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CONTROL, MORE CONTROL: Studying Practical Forms of Scientific Rationality in a Bulgarian Holographic Laboratory

The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

Senior Researcher, FSTC, UK/Lecturer, Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey E-mail: ayduz@fstc.org.uk

Abstract In 1824 Sadi Carnot published Rflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu in which he founded almost the entire thermodynamics theory. Two years after his death, his friend Clapeyron introduced the famous diagram PV for analytically representing the famous Carnots cycle: one of the main and crucial ideas presented by Carnot in his booklet. Twenty-five years later, in order to achieve the modern version of the theory, Kelvin and Clausius had to reject the caloric hypothesis, which had influenced a few of Carnots arguments. Relying on the possibility of studying the history of science by means of logical investigation, in this paper I shall propose an historical/epistemological research on Sadi Carnots original thermodynamics theory in which the French scientist presents more than two principles, all of which are expressed by double negated sentences (generally speaking) within non-classical logic.

Salim Ayduz, The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

Salim Ayduz

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Introduction
One of the major shifts in medieval military practice happened with the rise of firearm weapons. It can be said that this shift is also exemplified by the Ottoman military system. Many features of the Ottoman system are solidly based on the medieval Islamic military heritage beside the experience gained by their own military experts.1 Indeed, it should be emphasized that the Ottomans willingly adopted the military theory of the previous centuries, as can be seen through the numerous military manuals available today in libraries either in Arabic or translated into Turkish. 2 However, many elements of the Ottoman military system developed in response to the new firearm weapon technologies. As early as the end of the fifteenth century, we note the extensive use of artillery both in the field and in castle sieges, and the development of infantry regiments armed with muskets. This should be sufficient to show that Ottoman sultans, administrators and the military leaders were not against innovation, but consistently adopted and adapted new developments in military technology, both in theory and in practice (Coles 1968, 186). The Ottomans who were the leading military and political power of southeast Europe for many centuries (from the middle of the 15th century until the middle of the 17th century) were among the earliest powers to grasp the importance of artillery. In the first half of the 14th century, they employed traditional weapons such as swords, bows and arrows, and trebuchets on the battlefields. There is an important question as to when the Ottomans first encountered firearms and when they obtained or even produced them. According to Halil Inalcik, the Turks first encountered firearms in 1344 during the attack on Izmir by the Crusader fleet. 3 There appear to have been introduced to them through Italy and Dubrovnik (Ragusa) as early as the reign of Murad I (1362-1389) (Inalcik 2002, I, 43, 62; II, 1067). And yet, according to other Ottoman sources, such as the historian Ibn Kemals Tevrikh-i Al-i Osman and Shikaris Karaman History, Turks had firearms as early as in the 1350s (Kemalpasazde 1996, 316-317). For example, at the siege of Gallipoli (1354), Ottomans had cannons as well as a catapult; at the battle of the Karaman (1364), Ottomans had cast iron cannons in the capital city of Bursa and they used them against their rivals. However, these sources were written in later centuries and contain no strong proofs

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1 Such as the use of slave soldiers as Janissaries and mounted archery (Coles 1968, 186). 2 According to the IRCICAs book on the Ottoman Military Literature book, there only a few translations on the subject. But they inherited numerous Arabic manuscripts from medieval Muslim and Turkish descendants. Beside these, they also obtained some European military books which can be seen in the Topkapi Palace Museum library (Ihsanoglu et al 2004, I, XLI-LXVIII). 3 In 1344 the Byzantines joined a Crusader fleet against Umur Bey. The powerful Crusader fleet captured the lower zmir Fortress and burned Umurs fleet (Inalcik 2002, I, 43, 62, II, 1067).

In spite of the scarce information available to us, there are strong reasons to believe that both Ottoman and Christian armies had firearms and cannons in the first battle of Kosovo (1389). Ottoman archival sources mention for example a cannon user named Topci Haydar; therefore, there might be other cannon users too during that battle (Ner 1949, I, 297; lgrel 1995, 286-292). According to Inalcik, the Ottomans claimed the technical superiority of their own fire cannons over that of the Serbs (Inalcik 2002, II, 1067). The use of cannons at Kosovo in 1389 was not only stated by Danismend but has been generally admitted by historians since the times of von Hammer (Cipolla 1965, 9091). Furthermore, there is a strong archival evidence that the Ottomans used cannons before 1400. According to the Ottoman archives, there was a man named Topci Omer, who was a gunner in the Ottoman army during the reign of Bayezid I (1389-1402) (Bostan 2000, 171-182; Aydz 2006, 19-34). Firearms became more widespread in Ottoman lands after the first quarter of the 15th century. Some weapons started to be produced in the Ottoman factories and even exported. Mobile cannon foundries were first set around castles to facilitate the defence against any attack. Then, when the Ottomans started conquering Southern Europe and Balkan lands in the second half of the fourteenth century, they captured cannon foundries that had, until then, been run by local people who were mainly non-Muslims; they continued their operation but using Muslim personnel instead. When the need arose to cast more firearms, they eventually constructed a new foundry in Edirne at the beginning of the 15th century. This was the oldest foundry that was established by Ottomans during the reign of Murad II (Anonym 1978, 67-68). Nevertheless, it is well known that during the reign of Mehmed II (1451-81), the Muslim efforts at cannon founding peaked due to Mehmeds continuing plans to conquer Constantinople (Istanbul). He and his master artilleryman organized the founding works, though Mehmed II constantly took them under his own control, even attending to the design of a range of cannon sizes. Cannon casting technology and its use were actively developing, novel cannons were designed and constructed including large size barrels, split type barrels as well as mortars (Runciman 1981, III, 78).

Salim Ayduz, The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

that the Ottomans had cannons before the last quarter of the 14th century. For the last quarter of the 14th century, there are references to the use of firearms by the Ottomans in 1378 (Ragusa), 1389 (Kosovo), 1395-1402 (first siege of Constantinople) and 1396 (Nikopolis) (Cipolla 1965, 90-91). The defeat of the huge Christian army at Nicopolis (1396) by the Turks showed once again the military weakness of the Europeans when faced by the Ottomans (Cipolla 1965, 15-17).

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Development in Siege Artillery

At the beginning of the 15th century, and because of improvements in firearms, especially cannons, artillery became increasingly effective in the attack and defence of fortifications. The Ottomans were very successful in operating as a cavalry horde and were undefeatable in open country, but they faced serious difficulties in destroying fortified towns. Therefore, they incorporated and even developed heavy artillery to use primarily in sieges, and specialized in the construction of cannons of enormous weight and bore. The most spectacular use of cannons in the 15th century was in the siege and capture of Constantinople in 1453 (Babinger 1978, 201). In this siege, the Ottomans had more than a hundred pieces, twelve of which were particularly large, firing stone balls up to 680 kilograms weight each, for a distance of more than a mile. Due to the effects of recoil, and the need to restore the cannon to its location after each firing, these weapons could fire about 3 times per day only (Dupuy and Dupuy 1970, 403). The Ottoman casting methods in the middle of the 15th century are very important in the history of military technology. First they can cast any size of cannon using their methods and secondly they improved new furnaces which the fire can melt the metals with new methods. Their moulding systems were allowed them to cast two parts of cannons with successfully. We find very valuable information about them through Kritoboulos book, which was written during the siege.4

Mehmed IIs Interest in Weaponry

After the conquest of Istanbul, Mehmed II laid emphasis on the production of firearms. In around 1460, cannon casting stared in a royal cannon foundry called Tophane-i Amire (The Royal Cannon Foundry), which was the biggest of its day, and employed both native and foreign gun makers. It is not clear, however, whether Mehmed established a new military compound without antecedents or inherited an already established foundry in Tophane area just outside the Galata walls. It was claimed that the cannon foundry building was a monastery or a cannon foundry belonging to the Genoese5 and when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, either he converted this building or just expanded and continued using it as a foundry (Evliya elebi, I, 130b-132b). According to the image drawn by Matrakci Nasuh in 1537, the foundry built by Mehmed II has two large components through which big cannons can be cast and three domes (Piaskowski 1981,

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4 Kritoboulos was one of the very important eyewitnesses for the siege of Constantinople by the Ottomans. He was with Ottomans and recorded almost every step of the preparations of the siege and wrote about the siege and afterward (Kritoboulos 1328/1910). 5 Gabor Agoston believes that it was a Genoese foundry before the Ottomans (Agoston 1994, 25-26. Also see Heywood 1981, 60-61).

During the reign of Bayezid II (1481-1512) some new buildings were added around the foundry as barracks for those who used the cannons but also for the gun makers working there.6 Nevertheless, those buildings were not large enough to meet the rising demand fostered by the huge campaigns during the Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. Therefore, around the third decade of the 16th century, all the foundry buildings built by Mehmed II were demolished and in their place a new complex for cannon founding was built. According to Evliya elebi, the new building was huge and even if besieged, it could be easily defended (Evliya elebi, I, 130b-131a). In addition to the new foundry, some additional buildings were also constructed on the site such as humbara (mortar) factory; gunstock factory; carpenter factory; offices for the chief gunner and master founder; barracks for gunners and cast founders; factories where Sariyer mud was cut, moulds were made, the touch hole of the cannons was drilled, gun carriages and wheels were constructed, and a training centre (talimhane). In the late 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century, the Royal Cannon Foundry (Tophane-i Amire) in Tophane (circa 1460), the Gunpowder works (Baruthane-i Amire) in various places in stanbul (15th century) (Glen 2006), and the Naval Arsenal (Tersane-i Amire) in Kasmpaa (after 1453) (Bostan 1992) gave Istanbul what was probably the largest military and industrial complex in the world, rivalled only by the Venetian Arsenal (Agoston 1994, 178). Indeed, some of the earliest accounts of the Tophane show the huge Ottoman production capabilities (Prime Minister Ottoman Archive, Kamil Kepeci collection, no. 4726, 1-3) where every year, depending on the request, more than a thousand cannons of various sizes were prepared and distributed to other cities (Prime Minister Ottoman Archive, Kamil Kepeci collection, no. 4726, 1-52; Maliyeden Mdevver Defter, no. 3448, 248-250; Maliyeden Mdevver Defter, no. 7668, 1-28; Maliyeden Mdevver Defter, no. 6760, 2-12; Maliyeden Mdevver Defter, no. 2515, various pages; Ali Emiri, Byezid II, no. 41, 1-16).

6 Most probably, after the earthquake happened in 1509, some buildings renewed while others added (Louis Mitler 1979).

Salim Ayduz, The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

III, 164). Even though there is not much specific knowledge about the arsenal of cannons during the reign of Mehmed II, it has been recorded throughout contemporary sources, such as Kritoboulos, Doukas and Sphrantzes, that large calibre cannons were cast at the time (Kritoboulos 1328/1910; Doukas 1956; Sphrantzes 1992). Indeed some parts of the cannons still exist in various museums today. It is also known that the Ottomans produced large quantities of cannons of many types; mainly the large size ones during the time of Mehmed II and even in later periods.

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Restorations and Renovations of the Royal Cannon Foundry

Due to various factors, foundry buildings went through serious damages. Heavy work especially during wartime as well as external factors such as high temperature, district fires, and serious earthquakes affected badly the structures. Until the middle of the 18th century, these damages were repaired and the buildings were strengthened as required. As for the building that was constructed during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, it continued production until 1742. However, the casting building of Tophane-i Amire complex was demolished and rebuilt again in 1743 by the chief gunner Mustafa Aa (Ahmed Refik 1988, 157), who planned with his colleagues the new foundry that met the increased military demand. This large well-built edifice of five domes is still available today. Soon after the buildings had been completed, a fire in the district in 1765 partially damaged them. Consequently, Sultan Mustafa (1757-1774) ordered the repair of the buildings and also the addition of new ones such as barracks for gunner squadrons, kitchens and a mosque. During their reigns, Sultan Selim III (1761-1808) and Mahmud II (1808-1839) ordered additional repairs and restorations as well as the construction of new buildings. The Tophane-i Amire complex contained many different buildings and was a huge centre of military industry in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries. When a new iron foundry building was founded in the Zeytinburnu area in the suburb of Istanbul, work in Tophane-i Amire was gradually abandoned and cannon casting was stopped. With the foundation of The Republic of Turkey (1923), the machines of the Tophane were moved to Ankara (lgrel 1989; Mller-Wiener 1992, 78).

Salim Ayduz, The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

Workers in the Tophane

The Ottomans employed highly skilled gun founders and many other technicians in the Tophane-i Amire. While the chief gunner (Topcubashi) had primary responsibility for all the artillery corps, the master founder (Dokucubashi) was responsible for the whole founding process in the foundry. Under him would come the minister (nazir), the state official for casting survey (emin), and the accountant (katip) (Aydz 2006, 125-156). In the 16th century, the number of technicians working at the Tophane at any given time was not very large. There were about a hundred and fifty founders and various other workers (Uzuncarsili 1988, II, 39); among them the cannon founders or casters (rihtegan) and some specialists who supervised the furnaces (frncyan). There were other technicians whose work was closely related to the manufacturing of guns and gun carriages. The total workforce at the Tophane, however, was much more numerous

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Geographical Location of other Ottoman Foundries

Apart from Istanbul, Ottomans also established foundries in several cities such as Budapest, Cairo, Smederevo and Basra. The foundry centres were managed by the chief gunner (topcubashi) appointed by the Sultan himself. Before the establishment of the Tophane in Istanbul, the most important foundry operated in Edirne, where most of the guns used during the siege of Constantinople in 1453, and the guns used in the siege of Belgrade in 1456 (Aydz 2006, 51-53) were made. In addition to Istanbul, the Ottomans cast cannons in their provincial capitals mining centres, as well as in foundries established during campaigns. Among these were the foundries of Avlonya and Preveza in the Adriatic, Rudnik, Semendire, skenderiye, Novaberda, Pravite and Belgrade in the Balkans, Bud and Temevar in Hungary, Diyarbekir, Erzurum, Birecik, Mardin and Van in Asia Minor, Baghdad and Basra in Iraq, and Cairo in Egypt. These local foundries were important despite the fact that they were active only on occasions. When there was a need to cast cannons in a local foundry, founders and gunners were sent temporarily from Tophane or other major foundries. Istanbul always remained the centre of the Ottoman weapons industry, and most of the local foundries remained as spare factories used only when necessary or used as gunpowder, cannons and cannon balls depots. An important feature of the Ottoman foundries was that they were built by the seaside or the riverside allowing easy transportation of heavy artillery easily. Cannons and cannon balls cast in Tophane were transferred to the hinterland of Europe via the Danube River and to the Middle East and other places in the Mediterranean via Aegean and Mediterranean seaports. Due to these easy transportation ways and for understandable economic reasons, the Ottomans were not obliged to create other foundries (Aydz 2006, 49-74).

Salim Ayduz, The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

(Agoston 1994, 181), for the number of day labourers (rgad) alone varied between 40 and 200. In addition to officials, there were also artisans such as moulders, blacksmiths and carpenters. At times, some temporary labourers were employed for various auxiliary purposes. Beside the artisans and technicians, the greatest number of workers was that of military groups of temporary soldiers nbetl such as foot soldier (yaya), a corps performing military and other services in return for exemption from certain taxes (msellem) and infantry (piyade) groups. These were service groups made of soldiers who served in the Tophane for six months only; they came from different parts of the states for a compulsory service. When they completed their term, they would return to their homes and others would replace them. When we count all of the workers including these service workers, the total number of the Tophane foundry would reach several thousands (Aydz 2006, 114-191).

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Casting Materials
The Ottomans tried to produce cannons from copper, lead and iron. Having realized that the best cannons could be the ones made of bronze, they started producing them in spite of their high costs.7 The main constituent of bronze is copper (nuhas) and because of its high quality most of the cannons in the Ottoman states except for the smallest calibre guns such as prang, eynek, sama and the like were made of it (Agoston 1994, 171). Producing guns only from bronze was most probably due to the fact that the Ottoman territories contained rich copper mines in Anatolia and the Balkan provinces. The raw materials necessary for bronze cannons founding were delivered from the various Ottoman regions such as Kastamonu (after its conquest in 1461) and Samakov, whereas tin and steel were mostly imported from abroad. With the availability of raw materials necessary for such heavy industry, the Ottomans organised highly qualified foundry institutions and were able to develop an advanced technology in moulding systems. A widespread trade of copper existed between European states and before the conquest of the Kastamonu area -one of the northern provinces of Turkey in the Black Sea region and which was rich in copper- the Ottomans imported copper from Europe and mainly from Hungary (Aydz 2007). Copper trade was mainly under the control of the Venetians, but in 1461, it was shifted to Florentine merchants. Mehmed II stopped trade with the Venetians, expelled them from the Ottoman territories, and invited Florentines in their place. However, at the end of the 14th century and with the conquest of the Kastamonu area, the Ottomans stopped importing copper from outside. As a result, most of the copper needed in Tophane was transported from Kastamonu ores (Aydz 2006, 225-229). Anatolia became a big producer and exporter of copper, and Ottomans themselves traded in it with the Venetians and Genoese; for example, the sfendiyarolu ruler Sleyman Paa was selling Kastamonu copper to Genoese merchants.
Salim Ayduz, The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

Beside copper, iron was a metal of great strategic significance as it too was used extensively in the Ottoman weapons industry. In addition to small calibre cannons, hundreds of thousands of cannon balls were made every year out of this metal. Additionally, iron was the main material for manufacturing various tools and chains used by the artillery corps for guns. The Ottomans were supplying their iron needs from various provinces such as Bilecik, Ki and Keban in Asia Minor, and Samakov, Rudnik, Samakovcuk, Banaluka, Kamengrad iprovi and Etropole from the Balkans (Aydz 2006, 234-238; Agoston 1994, 174). Lead was also another metal of great military value because the projectiles for both hand firearms and small-calibre guns were made of it. The major suppliers of lead were the

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7 For more information about Ottoman cannon types see Aydz 2006, 224-238, 308-336.

The Quality of the Ottoman Cannons

The chemical analyses of some Ottoman cannons, which were produced from the middle of the 15th century onwards, indicated that they were moulded from the ideal bronze alloy, which is strong enough for huge cannons. The ideal bronze alloy contains ten per cent or less tin and ninety percent or more copper. The chemical analysis of two sample pieces from cannons constructed in 1464 showed that the proportions of copper and tin varied from 89.58 per cent for copper, and 10.15 per cent for tin. It was also noticed that in one of the samples the maximum percentage of copper; up to 95.20 per cent, was found in the muzzle. This cannon was made out of two pieces screwed together, to facilitate its construction as well as transport. It was recorded that when unscrewed, the threads were as clean and sharp as they must have been when the gun was first made. During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman cannon founding technology was at its highest level. The ordnances, which were founded at that time, were used for centuries afterwards and they even survived until this day. When one of the cannons of his reign, and which was made by Mehemmed b. Abdullah in 1535-6 in Tophane-i Amire (Harbiye Military Museum and Cultural Centre, Inventory number 14), was chemically analyzed, it was found that the proportions of copper and tin varied from 93.53 percent for copper and 6.47 percent for tin, varying, however, in the different parts of the cannon. Generally, it was assumed that these were cannons of high quality due to the bronze they were made of.

Conclusion
The Ottomans started producing and using firearms by the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century. Due to the increasing needs for firearms and effective weapons, they started using existing foundries but they also built new ones in the Balkan territories they conquered. Their first steps in the field of cannons founding were followed by an incredibly flourishing industry. It can be said that with the foundation of the Tophane-i Amire in stanbul as a first world weapon industrial centre, Ottomans were among the pioneers that distinctively moved ahead with the cannon casting industry in the second half of the 15th century onwards.

Salim Ayduz, The Ottoman Royal Canon Foundry: Tophane-I Amire

Ottoman States silver mines (Parry 1972, 40) as well as those in the Balkan territories, such as Srebrenie, Olovo, Banaluka, Rudnik, Novebreda, Kratova, Kuanya, Sidrekaps, Taurus Mountains, and Hakkari in Asia Minor (Aydz 2006, 229-232; Agoston 1994, 174).

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