Topic 8

Energy

8.1 Historical overview

8.1.1 Outline two types of energy Energy is classified as kinetic and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy associated with a moving object, for example, a moving football, a speeding train, a waterfall or a rock falling from a cliff. Potential energy is the energy in an object due to its position or the arrangement of its parts. It includes gravitational, elastic, chemical and electromagnetic potential energy. Gravitational potential energy is produced when an object is lifted up and work is done against the force of gravity. As the object falls, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. Elastic potential energy is produced when an object (such as a spring or a rubber band) resists being stretched out of shape. The energy from the deformation of the band can be converted into kinetic energy and used to do work, for example, to spin a propeller or power a toy airplane. Chemical potential energy is the energy that holds molecules together. Combustion, for example, of fossil fuels, releases the energy, which can be used to do work. Electromagnetic potential energy can be stored in a battery or supplied from a power plant, hydroelectric dam or windmill. Thermal energy is the movement of molecules that make up the object. All objects possess thermal energy (even cold ones), since they have a temperature above absolute zero.

8.1.2 Describe how human muscle power was the only source of energy for (craft) production until the Industrial Revolution. Human Muscle Power is how people made their products before the industrial revolution. Without machinery all the products were made by hand by using hammers, chisels and saws. This was a lot harder to make precision products as everything made by hand will differ slightly. Also, large scale products could not be made as human production is slower and only have limited working hours. The industrial revolution was in the late 18th and 19th centuries. It first started in England and was spread to America in the 19th centaury. There were major changes in agriculture, manufacturing and transportation. The industrial revolution marked a major turning point in history. Manual labor was replaced my machinery. It started with the mechanization of the textile industries. The trend of using machinery spread. Soon roads were improved, canals, railways were built. Also the introduction of steam power improved the transportation all over the world. In conclusion, human muscle power was the only source of energy for craft production until the industrial revolution because before the industrial revolution the economy was based on manual labor however during the industrial revolution manual labor was used less and coal was used to operate machinery in areas such as crafts, textiles and agriculture, the methods that were used before the industrial revolution.

8.1.3 Describe how development of machines based on flowing water led to a revolution in production The waterwheel is an ancient device that uses flowing or falling water to create power by means of a set of paddles mounted around a wheel. The force of the water moved the paddles, and the consequent rotation of the wheel is transmitted to machinery via the shaft of the wheel. The first reference to its use dates back to about 4000 B.C. They were used for crop irrigation, grinding grains, supply drinking water to villages and later to drive sawmills, pumps, forge bellows, tilt-hammers, trip hammers, and to power textile mills. They were probably the first method of creating mechanical energy that replaced humans and animals. However, the water wheel had a fixed location next to a fastflowing river and so lacked flexibility.

8.1.4 Describe how the invention of the steam engine and the use of steam as the basis for the operation of machines led to a large increase in scale of production based on coal. Steam power is more efficient than water power, but still only 30% of the energy produced is converted. The advantage of steam power is that it is more movable and therefore flexible.

The textile industry saw most of the early benefits of these innovations. The flying shuttle was invented 1738, rendering the old process of carrying the weft through the threads of the warp obsolete and enabling the weaver to double output. This in turn led spinners to seek mechanical aids to meet the increased demand for yarn. These innovations were swiftly followed by others, notably James Hargreaves's `spinning jenny about 1764, Richard Arkwright's water-frame spinning roller 1768, and Samuel Crompton's `spinning mule, a combination of Hargreaves's jenny and Arkwright's water-frame, 1779. Edmund Cartwright's power loom was not perfected for another 25 years but by that time his Doncaster factory was equipped with a steam engine and a year or two later hundreds of his looms were selling to Manchester firms. Gradually the power loom began to be used in the woollen industry as well as the cotton trade for which it had been invented. Perhaps the most obvious single enhancement was the general replacement of water power by steam, made possible by James Watt's steam engine. Watt's various patents were taken out 1781-85, after which time the change from water power to steam made rapid progress and mills and factories were set up near the coalfields, where fuel was cheaper. Later the ironmasters began to investigate the use of coal as a smelting fuel, and with improved production methods the output from their furnaces increased rapidly.

8.1.5 Explain how the development of electricity led to a technological revolution and an increased volume of production. Faradays discovery of electromagnetic induction and the invention of the dynamo allowed the energy from coal or fast-flowing water to be converted into electricity. As a result, the electricity industry was established, with a sophisticated infrastructure enabling a new generation of electrical machines and electrical products. Factory production and the development of assembly-line arrangements enabled the development of a vast range of cheaper products.

8.1.6 Identify uses for the electric motor in industrial production. Electric motors have largely been made in the same way since the 1850s. Only in the last 10-15 years have alternative production methods been studied. An electric motor converts electrical energy (current) into mechanical energy. The electrical current is produced by a dynamo. Most electric motors work by electromagnetism. Electric motors are found in daily household appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing machines etc Here are pictures of the electric motor used inside a cordless drill.

8.1.7 Explain how the production and distribution of electricity led to large scale energy usage, security of supply and the geographical spread of production away from the source of energy supplies. The electrical distribution network and grid system allowed industry to move away from the source of the fuel supply.

8.1.8 Explain how the development of localized, portable sources of electrical energy in the form of batteries changed the nature of energy usage and the development of new types of products. The introduction of batteries allowed for even more freedom for the user and the advantages of portability. Products that have been a successful with this concept include portable radios, mobile phones, and other portable electrical and electronic products.

8.2 Types of energy: economic, environmental and political aspects

8.2.1 List the main forms of non-renewable energy sources. These include nuclear, coal, oil, timber and gas.

8.2.2 Discuss the efficiency of conversion of fossil fuels into electrical energy. See also teachers notes in 8.1.1. Fossil fuel burning is an extremely inefficient method of energy conversion. Coal is least efficient (about 30%), then oil (about 35%) and gas (about 40%). Waste energy is dissipated into the atmosphere or water (lake, sea or river).

8.2.3 Outline how modern industrial societies have become dependent on non-renewable fossil fuels as the major sources of energy supply and electricity production. These are cheap and plentiful supplies for electricity production and other energy needs. However, the depletion of supplies of coal, oil and gas challenges continuity of supply in the longer term.

8.2.4 Outline the main pollutants produced from the large-scale burning of fossil fuels worldwide. Sulphur emissions cause acid rain; CO2, although not strictly a pollutant, contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

8.2.5 Describe the main effect of carbon dioxide emissions from the large scale burning of fossil fuels Enhanced greenhouse effect leads to higher mean global temperatures, sea-level rise and general climate changes.

8.2.6 Discuss the use of technologies to make energy conversion from fossil fuels more efficient and cleaner Clean coal is a term used to describe methods and technologies intended to reduce the environmental impact of using coal as an energy source. These efforts can include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal, Gasification, treating the flue gases with steam to remove sulfur dioxide, and other proposed technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas. The coal industry uses the term "clean coal" to describe technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use, with no specific quantitative limits on any emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. 8.2.7 Discuss two approaches to reducing the enhanced greenhouse effect based on international agreements to reduce emissions of CO2 and the promotion of clean technologies The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing greenhouse gases in an effort to prevent anthropogenic climate change. As of May 2008, 182 parties have ratified the protocol. The Kyoto Protocol uses economic mechanisms and the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APPCDC), which looks at technology solutions.

8.2.8 List the main forms of renewable energy sources These include wind, solar, tidal, wave, hydroelectric and biomass.

8.2.9 Explain why there is increasing pressure to use renewable energy sources This has been an on-going issue globally due to the ever increasing costs of oil due to political instability and issues with the security of supply. The issues of the greenhouse effect are leading to noticeable climate change and other pollution.

8.2.10 Discuss the limitations of the use of renewable energy resources as alternatives for fossil fuels There is much talk about the extent to which we can replace our dependence on fossil fuels with energy derived from renewable resources. While renewable energy holds great promise, there are some limitations to renewable forms of energy such as the high set-up costs, unreliable supply and low energy density.

8.2.11 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=7-2R5lFYx_Q Although nuclear power had been often credited as the most dangerous source of energy this is definitely untrue, as the deaths of coal miners are much, much higher in fatality rate. Not only is nuclear power safer, it also doesnt contribute to global warming whatsoever, and creates very little waste compared to coal. The efficiency of nuclear power is also much higher and therefore there is much less energy wasted. Also, as opposed to coal, we have much more uranium and will last us a much longer time, when uranium is all gone there are still other radioactive alternatives which can be used to replace it. On the other hand, when there are nuclear accidents it may lead to generations of people being affected by the radiation and causing deformations and higher chances to certain diseases which in the long term may lead to killing a lot of people. Also, the minimal waste nuclear power produces may take many hundreds and thousands of years to fully lose its radioactivity, and there has to be a large area to store this matter, and has to be quite far away from any civilization to avoid others being exposed to radioactivity. Also, these nuclear stations may be targeted by terrorist if made widely situated across a control, as if targeted could cause uncountable damage to both our ecosystem and to mankind.

To summarise- very low CO2 emissions, high energy density versus safety issues, high cost of decommissioning, possible radioactive contamination, waste product storage problems, and link with nuclear weapons.

8.2.12 Discuss the role of energy conservation in energy policy

Reduced usage by sustainable development policies, for example, sustainable transport systems and building systems.

8.2.13 Outline new sources of energy Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel derived from recently dead biological material. This distinguishes it from fossil fuels, which are derived from long dead biological material. Biofuel can be theoretically produced from any (biological) carbon source, though the most common by far is photosynthetic plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are used for Biofuel manufacture.

8.2.14 Discuss the contribution of biomass as a renewable energy resource Biofuels are used globally, most commonly to power vehicles and cooking stoves. Biofuels offer the possibility of producing energy without a net increase of carbon into the atmosphere because the plants used in to produce the fuel have removed CO2 from the atmosphere, unlike fossil fuels which return carbon which was stored beneath the surface for millions of years into the air. Biofuel is therefore more nearly carbon neutral and less likely increase atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. The use of biofuels also reduces dependence on petroleum and enhances energy security.

8.3 Case studies Solar power

8.3.1 Describe how solar power can be harnessed for use in domestic products. Consider active solar collection and various arrangements of photovoltaic cells (PVs), for example, small individual cells on portable equipment, use of PVs in sustainable building design for hybrid systems, incorporation of PVs into roof design to enhance the sustainability of buildings and also doubling as shelter over car parking areas. Consider active solar collection and various arrangements of photovoltaic cells (PVs), for example, small individual cells on portable equipment, use of PVs in sustainable building design for hybrid systems, incorporation of PVs into roof design to enhance the sustainability of buildings and also doubling as shelter over car parking areas. Solar energy is heat and light energy that is produced by the sun. Solar energy technologies harness solar energy for practical uses. Solar technology has been around for hundreds of years and has been used by early Greeks and Native Americans, who warmed their buildings by orienting them towards the sun. Solar power can be harnessed in many ways for use in domestic products. Solar thermal applications make up the most widely used category of solar energy technology. These technologies use heat from the sun for water and space heating, ventilation, industrial process heat, cooking, water distillation and disinfection, and many other applications. Heating, cooling and ventilation (HVAC) systems of buildings are closely interrelated. Thermal mass materials store solar energy during the day and release this energy during cooler periods. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement, and water. The amount and placement of the thermal mass should consider several factors such as climate, day lighting and consumption. Solar energy can be converted into electricity in two ways: Photovoltaic devices (solar cells) change sunlight directly into electricity. PV devices are often used in remote locations where there is not connection to the electric grid and are used to power watches, calculators, and lighted road signs. The picture on the right is an example of how solar cells can be used to heat water. The second method of converting solar energy into electricity is by using solar power plants. These indirectly generate electricity when the heat from solar thermal collectors is used to heat a fluid which produces steam, the steam then powers a generator.

8.3.2 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of solar power. There are many advantages and disadvantages of solar energy these include: Advantages The conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct so that mechanical generator systems are not needed. Solar cells can be quickly and easily set up. Solar power is free and the supply is unlimited. There is a small environmental impact, requiring no water for a cooling system and generation no byproducts. Disadvantages The amount of light that reaches the earths surface is not constant. The amount of energy that reaches the earths surface depends on location, time of day, time of year, and weather conditions. Because the sun doesn't deliver that much energy to any one place at any one time, a large surface area is required to collect the energy at a useful rate.

8.3.3 Describe the design of a solar cooker The solar cooker consists of three main parts. These are: 1. The parabolic reflector which is used to concentrate more than one square meter of sunlight into an area of about 17 cm in diameter. 2. The control arm allows the reflector to be set facing the sun and holds the pot at the focus point regardless of the reflector tilt angle. 3. The stand holds the other two components together and allows the cooker to be adjusted to follow the sun.

8.3.4 Discuss the importance of solar cooking in sustainable development In some rural areas, for example, Nepal, traditional cooking methods involve the burning of biomass fuels and result in indoor air pollution, which is one of the four most critical environmental problems in developing countries. Women and children are more likely to be exposed to indoor air pollution as many women in developing countries spend hours per day cooking near an open fire often with a child strapped to their backs. Indoor air pollution can damage lungs, contributing to acute lower respiratory infections, chronic lung disease, lung cancer, asthma, low birth weight and heart disease. Collection of wood and other biomass fuels contributes to deforestation, with impacts on the water table. Solar cooking has become very popular in less economically developed countries. This is because there is no cost in maintaining a solar cooker as well as the simplicity of its design. Simple solar appliances like the one below have become increasing popular in countries where waterborne diseases are present e.g. Dracunculiasis which occurs in such as Ghana. This simple appliance pasteurizes water which prevents waterborne diseases. Another reason why solar cooking has become increasingly popular in less economically developed countries is because traditional methods of cooking such as burning of biomass fuels which has a negative impact on both human health and the environment. In conclusion solar cooking is necessary for development of sustainable future.

Energy and transport

8.3.5 Compare individual and mass transport systems for sustainable development Sustainable development is the process in which processes are improved but they take natural environment inconsideration as well. With mass transport systems such as the emerging nation China there have been many problems with their pollution dude to the fact that there are more and more cars in the cities which increases the congestion over a relatively small area and the pollution is affecting both us humans and the environment. Especially with such highly populated areas it is becoming a large issue when individuals have their own cars. Public transport has been regarded as a great alternative for individual transport, as with public transport many people can be on the same mode of transport reducing congestion and pollution. Though even with highly populated areas there must be cleaner and less pollutant ways of traveling as public buses emit a lot of pollution by themselves as well. A cleaner choice would be the use of trains as they are not directly polluting the city as they use electricity, but with fossil fuels creating the electricity it is a large cycle that still ends with pollution at the end of the chain. I think that it would be important issue for sustainable development would be to use non-renewable energy as they dont pollute the environment from the start. The similarities and differences between the two for sustainable development, some of the similarities would be their contribution to pollution; both of these processes pollute the environment greatly as such vehicles still mainly run on petrol and diesel which leads to the emitting of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. They also both have started to make small changes to the environment by having different catalytic converters to the exhaust which reduces the amount of pollution being produced. Differences include the amount of pollution between mass transport systems and individual transport such as how a full size bus could replace 40 cars, also how many different sources of mass transport can hold many more people than buses and run on electricity that could possibly be powered by renewable sources. On the other hand, many advances have been made to improve the pollution caused by personal vehicles such as using ethanol powered engines, hybrid engines, water powered engines and many others that are in development. These drastically improve the pollution crisis in many countries at the moment by the introduction of such products. 8.3.6 Discuss the barriers to transition from individual cars to mass public transport systems From the transition of private to public transport it may lead to many problems for people such as the inability to find a parking space. As in many highly populated areas there arent enough space for people to live already which leads to the point of there being even less parking space. But in countries such as Japan new sorts of car parks have been introduced which rely on a lift that the car is driven on then by computer your car is lifted into a space underground and when your car is required all you do is having your parking ticket and the computer will retrieve your car from the underground chamber. This is a great system that allows more cars to be parked in a densely populated area. It is these innovative inventions that make the transition from an individual to public transportation much easier. There are also stations called Park and Ride in which you park your car in a designated area and then there is a bus thatll take you to the city centre, which helps congestion during rush hour which is generally where people will need to travel to the city centre for work and with the Park and Ride system it makes it much more convenient for people especially under the specific times. Also, it is now quite common with something called car-pooling or kiss and ride, where sometimes through an agency people will e paired together sharing a car if they are going to the same place, to reduce congestion but also costs. This method has been greatly advertised from governments especially during World War 2 where propaganda is used to advertise this. http://youtube.com/watch?v=q_CyWohGVeU&feature=related

Wind Energy
8.3.7 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of small-scale and large-scale wind energy generating plants Consider small-scale wind energy generating systems, for example, for isolated houses, and largescale wind energy generating systems for communities and feeding into the national grid. Advantages Wind is free so that after the initial costs for making the turbine the running cost of wind energy is relatively cheap. Once the turbine is built it doesnt produce anymore pollutants. The turbines dont take up too much land as although they are very tall at the base not much land is needed. In isolated houses, where the national grid doesnt reach they can use wind turbines to provide energy. Disadvantages Wind is not certainly available all the time so it is unreliable, some days there could be plenty of wind other days there could be no wind at all. The wind turbines are extremely noisy especially normally in a wind farm there will be hundreds of thousands of these turbines. Many people find the aesthetically unpleasing. wind turbines

Where there is most wind normally is where the land is most expensive such as by the beach.

8.3.8 Discuss the issues associated with the siting of large wind farms It is known that the wind farm siting has sparked many responses from different groups. The main issue people seem to have with such large wind farms is that it destroys the habitat for many animals but only destroys the neighbouring landscape. This is known to drastically bring down the prices of neighbouring houses. Which means neighbours to such atrocities would have to suffer with the extensive noise pollution but also the decline of value of the houses as stated by the BBC. Also, wind turbines can be highly unreliable if it is the sole source of electricity for a society has many of the time there is not much wind and according to the Country Guardian electricity is only produced in 25% of the day. Not only that, it is considered by many to be a complete eyesore and the cause of visual pollution in the rural areas that they are normally set up in would completely ruin the landscape. On the other hand, wind farms are highly beneficial on a global scale where it is a clean renewable energy that doesnt release fossil fuels to our atmosphere. Also, although they seem very large the base of the wind turbine is actually quite small thus the land around the turbines can still be used for farming. Also according to the Embrace the Revolution campaign wind energy is already cheaper to produce energy than nuclear power and will be made even cheaper as technology progresses and manufacturing and materials get cheaper as well. In addition, wind farms can be built in the middle of the sea where there will be more win but also could not be seen from the general public which appears to be a major concern for many. Similarly, the wind business also creates a lot of jobs for people in the country as there needs to be many to excavate the land so t is suitable for a wind farm also many workers are needed to put up the wind turbines and connect them to national grid. In conclusion, though wind farms are a good renewable energy it s too unreliable to be the sole source of energy also, in a consumer perspective it is complete ludicrous that members of the society would agree collectively to pay more for wind energy than they can get with burning fossil fuels. So all in all I believe than the cons outweigh the pros as the wind turbines are still too underdeveloped to be used throughout a nation. Picture to the right shows birds killed by flying into blades of the wind turbine.