumble, roar waters a cloudofiridescent of and into saysthelegend, formed Horse-Shoe was the fall." spray, vastchasmshundreds feetdeep. The Basuto Parker of a of (1923: 218ff.)recounts variant the fear approach footof thesehugefalls,for sametale,in which young to the the woman deceived is
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intomarrying horned the in to the Snakeis either form, ritory W. Stanner, Rainbow serpent human but is ultimately saved by Hi'no, the thunder bisexual a woman. or Sometimes is described he who strikes beastdead witha boltof as a male butis portrayed female the with breasts." spirit, Radcliffe-Brown that"the lightning. (1930: 343) observed Theseagreements three from continents lives (Afri- rainbow-serpent in deep permanent lagoons North are it In tableland ca, SouthAmerica, America) startling,and waterholes. theNew England butthey notrevealthefullvariety dragon is particularly do of with associated waterfalls, possibly motifs. Table 1 omits references Africa, to South- becauseatsuchplacesrainbows frequently be may eastAsia,Australia, South and America. thelast seen . . . Throughout tribes In there a belief is these case this duetolimited is but three thatthe serpent will devourhuman data, inthefirst beingswho thereason different: is the exists approach home its unless are although dragon they medicine-men." as a more less independent in Europe, or idea the BothMtraux and (1959: 329ff.) Davis (1985: Near East, India,the Far East, North the to America, 170-188) describe annualpilgrimage the and Mesoamerica, Africa, in Southeast on Asia, and Saut-d'eauwaterfall the La Tomberiverin it Australia almost as of interior central Haiti,where invariably appears an alter the mountainous of therainbow. of seek ego (voodoo)religion supplicants thevodoun theblessings thewaters of watched byAyida over who overthefallsinWedo,therainbow, arches 4 The RainbowSerpent tertwined herconsort with the Damballah, serpent. Heretheidentity therainbow theserpent of and The rainbow of was made has been splitbetween intimately two connected serpent Australia first known theworkof Radcliffe- personages to referred as "Damballahgenerally (sometimes through Brown(1926, 1930). A detaileddescription Wedo"), of the bisexual thereby resolving issueofthe = thecontinent-wide in variation beliefsaboutthe nature therainbow rainbow of in found serpent rainbow and of cultural many other cultures sect.4.4, point serpent an analysis their k). (see can in and Madin Frazerdoes notmention rainbow con-* the significance be found Buchler dock(1978). Although discussions therainbow nection of with Basutobelief the about giant a water in often treat as a phenomenonserpent, at a place calledSilak in theSudan, it but serpent Australia to a few have continent, writers noted James(1988: 276) visited"quitean impressive peculiar that similarities beliefs other with in cave and waterfall a where rainbow was said to regions.5 Mercatante the (1988: 546) describes "rainbow live ... It was a hungry Rainbow, meat-eating snake" aboriginal of Australia a "gigantic as snake living a cave withwater." in James, contrast, by whosebody archesacrossthe sky as the rain- does not mention giantserpent, she does a but bow . . . Known Taipanamong Wikmunkandescribe rainbow a curious as the the as identified hybrid, the but earsanda mouth like people,he is associatedwiththe giftof blood with python, having to humankind, the circulation the a camel(James of 1988:297). controlling bloodas wellas themenstrual ofwomen . . . There a subtle revealing is but in transition this cycle Medicine menand rainmakers invoke collection examples: first of are the three uncontroTaipanby and in in rituals. versially of as using quartz crystals sea shells their descriptions dragons recognized Called Julunggul the people of eastern suchstandard as Gould(1886), Ingersoll among surveys Arnhem Snakeis believed to (1928), Allen and Griffiths and Land,theRainbow (1979), Hogarth swallow andlater vomit them This Clery(1979), Huxley(1979), or Rhrich young (1981). boys up. is symbolic their of or from By contrast, last three uncontroversially the are rebirth, thetransition to Knownas Kunmanggur a descriptions therainbow. thedescriptions in of If of youth manhood. told of Ter- therainbow in Australia Haitiandof and myth by theMurinbata theNorthern serpent therainbow the among Udukof theSudansound this familiar, is forgood reason:theyappealto thesamephysical behavioral and traits 5 Among writers who have notedthe widespreadoccurrence essentially for in of a belief in the rainbow serpentare Radcliffe-Brown documented dragons Table 1. The associthus as withwaterfalls serves a (1926: 25), Mountford (1978: 23, 95), Buchler(1978: 125), ationof dragons and Loewenstein (1961). The firstthree writerssimply springboard our discussion other of draconic for mentionthe fact withoutfurther comment.Loewenstein volume sinceanywaterfall a significant with traits, provides a fuller discussion in the contextof a radical a of that produces plume spray mayrisehundreds diffusionist but withoutenteringinto any of the theory, detailsof trait agreements connecting dragonsand rainbows of feetinto the air (as at Niagara).Whenever thatconstitute focus of the present the thesunshines at study. through theappropriate anglea
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rainbow and the alterego of a dragon be mentioned in passing, combined appears, or with only intoview.6 springs others a single in trait. Thehorned of another serpent Niagara provides subtleclue to the identity dragons of and rainbows.The types chromatic of effects at Rain produced 4.1 WhyDragonsGive/Withhold (a) a waterfall withthe height the cataract of vary andthevolume water of overit.In high, Therainbow most is in pouring commonly representedone suchas thoseat Yosemite in of four falls, ribbony Valley bow,2. as a bridge ways:1. as a celestial the is to California, spray notsufficientproduce between a Heavenand Earth, as a belt,scarf, 3. or rainbow. mostwaterfalls In there a other is article apparelof a deity, as a giant of significant 4. modest which rainbows snake. plumeof spray produces between lip of thecataract thepool into the and By far the most commonview is thatthe which plunges, it to theinference the rainbow a giant that is snake which either drinks water leading resident liveseither thecave behind in the from Earthand sprays overthesky(thus the it dragon fallsor in thepool belowit.Niagara, is it or drinks from sky rain the however, causing torain), that noted more itswidth water for and volume than for (thus it to stop).Bothvariants widely are causing itsheight, theplume spray itgenerates distributed, will be illustrated and of that and only briefly riseshundreds feet of intotheair.As a result, the here. to belief the According a folk among Chinese rainbows seenat Niagara arch over of Lanzhouin Gansuprovince, rainbow an the is typically high thefalls.It is perhaps accident, no that which drinks water from sea the then, the enormous dragon Senecasawthehorned water of as and spraysit out as rain (Lo Chin-tang, serpent Niagara p.c.). abovethefalls, assigned dragon's Hooykaas(1956: 305) notesthat"in Javanese and the residing normal home(thecave behind veil of water) popular the the has conception rainbow thebodyof to thethunder who chastises Clearly, it. the a serpent whichstretches itself above theisland god thunderous of Niagara'shugewater roar volume of Java,endingin two heads of deer or cows, could also have contributed thisskewing to of one of which drinks water from JavaSea, the the loci. other from Indian the Ocean.Whensatiated, expected they bothrainbows dragons and the as Although regular- vomit water rainon theearth." Similarly, of to ly appearin general Mam of Guatemala, surveys folklore, my amongtheMayan-speaking no evolutionary connection ever one common has of knowledge conception therainbow portrays beenmadebetween them. standard In of which comeinto has contact surveys itas a gigantic serpent folklore suchas Cavendish the steam intothe (1983),Leach (1972), withwater, spraying resulting Ranke (1975-) or Thompson chromatic (Richard arc (1955-1958) one airin a great Reimer, p.c.). finds entries "dragon" "rainbow" The oppositenotion thatthe rainbow for and separate drinks with cross-reference no indication the therainand so prevents from no and that it is falling found twoareinanywayconnected. Leach(1972),alone among Muraofeastern the Indiawho,according includesa separate for to Elwin (1947: 262) hold that"therainbow amongthesefour, is entry "rainbow but serpent," again withno indication the greatsnake,Bhumtaras, rises from that its that is connected "dragon." anyone it with To who ant-hill stoptherain."A similar to view of the examines ethnology therainbow, rainbow obstructor rainfall reported the of as carefully of is for the connection drag- theNgadha, of however, evolutionary and ofFlores Maumere, other peoples ons with rainbows self-evident. thissection in theLesserSundaIslandsof Indonesia is In (Bader some of the seemingly characteristics 1971: 950ff.), Yuchiof theAmerican the Southcapricious of dragons citedin Table 1 are compared with east(Speck 1909: 110),thePiapocoof Colombia ascribed attributes the (Jim of corresponding culturally Klumpp, p.c.),theHausa ofnorthern Nigeria of which have a natural rainbow, 1968:218),andmany many explana- (Tremearne Bantu-speaking tion.For reasons space someconnections of will peoplesin central Africa Heusch1982:36). (de The natural basis fortheuniversal belief a in rainbow is clear.Throughout serpent reasonably 6 The Hollywood film"Dragonheart" of creates to just such a the history our species Man has tended scene:Draco, the protagonist, a wingeddragon is that animate theforces nature, if therainbow of and dwellsin a cave veiledby a waterfall plunges that into is to be withan organicbeing,its compared thepoolbelow.When he agitated bursts violently through and coloration a in thewatery coverandtakes suggest serpent, except into Whether shape flight theclouds. those rare cases (e.g.,Polynesia) accident design, tiny of iridescence or a where arc snakes are by at appears the lower ofthescreen the left at moment hisemergence. absent. of rainbows a Moreover, require conjunction
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of rainand sun,and are therefore once a sign rivers that at so couldleavetheir they hiding places of rain, and of thecessation rainfall. short, with of In more facility." the rainbow embodies inherent an ambivalence, as giverand withholder the fertilizing of rains. Thisis notan abstract butis attested 4.2 WhyDragonsGuard Springs, Live in and speculation, in the descriptions particular of culCaves (b) repeatedly someofwhich therainbow a signof see as tures, or whileothers it as a sign The rainbow an evanescent see is and fertility blessing, phenomenon, of drought flooding; others or still view it with any explanation it as a spirit of snakeposes a ambivalence. whensun and raincontest for genuine logicalproblem: This same ambivalence oftennoted in control thesky,therainbow is of is visible serpent of in but does it resideat other conceptions the dragon.Allen and Griffiths theheavens, where out the of as (1979: 16) point that, despite later denigra- times? Descriptions therainbow an immense tionof thedragon the snake often itas rising descendor throughout NearEast and celestial depict "thefirst actualdragons, Babylonian ing to a spring, the or Europe, lake, river, a cave. In this of creation . the assumestwo somewhat dragons thefirst myths . . werenot conception rainbow evil forms: a celestialform, whichthe 1. in wholly but,as willbe seen,wereambivalent distinct both nature inimpact." in and Elsewhere they waterserpent temporarily is arousedand visible (24) observe "this that of for and 2. a terrestrial aquaticform, or in facility thedragon being in thesky, identified opposing with sidesis one of his most which samecreature the as appears a submerged attributes." of In these confusing Although European dragons guardian springs. some descriptions arenotclearly connected giving withhold- twoforms therainbow virtually with or of are inseparable this with the (e.g., in aboriginal but Marduk, ingrain, idea is associated Australia), in others they of storms, who slaughtered the are dissociated thepointthat to evBabylonian god comparative the that their Tiamat, "monster holds idenceis neededto establish The primeval dragon identity. backthewaters" 1979: are and (AllenandGriffiths 20). following examples representative, could A horned water which dwelt springs be multiplied in times over. serpent many andother terrestrial sources alsocapable water was The villagespring Luwajang, theisland of on ofbringing withholding among Zuniof of Lembatain eastern or rains the the Indonesia, represents western Mexicoandamong New someother native lifewaters thecommunity. snakenearthe of "No America 1987:97). spring (Hultkrantz peoplesof North maybe killed.This is becauseit maybe a but of wei or (1988: 153)provides concise, detailed theguardian Wright spirit thespring, nimon wei "The WaterSerpent a collective murun bothphrases is themeaning of description: conveying whomay found every in be orbody of theproprietorprotector thewater It is not or of ... being spring . water . . Although arevariations form, there in the poisonous, very but . large... A rainbow . . seen commonest thePlumed is Water is Serpent, present nearthespring thissnake... A womanmust the These beingsare removeall jewellery, and exthroughout Pueblo World. bracelets, similar thecause of earthquakes, and landslides ternal decoration before and floods, there, above bathing . . . Careless to can a approach springs cause a fatal all she maynotgetherhairwet.In thisregard of in stands marked in contrast theman,for to swelling the abdomen, particularly young woman men.Even the paintfromthe serpent's is on his image there no restriction a manwashing hair can producea similar result. youngwomen there. If Should woman so shestands danger a do in immerse themselves a spring in run of and they therisk of beingmarried thespirit thespring by ofbecoming . insane" impregnated theWater by Serpent. . therefore (Barnes1974:62). beingdriven LiketheMayaandAztecwhoconceived ritual of is AmongtheUdukof theSudan thepython thePuebloans sacrificed "associated a with drowning, occasionally ambivalently the Rainbow;the off to ... is in and young orgirl ward disaster butwere python an earth-creatureits movement boy intheir ofhuman AtZuni its normal never use life. until theguiseof a Rainbow in habit, profligate was suchsacrifice usedto stoptheflood waters." it leapsintotheair,or sleepslikea swamp-snake to Swanton theChickasaw in thewatery was (1928: 251) According pools.Thisclassicambivalence ofwestern believed "a horned that snake pointed out to me quite spontaneously" Mississipi (James called sint-holo the which ("sacredsnake")livedalongbig 1988: 33). "Zulusalso feared rainbow, creeks in caves . . . Thesesnakesoften or moved they associated snakes. wassaidtolivewith with It from stream another, it was claimed a snake, atleast, always one to and or one whenever appeared that couldmakeit rainin order raisethe thebowwas visible. to When was seenwith end it its they
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the it to women" touching earth, was believed be drinking andmayimpregnate (Hultkrantz bathing from pool. Sometimes livedin a largepool, 1987:97). a it andmenwereafraid bathein suchwaters, to for In North America rainbow generally the is porfear therainbow that seizeandeatthem. On trayed a bridge theafterlife, as to no might having overt or with the drylandit poisoned manit met, afflictedconnection thehorned any However, serpent. himwith disease"(Hole 1983:2333). of not underlying identity thetwois revealed only thesedescriptions and distinctive behavioral Although applyto therain- indirectly common by bow/rainbow can be transferred traits, more virbut serpent, they (if directly lessabundantly) subby intact thedescription dragons to of which tle physical clues.With to tually regard Creekversions haveno explicit connection therainbow. a of thehorned with In water Lankford (1987: 86) serpent well-known Greek founder notes of that several "makespecific reference myth KingCadmus, myths thecityof Thebes,senthis companions fetch to his multicolored to a feature horns, characteristic water from Spring Aresto cleansea cow oftheHorned the of Water Moredirectly still, Serpent." which wished sacrifice thegoddess he to to Athe- Spicer(1980: 64) notesthat amongtheYaqui of ne. Unbeknownst them spring guarded northwest to the was Mexicorespected were spiritual powers which killedmostof thewa- associatedwithcertainsprings, where"snakes by a fierce dragon, ter-seekers before king the himself returned do with to rainbows their on foreheads livedand swam battle with monster crushed headwith in thewater." the and its a rock.In ruralEuropean contexts such beliefs One other recurrent association connects draghavepersisted much sameform modern ons with in the into caves. In mostcases where information times. an it source, is relatively (1979: 5), quoting earlier Huxley complete is clear thatthe caves states as recently thebeginning the20th referred are not drycaves, but rather that as of to watery rural told beneath a century Macedonians ofhorned serpents caves of the typenaturally occurring whichguarded "dragonsprings" the and which plunges. it (wells) of waterfall abovethepoolinto their the basisfor suchbeliefs relativeis countryside. Again, natural to waterfalls often (1913: 63) theChinese ly transparent: According de Visser produce hydraulic classicsstatethat"a dragon thewater in covers erosionof the underlying face,creating cliff a himself withfivecolours. Therefore is a god setting whicha substantial he in cave stands above to he toward a pool, veiledor partially veiledfrom view by (shen)... Ifhedesires ascend, strives theclouds, ifhe desires descend, enters thetumbling and to he cataract. spray The produced such by a deep well."7 Elsewhere notes(133) that he "in a continuously falling body of watergives rise Chinaa 'dragon-rearing in a 'dragon-king'sto frequent well' henceto rainbow rainbows, serpents, was said to be inhabited a dragon. andultimately temple' waterfalls, by dragons. Although larger dared drawwater from well,because rainbows, this Nobody deep pools, and caves are naturally ifonedidso,strange andtheper- associated, is an open questionwhether it the things happened, sonwhohadventured thus to arouse dragon's idea ofdragons denizens pools,springs, the as of and fell caves was first at are anger ill." (which developed waterfalls Smith(1919) was the first pointout that relatively in some partsof the world), to rare and suchEurasian traditions strikingly are similar to subsequently transferredpools and caves elseto ones found the American con- where, whether evolution these or the of throughout North symbolic tinent. involves morecomplex a of Amongthe Kato and Yuki of northernconnections history for it innovations. California, example, was believedthata convergent horned feathered and water dweltin the serpent and tulemarshes, young be girlsmight ravished ifthey such approached places(Essene1942:72). 4.3 WhyDragonsare Chimerical (f-j) The Zuni of western New Mexico maintained a "In similar belief: thesea andunderground waters As is commonly the is recognized, dragon basicaldwells water the conceived as a plumed ly a snake.Its scales thusfollow of from ophidits serpent, or horned snake.This monster bringrain, ian heritage, thosephysical can but attributes which make chimerical it to appear havedisparate origins and unequalgeographical distributions: are horns a verywidespread hair appearsto be feature, 7 Huxley (1979: 11) repeatsVisser's statement with an insomewhat less common, and feathers evidently but addition: "'A dragon triguing, unexplained parenthetical to of in the water/say the Chinese, 'covers himselfwith five are confined the dragons an area stretchcolours (the rainbow)."' northern California Mesoamerica to ingfrom (al95.2000 Anthropos

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al- as a serpentine tnougn wingsare morewidespread). chimera a kind ophioungulate of Finally, the can ofa or ophioavian, though dragon be a chimera withhorns, composed fur,or some of the of mammals birds or onto anatomical variety ungulate features birds. understand of To grafted why a serpentine it stem, has a particularly such a conception shouldariseindependently in interesting to variouspartsof the worldwe mustrecall the relationship horses. treatmentstherainbow of of- fundamentally ambivalent nature therainbow, of Summary serpent ten it snake with furtherwhich no materializes theunion sunandrain, from of portrayas an enormous but and Thisnatural didnotescape fact qualification, a closer look at the evidence or fire water. reveals physically a morecomplex of as usually myth- thenotice earlyman,whosaw therainbow ical being.As noted in Javanese an ambivalent orwithholderthefertilizing of already, popular giver the is conception rainbow seen as a giantsnake waterof life. Whatbetter way to symbolically withtwo heads of deer or cows, one of which incarnate contradictory than this nature a through drinks from IndianOcean,theother the from the visualrepresentationtherainbow of which fuses JavaSea, andamong UdukoftheSudan-Ethi- a cold-blooded the with mamreptile a warm-blooded borderland rainbow identified the mal or bird?Far-fetched it might the is with as opian initially apbut is as the python, atthesametime described having pear, ofthe then, physical representation dragearsanda mouth a camel(James like 1988:297). on as a chimerical almost is serpent certainly the The Nyabwa of the IvoryCoast say thatthe product a rigorous, causally of if misguided logic. rainbow the rainshowing cow, whichhe In fact, dragon is his the embodies mankind's arguably willlater (Julie eat the earliest known use of analogy, thefollowing in Bentinck, p.c.),andamong of havethe form: Ila-speaking peoples Zimbabwe "They curious idea that the just belowwhere [rain]bow rain : sun touches earth there a very is fierce which goat-ram, snake : X burns fire" like and (Smith Dale 1920/2: 220). Just therainbow as in The resultof such analogicalthinking, of serpent Javabearsthe headofa deerorcow,thehorned water of of rain+ sun = serpent course,is a conjunction terms, North America sometimes is described a fusion snake+ X. The specific as manner whichthis in of snake and a horned mammal. The Umatilla analogyis solved for "X" will varywiththe of eastern believedin a serpent of mammalian avianfaunalocallyavailable. or All Washington, thelake,alternatively described a "water as matters that cold-blooded is the elk," that really serpent, which causedwater and and is spouts storms, could which clearly inspired theshapeandcolorof by come out upontheland (Ray 1942: 255f.). The therainbow be with itself, symbolically hybridized San CarlosApacheofeastern Arizona hence mammal a bird a or animal, recognized a warm-blooded a feathered, watermonster withtwo (or somecombination thetwo). of serpentine horns theWarm and,in a revealing comparison, Springs Apache of New Mexico add thatit is "buffalo-like" 1940: 77). In muchthe 4.4 Why are (Gifford Ambivalent Dragons Sexually (k) same vein,Howard(1981: 176ff.)describes the horned snakes Shawnee of belief complex Initially may seem surprising a sexual as it giant that chimeras: "Thesecreatures, lurkin particu- identity sometimes who is attributed the rainbow. to and seize However,this is far less surprising larly deep spotsin streams lakes,often when we and drown bathers fishermen. and recall the that male/female is commonly unwary They opposition arethought be able to travel to belowtheearth as projected onto the sun and moon (Lvi-Strauss wellas inthewater. Their headchief sometimes 1976: 211-221). In discussing cosmology is the of as snakewith one redand one thePanare Indians Venezuelan of envisaged a great Dumont Guiana, horn In a taleaccounting theorigins (1979: 250) notedthe following ... for green attributions of ofwitchcraft is described having bodyof sexuality celestial he as the to bodies(with and minus plus a snakeand thehead,horns, neckof a large values marked "male" and "female" and for respecbuck. . . The GiantHorned Snakesare generally tively): sun (+ -), moon(- +), stars(- -), Milky considered be theembodiment evil,andtobe Way (- -), rainbow +). In other to of while (+ words, of wicked shamans. a are spirit as helpers Nevertheless, thesunandmoon regarded maleandfemale or of creatures respectively, stars Milky the and pieceofthehorn flesh one ofthese Wayareregarded constitutes a powerful charm . ." . as neither male nor female, and therainbow is Theseagreements a con- regarded both as maleandfemale. Taken itself suggest veryancient by of not but thisclassification ception therainbow as a natural more serpent, might appearto be little
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than accidental an feature a particular of If culture, rather must havea sex, perplexing. thedragon butas seen already theMurinbata in conception whynotjust leave it unambiguously male,since of theRainbow Snakeas a male portrayed with dragons notoriously of seducing are fond young female the of breasts, samepeculiarity therainbow women? and out Hogarth Clery (1979: 130) point elsewhere. in the appears (1956: 300) relates that European was Hooykaas alchemy dragon a symbol a Balinesemyth abouttheorigin therainbow ofthephilosophical of of of concept theconjunction in whichthe god Guru becomesenamored of opposites as (sometimes portrayed a regalandrothegoddess to Uma,whomhe has created bring gyne), whilein theTaoistmetaphysics China, of himsolace:"God Gurulooking GoddessUma where at nature a balanceof complementary is yin became passionate, (she was) male, not male, (female)and yang(male) principles, dragon the not she In female, female: had a male member. posesa classificatory "Whether anomaly: dragons hisdesire intercourse clutched TheGod derivedfromthe Yang principle fromboth for he her. or wasfrightened sight hermalesex [organ], was thesubject muchlearned atthe of of debate."In the snatched offand threw intothesky:This is Chinesecase thisambivalence it it was undoubtedly therainbow. fellto earth, It which the further reinforced the assignment the sun of originated by tornado. bloodappeared, which was the to yangand of waterto yin.In muchthe same Fragrant of the origin thebuffaloes; blood was wipedoff way,ItzamNa, theCelestial Iguanaof theMaya, andthat theorigin thecows." was of which "carries disparate the of and meanings fire the be as is as the Whyshould rainbow regarded sym- water" described bisexual, maleprinciple Close showsthat residing the sky"in themidst the waves" in of bolically androgynous? attention rainbows if Above the (Huxley1979:9). rarely everoccursingly. main arc a fainter, sometimes almost brighter invisible arc secondary can oftenbe seen. In traditional cultures these arcsarecalled 4.5 WhyDragonsAre in Conflict two withThunder/ many "male"and "female" respectively. arcs Occasionor Lightning, theSun (1) attributions reversed, asare or ally the gender is basis, but in any case a The rainbow a weather and signedon a different phenomenon, so union of male and femaleis wide- does not existin isolation. Since it can appear symbolic of of is of spread.8 Writing the cosmology the Ban- onlywhenthere a conjunction sunand rain de withbothfire Africa, Heusch it is closelyassociated and water. tu-speaking peoplesof Central comes in storms, storms (1982: 37) notes that"the rainboweffectivelyBut rainoften and are embodies contradiction: a atoncemaleandfemale, accompanied thunder lightning. must, and We by it unites and water, fire reckon with thunder lightning underand in highand low." Among then, theVendathiscontradictionexpressed the standing fullsignificance beliefs is the of aboutthe by of water feminine to fire. rainbow. simplify discussion, To the certain opposition masculine symOne of themostbizarre features attributed bolic equivalences to shouldbe notedat theoutset. the dragonis its ambivalent like the First, because their of closeassociation temporal in sexuality: it This is sequence, thunder lightning and rainbow, is symbolically almost are androgynous. always as different ofa single portrayed aspects supernatural Thisbeing commonly is as being. portrayed an 8 Cf. 1) Malaypelangi bestknown theform sekelamin in "double rainbow" male enormous of bird, (= perhaps and female) (Skeat 1900: 15, fn.2), 2) thePalauansof theNorth American thunderbird (which produces where cleararc is said to be female, the and thunder the Micronesia, of and by beating itswings, lightning the indistinct male(Sandra one Totonac Chung, p.c.),3) the of is ofMexico, the where rainbow saidtobe simultaneouslyby theflashing its eyes). Thunder/lightning is associatedwiththe sky,whereas maleandfemale 1969:137), the CunaofPanama, unequivocally (Ichon 4) where brighter is male and thepalerarc female the rainbow, alreadynoted,is ambivalently the arc as 1938: where associated (Nordenskild 394),5) theIngaofColombia, withbothsky and earth.Hence the a doublerainbow said to be male and female H. is (S. and symbolic equivalences oppositions reference theHausa of Nigeria following to Levinsohn, p.c.). With 1968:340) notes that is arise: (Tremearne [rainbow] "Gajjimare inshape like but orat something a snake is hermaphrodite, = = = bird thunder lightning thunderbird leastdouble the the red, female gendered, malepart being = = rainbow rainbow blue."The cross-cultural in disagreementsgender assignserpent dragon ment are values probably due to thecontradictory implied In several areasthunder/lightwidely separated bow abovea brighter bya pale(female) arching (male)one, or is theguardian sincedualistic of schemes associate ning itsavianrepresentative cosmological universally malewith "above"andfemale with "below." theskyandproducer rainfall, of while rainbow the
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withthedragonboats of or waFinally,in connection serpent dragonis theguardianof terrestrial ter sources. Perhapsthe most completetreatment China, de Visser (1913: 83) notesthatlargeboats of thistopicto dateis thatof de Heusch (1982: 34- which were used by the emperorsfor pleasure often werepaintedwiththeemblemof a bird 75), who devotes over 40 pages to detailingthe trips, in of therainbowand thelightning the "not to denotetheirswiftsailing,but to suppress relationship disasterscaused of peoples the water-gods"(and so prevent cosmologyof a number Bantu-speaking and of In the sacred traditions these by drowning, of centralAfrica. waterspouts, thelike). flooding, In othercases the dragon is at odds withthe are and the lightning the rainbowserpent peoples The rainbow is sun. Thus, withregardto theIndianNaga, Huxley conflict. in a state of permanent male and (1979: 66) notesthat"thesun,who as thedragon's said to be the union of two serpents, thenbecomes rivers.These childhas itsown voraciousappetite, which live in two different female, and creaturesare generallybelieved to thedragon-slayer, will be foundto eat tomormulticolored that stop the rain from falling,althougha minority row's dragonswiththe same regularity it has view creditsthem with causing the rain to fall. eaten yesterday's.In this role it is oftenfigured and the rainbow are said to have by the eagle - the Indian Garuda - whichcarries The lightning and promisesup to the sky,blessingsand the prayers of a profoundincompatibility temperament, of the beginning the wet season, ordinancesdown to the earth,and a thunderbolt former marking In whenit is angry." muchthesame vein Cotterell the latter thedryseason. of withregardto the Chinese refer- (1989: 120 f.) reports of Given thiscontexta number scattered of ences to the antipathy thedragonand lightning lung that there was "some formof antagonism fall into place quite naturally. Huxley (1979: 5) betweendragonsand the sun." Finally,we might betweenApollo, God of Light, relates that in Greek folk traditionthe dragon includethecontest in Ovid's versionof the myth, on "attacksbridegrooms theirway to theirwed- and Pythonwho, dings, though he is easily put to rout by any guardedthe shrineof the earthgoddess, and was bride who can claim (as what Greek bride can- slain by an arrowshotdown its throat. to Again, it is not difficult perceivethenatural not) that she is the lightning's daughterand the The same opposition basis for this belief. The rainbow depends on a thunder'sgranddaughter." and and rainfall sunshine, Europe, where the horrific delicatebalance between appears in northern it: will destroy in thunderstorms the whichencircled knownworld too muchof either MidgardSerpent the about in the ocean flooding earth the rainbowis overcomeby water,althoughthe and thrashed withtidal waves, was killed by Thor,the Nordic defeat is more often creditedto the far more but and lightning, in displaysof thunder victoryof colossal spectacular god of thunder, a Pyrrhic afterthe stormthe rainbowis vanquishedby the proportions. up Hogarthand Clery (1979: 44 f.) relatea Hindu sun drying therainupon whichit depends. in the traditionof dragon slaying which myth involves "a clash between the demonic dragon the Vritra thegod Indra.Vritra, 'Enveloper' or 4.6 Dragonsand Menstruation and (n) is 'Obstructor,' depictedas a limbless cloud serassociationsconnects aboutthemountain topsand holding One of the mostperplexing pent, writhing or thewatersof heavenin itsbelly.Indrais a weather the rainbow with menstruation, more particuIn its usual formthe belief god who rides the skies in a chariotand is armed larly withmenarche. woman or girlmustnot He with the rainbowand the lightning. launches holds thata menstruating the for or a river spring fearof offending at the a thunderbolt Vritra; dragonburstsasunder, approach across serpent streamdown freely and the pent-up waters guardian. In describingvarious membersof the spirit new lifeto all." A parallel thethirsty land,bringing and between the thunderAighting the (marsalai) category amongtheMountainArapesh antipathy rainbow in theiranimate formsis seen in other of New Guinea, Mead (1940: 392) notedthat"the Hindu myths, wherethe eagle-likeGaruda,which rainbow,alut, is said to be made by the giant resided in the skies, was the deadly enemy of marsalais, by a shemaun(dugong) fromthe sea, the waters and a lahowhin theserpentine (viper)from land.The marsalai Naga, whichguardedearthly and and Griffiths 1979: 37). A very similar opens itsmouth, therainbowis thesun shining (Allen its and through sprayedbreath. . . All marsalais are oppositionbetween the celestial thunderbird women, the horned serpentof the waters is found over hostileto menstruating women,pregnant and much of NorthAmerica, and is too well-known and menand womenafter intercourse, thepenthese taboos are practically alties afterinfringing here. to requiredocumentation
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The marsalai will followthewomanand standard. withher till she dies, or injurethe child copulate or so thatit is miscarried, is borna monster." and Berndt(1964: 153 f.) pointout that Berndt in aboriginal Australia"a menstruating like a girl, womanwho has just bornea child,mustbe careful the not to attract Rainbow's attention, staying by close to her fireand not going near a billabong: her." the fire helps to protect two beliefsamongtheCanela Karstenreported in of Brazil whichassociate menstruation general, with or first menstruation, therainbow:"Whenthe rainbow appears,a womanwho is in hermenstrual period ought not to go out lest the cuichi supai in (rainbow demon) should make her pregnant, which case she will give birthto a demoniacal child" (1926: 360). "When girls have theirfirst menstruation theymust be carefulto cover their are to body well, because evil spirits trying enter themthrough their genitalsin the formof snakes, in which case eithersupernatural conceptionor disease and deathwill follow"(Karsten1964: 54). to According Mtraux(1946: 29), in themythology of theToba, Mataco, and Lengua Indiansof the the Gran Chaco fourcataclysms destroyed world. One of thesewas a floodprecipitated a mensby offending thereby truating who wentforwater, girl the water python(Rainbow) which guarded the spring. The natural basis for these beliefs appears to derive from the widespread perceptionthat the basic color of the rainbow is red, the color of blood. From this, the followingassociations arise: red = blood blood = menses/slaughter This connectionis made explicitby the Yuki Indians of northern California,who regardedthe rainbowas composedof threecolors,white,blue, and red. In theirview "the red was caused by the blood of all the women in the world," menstrual a and the rainbowformed pathto heaven of girls menstruation who died duringtheirfirst (Foster 1944: 208). In thelightof theseexamplesa Shawnee myth relatedby Gatschet(1899) assumes additionalintellsof a one-horned The story terest. snake,wewia whichinhabited lake. A young manet wilemit first girlwho was in her mensessaw the monster, in the formof a fawnwithone red hornand one then is contradiction ignored), blue (thenumerical in the formof a snake whichmade the watersof of thelake seetheand boil. She told herfather the councilhe and thetribal and after incident, seeking
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eldersdecidedto drivethemonster from water the to kill it. To accomplishthistheywaiteduntilthe girl was once again in her menses,at whichtime she was instructed enterthe lake. The snake to was consequently enervatedthatit was easily so to brought shoreand cut to pieces. Given the widespread traditionalbelief that is menstruation spiritually the polluting similarity of thesebeliefsmightbe dismissedas havinglittle diagnosticsignificance. However,the detailed in thecomportment rainbowserpents of similarity and detacheddragonsis notlikelyto be accidental: bothare guardians a terrestrial of watersource,and in bothcases theyare offended a menstruating by woman coming into contactwith the water they guard. 4.7 WhyDragonsExhale Fire (p-q) In several widely separatedsocieties the end of the rainbowis believed to be a place of spontaneous conflagrations. Toba Batak of northern The Sumatra associateitwithepidemicsand fires (Sitor Mexico Situmorang, p.c.), theChontalof southern hold thatthe half rainbowis an evil woman who causes fires (Carrasco 1960: 107 f.), and theLuyi of Uganda say thatifa rainbowsettles thetrees, on it will burnall theleaves (Werner 1932: 231). This themeis exploredmostthoroughly de Heusch by (1982: 34-75), who shows thatamong a number of Bantu-speaking peoples in centralAfrica the rainbow and thunder/lightning symbolically are the latter therain,and the former giving opposed, of it burning up. To theLuba therainbowis formed two intertwining and when they aquatic serpents, in "join together the sky the firetheyemitburns the earth"(de Heusch 1982: 36). The naturalbasis for these widespreadbeliefs appears to be the perceptionthat the rainbow drivesaway or burnsaway therain,since it natuor rallyappears in sunshowers at the termination of a storm. The fiery breathof European dragonsis wellknown, but has never been explained as anyon thingother than a whimsical embellishment an already fancifulcreature.In view of the fact thatsimilarideas are associated with dragonsin otherpartsof the worldthisinterpretation clearly is inadequate. According to Hogarth and Clery (1979: 45) Indian Nagas "were capable of killing people withtheirbreath- a dragon-like abilityand greatsufferand of causingdrought, pestilence ing." Likewise, the Chinese dragonbreathesfire, but fireof a special kind:"Dragon fireand human

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a morethan but If fire contact speculation, which fire opposite. dragon comesinto are maybe little theme. treasure on withwetness flames, if it meetswaterit variation thewidely-distributed it and it If it burns. one drives awayby meansof fire, TheIndian depicted commonly Nagasarelikewise beneath of a anditsflames extinguished" as guardingtreasure jewelsconcealed are (de stops burning related of and the thewaters, in a myth theCherokee beliefthat Visser1913: 67). The widespread shaShawnee a captured or noxious is of breath a dragon fetid presumablyby Mooney(1970: 299) horned a his mansecured release slaying giant itscombustible is connected with by properties. "diathe and (uktena), delivering flashing serpent its mond"whichadorned forehead (traditionally this musthave been some otherstone)to his 4.8 WhyDragonsGuard Treasures (w) captors. Becausethere treasures? do a As everyEnglish-speaking knows, pot guard Why dragons person This of gold awaitstheluckyone who can reachthe is goldattheendoftherainbow. answer may but or this seemprovocative facetious, theconnections At elusiveend of the rainbow. first glance The beliefappearsto be littlemore thana quaint are reasonably straightforward. end of the to believed toucha terrestrial is But tradition. the rainbow widely cultural of invention a particular Unlike or a is the of association goldwith endoftherainbow watersource, typically spring river. foundin small mostmetals, in found several gold is commonly regions. separated widely it where can in in Indonesia amounts alluvialriver On theislandof Lembata eastern washings, reason Forthis the is for "therainbow, thepeopleof Kdang, asso- easilybe seenwith naked eye. doubtthatgold was the first can be little and ciatedwithgold,withsprings withsnakes. there to metalknown earlyman longbefore locus an the ideasform important of precious In fact, four a of aboutbeingand aboutspirit" maypar(Barnes theadvent metallurgy,factwhich speculation and in salience myth for account itspeculiar 1973: 611). Amongthe Mam of Todos Santos, tially downin a touches Sincetherainbow the Mexico "whena rainbow appears, god of a psychology. a its or to down where is mountain pointing gold gold spring river, endcovers placewhere particular is Andsincetherainbow a giant is found. is hidden under earth" the serpent Reimer, (Richard p.c.), whenit does not and "therainbow which andtheMurleof theSudansaythat springs rivers guards there. the it in ina cave appear thesky, guards goldfound which snake is a large sleeps dragon-like which in when flying thesky.It is a bad thing not it killspeople,and it has a goldstoolwhich uses 4.9 WhyDragonsEncircletheWorld(z) in forsleeping itscave" (Jon Arensen, p.c.). and One of the most persistent memorable of was the trea- It is clearthat rainbow a source mental of of is habit guarding features dragons their out to hoards gold.Well-knownconfoundmentearlyman.Did it spray the of sures, prototypically it of the accounts include fire-breathing by guardian the rainor drink up? How was it generated the when did Where itreside of and and the dragons contact fire water? by goldenfleecesought Jason, trea- it was notin thesky? their and Grendel Fafnir jealouslyguarding to mustalso have occurred Another in sure-troves the Beowulfepic and the Nibequestion halfof the "Whereis the other But lungenlied respectively. it is not European earlyshamans: as are Rainbows As alonethat clearly circular, can guarda treasure. Ingersoll rainbow?" dragons or solarhalos,but only withlunar out, (1928: 88) points in Koreaa terrestrial dragon be observed be halfcan normally seen.Is thelower overminesand theupper was formerly to thought preside lies thisnotion behind halfunderground? the for Perhaps regard it is perhaps gems"andtheintense as worked theuse oftherainbow a world-encircler mines havebeenso little chief reason among why servesto that the Navaho, whereit conventionally in Chosen, peoplesuperstitiously the fearing on of the of sides, disasters may followdisturbance the metals mark boundary sandpaintings three 1902: 122). the east (Matthews of the which believeare peculiarly treasure excluding only they of A virtually identical this conception the rainbow jealous earth-spirit." Unitof theYuchi thesoutheastern asso- appears have traditionally among Although Europeans it the whoidentified with townsquare ed States, treasures withgold, dragon ciatedtreasure may and are the vary in type. Chinese dragonsare oftende- "where ceremonies performed tribal take a pearl(which rainbows gatherings place . . . The townsquareitself, produces picted pursuing and south west, its a or its nacre), holding pearlin with three lodgeson thenorth, through iridescent the endless symbolized rainbow" a themouth, detailwhichhas generated (Speck 1909:57).
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These ceremonial of from singlecenter origin. a of This representationstherain- of diffusion bow are notfully but do a circular, they suggest leaves two logical possibilities: the rainbow 1) a of has on function,delimitation the serpent beeninvented boundary-marking independently many ritual cosmos(thesandpaintings in Navaho occasionsthroughout used humanhistory, 2) the or wereenclosed cir- rainbow in was in ceremonies, however, curing serpent invented early human very cular A similar function well-knownhistory retained, is and withlocal transformations, rainbows). forvarious the of dragons, including "divine serpent fortensof thousands yearsas humans spread Sito" of ancient to encircle the throughout world. the Egypt, "reputed worldwithits immense coils . . . oftenmerely Reflection showthat will these alternatives canin theform a circle, of its tail notbe entirely If therainbow is depicted holding separated. serpent in its mouth"(Hogarth and Clery 1979: 19), a product massive of how innovation, convergent theMidgard of can that serpent Scandinavian mythology, we excludethepossibility thesamepsyand theuroboros, "tail-eater" theEuropean chological or of forces which created wereoperative it alchemical tradition. regard thelatter a in thepast?The rainbow With to as is and serpent a symbol, ofthequestforspiritual humans havebeenusingsymbols a very for symbol integration, Jung long time. Based on an analysis 107 rockpaintings of (1968: 293) has thisto say: The dragonis probably oldest pictorial in Arnhem the and Land,Taon, Wilson, Chippendale in of we thatthe rainbow (1996) have suggested symbol alchemy which havedocumentary serpent evidence. appears theuroboros, tail-eater,has beendepicted Australian It as the in art aboriginal for in the Codex Marcianus, whichdates from the at least some 4,000-6,000years.This is hardly tenth eleventh or . if is with the century. . Timeand againthe surprising:symbolic thought equated alchemists reiterate the that opusproceeds from the appearance language must of we consider seriously one and leadsbackto theone,that is a sort it of thepossibility therainbow that has serpent existed circle a dragon like its rea- inthehuman for biting owntail.Forthis imagination up to 100,000 years. son theopus was often calledcirculare an (circular) This expanded temporal perspective suggests or else rota(thewheel).Mercurius stands the answer to why at as folklorists so longfailed have to and the of beginning end of thework:he is theprima understand evolutionary history thedragon. the as is if which materia, caputcorvi,thenigredo; dragon There a general, imperfect correlation, he devours himself as dragon dies,to rise links belief dragons urbanized, and he the in to state-level and in to againas thelapls.He is theplayof colorsin the societies, thebelief therainbow serpent caudapavonis thedivision four and into elements. tribal societies. convenience can call these For we He is thehermaphrodite was inthebeginning,"city that and dragons" "country dragons" respectively. intotheclassicalbrother-sister that The citydragon: country splits duality dragondistinction in and is reunited theconiunctio, appearonce is, of course,a convenience, if takentoo to and at theendin theradiant form thelumen seriously of obscureimportant details.Much again may thestone. is metallic liquid, He matter of NorthAmericalacked trueurbanization, at novum, yet cold yetfiery, and yethealing leastfollowing collapseof thepre-Columbian the yetspirit, poison all MoundBuilding in societies theMississippi and uniting opposites. draught a symbol to symbol- Ohio Valleys, the horned waterserpent was mystical DespiteJung's approach yet could conceptually dissociated from rainbow, the with ism,the natural objectof his description be clearer. overt The of rare (Creek, symbol thealchem- only andattenuated hardly exceptions Yaqui). the ical questis theuroboros, draconic suchSoutheast Asianpeoples tail-eater,On theother hand, these veiledreferences the"playof as theThai and Javanese to butbeneath have a relatively long in colors" thetailofthepeacock, male/femalehistory urbanization the of whichcommenced with or lies the Indianization, have not transformed duality, to a being"cold yet fiery" yet country ambivalent connector heavenand < of into Mostnotably, supremely dragons citydragons. country the earth: rainbow. have been preserved folk traditions in dragons evenwhenthey have been lostin thecourtly or hieratic as and tradition, inChina(Lanzhou), Central 5 CityDragonsand Country America Mayan-speaking (the Mam).Despite Dragons thesequalifications, distinction the between city Giv- < and One lastpointshouldbe addressed has briefly. dragons country dragons someutility. and within The city en its global distribution integration : contrast dragon country dragon sugcultures radically of different thebeliefin : an different from types gests evolutionary sequence quite therainbow is to that serpent notlikely be a product i proposed Smith (1919). For tensof thouby
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sandsofyears onlydragons the wererainbow ser- thisphase of the research.Thanksgo especiallyto Jon with discovery agriculture the of and Arensen (Sudan branch),Julie Bentinck(Ivory Coast Then, pents. theurbanization, social stratification literacy branch),Philip Hewer (Ghana branch),Jim Klumpp, and which followed from a splitbeganto develop and S. H. Levinsohn (Colombia branch),and Richard it, SandraChung, the as and Reimer(Guatemalabranch).In addition, between dragon an independent entity rainMichael Morauta,and SitorSitumorang completed To this therainbow (serpent). a largeextent split bow questionnaires individuallanguagegroups,and for into be as might characterized a dichotomy "high" Lo Chin-tang, of Professor Chinese languageand literwith atureat the University Hawaii, kindlysupplieddata associated and "low" traditions, former the of and an organized or priesthood literacy, thelatter on the folk beliefs of southernGansu provincefrom Since recollections his childhood.Finally,I am indebted of withthe oral traditions the peasantry. to of for was my wife,Laura Chang-Blust assistancein collecting to and thetransition agriculture urbanization in parts largely independentdifferent oftheworld, data on Chinese folk beliefs,and for much insightful in from belief therainbow feedbackduringwhat musthave seemed like intermiso wasthetransition the about rainbows, In to a beliefin dragons. suchstate-level nable monthswhile I pesteredher first serpent and thenabout dragons. societiesthe awe, fear and or quasi-state-level by mystery inspired the rainbowamongtribal in peoplescame to be concentrated the dragon, withfew or none of these leavingthe rainbow the earlier associations. biblicaltimes ancient References By as of Hebrews wereable to conceive therainbow Griffiths and Allen, Judy, Jeanne of a the "bow of the covenant," symbol divine 1979 The BookoftheDragon. Books. Chartwell Secaucus: the and promise peace,whileassociating dragon Bader,Hermann of 1971 Der Regenbogen der Auffassung Florinesen. dissociation evil. withunmitigated A similar der in is rainbow the therainbow from erstwhile 66: serpent Anthropos 947-955. as seenin other highcultures, in theHindumyth Barnard,Mary is where rainbow usedas a weapon 1964 A Dragon of Vritra, the 33: American Scholar 422-^27. Hunt. and eventhough thedragon, weapon target Barnes,RobertH. against source. 1973 The Rainbow theRepresentationsInhabitants the derive from sameconceptual of ultimately of in

68: AreaofIndonesia. theFlores Anthropos 611-613. of 1974 Kdang.A Studyof the Collective Thought an Press. Clarendon Indonesian Eastern People.Oxford: 6 Conclusion H. RonaldM., andCatherine Berndt Berndt, An of In hindsightis astonishing theidentity the 1964 The Worldof theFirstAustralians. Introduction it that Life to theTraditional of theAustralian Aborigines. rainbow thedragon goneso longunrecand has Press. of University Chicago Chicago: once The clues are literally everywhere, ognized. are we abandonthe idea thatdragons arbitraryBlust,Robert Tafor Evidence Some EarlyAustronesian 1981 Linguistic from creations thehuman of mindwhichspread 83: boos.American Anthropologist 285-319. of of a single center origin. Mostexplanations the 1999 TheFox's Wedding. 94: Anthropos 487^99. havebeenunnecessarily mystical, dragon appeal- Boas, Franz to diffusion, of Method Anthrovaguereferences 1896 TheLimitations theComparative of ing to implausible in theweather 4/103: 901-908.[Reprinted F. Boas, Science Lamarckism, machine, pology. psychological and Race,Language, Culture. Chicago1940] notions European in and alchemy, the like. But

of like other creations traditionalBuchler, R. Ira ultimately, many and are largely as cultures, dragons explicable prod- 1978 The Fecal Crone.In: I.R. Buchler K.Maddock (eds.);pp.119-212. uctsofrational aboutthe prescientific speculation Maddock(eds.) in Ira world realevents, this of mech- Buchler, R., andKenneth case thenatural Piece.TheHague: A Serpent. Chromatic it 1978 TheRainbow anisms rainfall drought. and Perhaps governing Publishers. Mouton is timeat last thatthe study dragons of caught the of Pleistocene Carrasco,Pedro up with rationalism ourremote Indians the and 1960 PaganRituals Beliefs among Chontal who them. ancestors created
20/3: 85Records ofOaxaca,Mexico. Anthropological Press. of 117.Berkeley. University California

Information relevant a muchlarger to projecton theeth- Cavendish, Richard(ed.) nology of the rainbowwas collected by questionnaire, 1983 Man,Myth, Magic.The Illustrated and Encyclopaedia the New and ofMythology, mostly during early 1980s. Membersof theSummer Religion, theUnknown. York: Institute Linguisticswere especially helpfulduring of Marshall Cavendish. 95.2000 Anthropos

of TheOrigin Dragons Arthur Cotterell, 1989 The Macmillan Illustrated of and Encyclopedia Myths NewYork: Macmillan. Legends. Davis,E. Wade and 1985 The Serpent theRainbow. New York:Simonand Schuster.

535 Ichon,Alain 1969 La religion Totonaques la Sierra. des de Paris:Centre National la Recherche de Scientifique. Ernest Ingersoll, 1928 Dragonsand DragonLore. New York:Paysonand Clarke.

Jean-Paul James, Dumont, Wendy but In: MoralKnowledge, 1979 NotinOurselves, inOurStars. D. L. Browman 1988 TheListening and Ebony. Religion, Poweramong Udukof Sudan.Oxford: the andR. A. Schwarz and Clarendon Shamans, Stars. (eds.),Spirits, Press. from SouthAmerica; 241-254. The Perspectives pp. Publishers. Hague:Mouton Carl Gustav Jung, 1956 Symbols Transformation. of Transi, R. F. C. Hull. Verrier Elwin, by New York:Pantheon Books. (Bollingen and Ghotul. Cum1947 TheMura Their Series,20) Bombay: Geoffrey Oxford Press. [1952] University berlege, 1968 Psychology Alchemy. and Transi, R. F. C. Hull.New by Frank Essene, York: Pantheon Books.(Bollingen Series, [2nded., 20) Element XXI: RoundValley. 1942 Culture Distributions; 1953] original Records : 1-97. Berkeley: 8/1 UniverAnthropological Rafael Press. of Karsten, sity California 1926 The Civilization theSouthAmerican of with Indians, D. Evans,Jonathan to London: Special Reference Magic and Religion. and In: 1987 TheDragon. M. Smith (ed.),Mythical Fabulous Trubner Co. and KeganPaul,Trench, A BookandResearch Creatures. Source Guide; 27- 1964 Studies theReligion theSouthpp. in of American Indians Press. Greenwood 58. NewYork: East of the Andes.(Editedby ArneRuneberg and MichaelWebster.) Helsinki: (SocieCentraltryckeriet. Foster, GeorgeM. tasScientiarum Commentationes Humanarum Fennica, Records of 1944 A Summary YukiCulture. Anthropological Litterarum, 29/1) ofCalifornia Press. 5/3:153-244. Berkeley: University Kordecki, LesleyCatherine James Frazer, George and of English A Study MagicandReligion. in 12 1980 Traditions Developments theMedieval 1922 TheGolden Bough. Toronto. of [Ph.D.dissertation, Dragon. University ToMacmillan Co. and vols.London: ronto] Albert S. Gatschet, GeorgeE. (ed.) of Journal 1899 Water-MonstersAmerican of Lankford, Aborigines. 1987 Native American Southeastern Tales Legends, Legends. 12: American Folklore 255-260. from Natchez, the and Caddo, Biloxi, Chickasaw, Other E.W. Gifford, Nations. Little Rock:August House. XII: Element 1940 Culture Distributions; Apache-Pueblo. andJerome Fried Univer- Leach,MacEdward, Records 1-207.Berkeley: 4/1: Anthropological In: 1972 Dragon. M. Leach;p. 323. Press. of sity California Maria (ed.) Leach, Gould,Charles 1972 Funkand Wagnall's Standard of Dictionary Folklore, W. Monsters. London: H. Allen. 1886 Mythical and Mythology, Legend.New York:Funkand WagLuc de Heusch, nails. of Transi, 1982 TheDrunken or, King, TheOrigin theState. Claude Indiana Lvi-Strauss, and annotated Roy Willis.Bloomington: by 1976 The Sex of the Sun and Moon. In: C. Lvi-Strauss, Press. [1972] University Structural Transi, MoniqueLayton. Anthropology. by PeterJ.,andVal Clery Basic Books.[1967] Hogarth, Vol.2; pp.211-221.New York: NewYork: 1979 Dragons. Viking. John Loewenstein, Christina and 1961 Rainbow Serpent. 56: Hole, Anthropos 31-40. In: 1983 Rainbow. R. Cavendish (ed.); pp.2333-2335. Matthews, Washington a Memoirs the 1902 TheNight Jacoba Chant, Navaho Hooykaas, Ceremony. of Indonesian in 1956 The Rainbow Ancient American Museum Natural 6. BijdraReligion. of History, 112: en de Land-, Volkenkunde 291-322. gentot Taal-, Mead, Margaret II: 1940 The Mountain AnthroJamesH. Howard, Arapesh; Supernaturalism. of Indian Tribe The Museum Natural 1981 Shawnee! Ceremonialisma Native pologicalPapersof theAmerican of Athens: Ohio University andItsCultural 37/3: 317-451. Background. History Press. Mercatante, Anthony of ke 1988 The Factson File Encyclopedia World Hultkrantz, Mythology The Powerof America. andLegend. New York: of Factson File. 1987 NativeReligions North and San Visions Fertility. Francisco: and Harper Row. Alfred Mtraux, of 1946 Myths theTobaandPilagIndians theGran of ChaFrancis Huxley, Nature Spirit, of of New co. Philadelphia: 1979 The Dragon. American Folklore (Memoirs Spirit Nature. Society. Books. York: Collier oftheAmerican Folklore 40) Society, 95.2000 Anthropos

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William in Transi, HugoCharteris. York: Skeat,Walter New 1959 Voodoo Haiti. by to 1900 Malay Magic,Beingan Introduction theFolklore Press. Oxford University London: of andPopular Religion theMalayPeninsula. James Mooney, and Macmillan Co. New York:Johnson of 1970 Myths theCherokee. Reprint Dale EdwinW., andAndrew Murray Smith, [1900] Corporation. 2 Rhodesia. vols. of 1920 TheIla-Speaking Peoples Northern LewisHenry and Macmillan Co. London: Morgan, or 1954 League of the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee, Iroquois.New Elliott Grafton Smith, AreaFiles.[1851] Relations Haven:Human Manchester. of 1919 TheEvolution theDragon. CharlesP. Mountford, FrankG. In: 1978 The Rainbow-Serpent Mythsof Australia. I.R. Speck, PubliIndians. of 1909 Ethnology theYuchi Anthropological and Buchler K. Maddock; 23-97. pp. 1/1: Museum 1-154.Philadelcations theUniversity of Museum. Erland phia:University Nordenskild, and Ethnological 1938 A Historical Surveyof the Cuna Spicer,EdwardH. Museum. of Indians Panama. Gteborg: Gteborgs The Tucson: University 1980 TheYaquis.A Cultural History. Press. ofArizona Arthur C. Parker, HistorBuffalo and 1923 SenecaMyths FolkTales.Buffalo: JohnR. Swanton, ical Society. and Beliefs UsagesoftheChicka1928 SocialandReligious Smithof In: sawIndians. Bureau American Ethnology, A. Raddiffe-Brown,E. AnnualReport; sonianInstitution (ed.), Forty-Fourth Journal of Australia. 1926 The Rainbow-Serpent of Myth Office. Government Printing Washington: pp.169-273. and Britain Institute Great the of Royal Anthropological 56: Ireland 19-25. and Christopher Meredith ChippenWilson, Australia. Taon,Paul, 1930 The Rainbow-Serpent in South-East Myth dale Oceania 1: 342-347. Land in of Rainbow 1996 Birth the Serpent Arnhem RockArt in andOralHistory. ArchaeologyOceania31: 103-124. Kurt(Hrsg.) Ranke, zur Handwrterbuch hides 1975- Enzyklopdie Mrchens. Stith Thompson, Berlin: 1955-58 Motif-IndexFolk-Literature. Bloomington: und storischen vergleichenden Erzhlforschung. 6 vols. of de Walter Gruyter. Press. Indiana University Ray,VerneF. A. Tremearne, J.N. Anthro- 1968 The Ban of theBori.Demons Demon-Dancing XXII: Plateau. Element 1942 Culture Distributions; in and of Records 97-262.Berkeley: 8/2: University Cass and Co. Frank London: Africa. pological Westand North Press. California [1914] Gza Rheim, American and 1940 TheDragon theHero. 40-69; Imago1/2: 1/3: 61-94. Lutz Rhrich, In: Drachentter. K.Ranke 1981 Drache,Drachenkampf, Bd. (Hrsg.), 3; pp.787-820. Sagan,Carl of on of 1977 TheDragons Eden.Speculations theEvolution Books. Ballantine New Human Intelligence. York: de MarinusWillem Visser, J.Mller. Amsterdam: in 1913 TheDragon ChinaandJapan. Alice Werner, and Legendsof the Bantu.London:George 1932 Myths and G. Harrap Co. Barton Wright, of World theZuni.As Written Frank 1988 The Mythic by Editedand illustrated Barton Hamilton by Cushing. Press. of UniversityNewMexico Albuquerque: Wright.

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