Secularization: Its Definition and Development Introduction Thefamous quote God is Dead is full of controversies and provoked loads

of deep thoughts. This was because of the recent development and the increasing secularization in 19th century Europe had killed God who had been guiding Europes every aspect of life. However in the 21st century, God is in the winning streak in the events of Iranian

Secularization is a process of replacing religious influence to secular influence in society (Jacobson, 1992). It all started when early scholars started questioning religion. For example, Darwin and Copernicuschallenged the verses in the Holy Books of monotheistic religions with their theories of evolution and astronomy.The concept of the universe is another interesting issue both sacred and science. The earth was believed to be the center of the universe. This idea is called geocentricism. It was established by the early church scholars based on their interpretation of the Bible(Chalmers, 1976). This idea was soon contradicted by the idea of Heliocentrism which was introduced by Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus postulated that the earth is not the center of the universe instead the earth and planets orbits the sun(Chalmers, 1976; Copernicus, 1543). His ideas revolutionized the conception of the universe and essential in the evolution of science and rational thought that we have in modern times.

Before this, people used to believe that there was a divine intervention where each species and creation had been meticulously designed by a creator.However, Darwin on theory of evolution refutes the need for design. He postulates thatorganisms evolve through natural selection(Darwin, 1859). It can happen among others through sexual selection where the best males compete with each other to get the attention of the females. This results to only the best males having the chance to reproduce. The weaker ones reproduce less or do not reproduce at all.Over time, natural selection will produce strongger generations, which are more adapted to the situation and environment. Darwins theory has had a profound effect on how scientists understand life. He offers a

more rational explanation to both believers and the unbelievers of the divine on why organism has certain characteristics. Of course, this brief explanation is just the tip of the iceberg. Many scientists in various field of science observe, Darwins breakthrough. This includes scientists in the field of psychology, medicine, forensics and agriculture.

Religious belief has significant impact from societal to individual level.The declining or increasing role of religion can topple monarchies and overthrow governments. The French and Iranian revolutions are good examples of the significance of religion. Among the important events in the French revolution is when the republicans put an end to the French Monarchy along with the power of the church. It had a great significance towards secularization.The outcome of the French revolution is among others the confiscation of church lands and removal of any religious statues and symbols(Shiner, 1967). These outcomes continued up until the recent modern times where Muslim women are banned to wear the Hijab in public schools.

The Iranian Revolution had an opposite situation than the French. Instead of the secular revolting against the religious, it is the religious backlash against the secular. The previous Shah of Iran was seen to adapt western model of secular. This was found to be unfavorable to the Islamic Shiite Clergies that has a significant influence on most Iranians. Furthermore, the Shah of Iran were found to be notoriously extravagant, oppressive, brutal and corrupt (Harney, 1998).In response to these events, the secular Shah of Iran was overthrown by the Islamic Republic led by Ayatollah Khomeini. As expected, the outcome of this revolution was also the opposite of French revolution. The outcome of the Iranian revolution among others was the adherence of the Sharia. This includes the dress code where women are supposed to dress modestly and to wear the Hijab. Alcohol, gambling and adultery are strictly prohibited.

Religion can also change a person, their values, lifestyle and belief. In terms of values, extramarital sex is a taboo once a person embraces Islam or Christianity. The same applies for lifestyle. Before embracing any religion, a person may just eat what they want.

However when a person embraces a religion, they observe the dietary laws. In terms of belief, a religious person believes in the existence of God and the holy books are the words of god. On the other hand, irreligion can also change a person. Instead of being a taboo, extramarital sex is a choice as long as there is consensus between parties involved. In terms of belief, an irreligious person has a secular thinking. His actions and consciousness are based on secular ethics and reasoning.

The purpose of this article is to review the definition and evolution secularization thesis from when it was triggered to its alleged decline. This article is outlined as follows. The first section will be on an overview of various definitions on secularization according to renowned classical social scientists, the socioeconomic condition during that time, their differences and similarities. The link between secularization and the socio-economic condition at that time is important in explaining the secularization thesis because from this we are able to know whether socio-economic development leads to secularization The second section will be about the reasons of secularization.

Definition of Secularization

Secularization is the evolution of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions towards nonreligious values and worldly institutions{{447 Pippa Norris, Ronald Inglehart 2004}}. From this definition, it is clear that secularization means a process of decline of religion.Before secularization is formally defined, the fathers of sociology already discussed about the decline of religion. The fathers in sociology among others are Karl Marx, Emilie Durkheim and Max Weber.

Karl Marx Karl Marx view religion as a significant aspect in society. One of the most famous quote by Karl Marx is Religion is the Opiate of All Masses from his book, A Critique

ofHegels philosophy of Right is relevant for todays sociology of religion {{406 Marx,Karl 1976}}. This is because religion provides the rationale and justification to keep the workers class satisfied with what they have. As Marx described, religion works like narcotic or medicine that treats the symptom but leaves the disease. He believes that working class who are oppressed finds happiness in the illusionary after life promoted by religion(Marx, 1976). During Marxs time, it was the industrial revolution and emergence of capitalism where the rich exploits the poor and trade unions were just at an initial stage. The industrial revolution is when there were major changes in technology, manufacturing, transportation and mining that had a significant effect on socioeconomic, cultural and belief(Gerald M. Meier, James E. Rauch, 2000). Consequently, it is argued the rise of factories and cities in the event of Industrial revolution are linked with decline in religion {{448 Alan D. Gilbert 1976}} Callum G. Brown (2009).

In terms of technology and manufacturing, innovation of new technologies in manufacturing such as machines for textile manufacturing and steel fabrication has revolutionized manual labor. In terms of socioeconomic development, Otto Von Bismarck executed a secularization policy and an important welfare measure. The revolutionary things that he had done in terms of Marxist policy were introducing the May Laws to reduce Church control of the political and social power to bring it under the power of the state. The welfare measure that Bismarck introduced was the accident insurance and old age pension. These policies have liberated the people of Prussia from the control of the churches and increased their state of welfare.

In terms of belief, as the society modernizes, religion becomes less relevant.There are least two reasons for this (see Marx 1843). The first reason being that religion is irrational thus modernization is associated to a more rational society that results to decline in religion. Secondly, modernization improves human dignity.As Marx said, Man is the highest being for man (Marx, 1975b). Religion on the other hand enslaves man (ibid). As the bible dictates, humans are sinners and Jesus bears their sins. Important elements

that constitute modernization are among others education, urbanization and industrialization. Increase in these elements especially education gives a sense of dignity. In Marxs case as the trade union prevails, the workers are not objectified and the welfare of the workers is taken care of so religion is no longer needed.However, many modern sociology of religion would disagree with this namely Peter Berger, Jose Casanova, Charles Taylor etc. They argue that despite significant improvement in education, welfare and dignity religion still prevails but in different forms and aspects

Max Weber According to Weber,religion satisfies individualinterests both worldly and salvation. The concept of predestination in Protestant ideology itself encourage its followers pursue worldly gains which is a part of salvation such as such as pursuing wealth andpossession(Weber, 2002). Predestination isa dichotomous decree by god, a salvation for some and damnation for others, not in good or evil deeds that they would do but simply because the person, he or herself wants it. In other words, god helps the ones that help themselves. Based on the Calvinist view of predestinationWebers view of predestination is material wealth as a sign of salvation in after life(George Ritzer, 2009). The pursuit of profit is justified with religion. This is one of the main points that distinguish Weber from other fathers of sociology of religion. For example, Marx and Durkheim reject the out worldly elements in capitalism. Over time,once every worldly needs and wants are satisfied, religion is less needed and that leads to secularization.

Secularization is always associated with Max Weber. In fact, secularization thesis is also called Wabers Thesis. He suggests that the term secularization is to describe two relatedprocesses: rationalization and disenchantment. He postulates that rationalization is the key process in the development of modern society which soon replaces faith (Morrison, 2006). Disenchantment is the process in which the world becomes less mythical whereby polytheistic beliefs progressed to monotheistic beliefs and the decline of the elements of magic to be replaced by rational elements(Max Weber, Hans Heinrich Gerth,Bryan S.Turner, 1991). Weber describes the elements of magic to explain the progress of religion. As the elements of magic decline, that means that the belief is more

rational. In comparison, polytheistic belief has more elements of magic than monotheistic belief.Most Polytheistic beliefs are based on traditional agrarian belief that believes in gods of natural elements such as water, fire and earth. Rituals of magic have known to be performed to please these gods. Unlike monotheism, the elements of magic are just restricted into belief. As the belief is more rational, that means progress. Besides that, Weber also expresses the progression from Polytheism to monotheism in terms of the rationalization of the structure of the society. In the ancient time, the society used to be uncentralised. Each village has their own administration and it was difficult for the King to rule. Therefore, what the King did was centralized his reign. This was also reflected in religion. Before this, each village has their own set of gods. As the society rationalized, there was only one centralized god for the whole society (ibid). During Webers time, which is between the ends of 19th century and early 20th centuryEurope, there was a big emphasis of technological advancement and education in science and technology.Unlike Marx, Weber was lucky to live through the later Industrial revolution. This phase of Industrial revolution is when the automotive industry was at its peak in the US and Europe. Electricity was more efficient as hydroelectric power was invented.This results in increase in middle class, professionals, decline in child labor and a rapid increase in consumer based products By this time, the workers class were better protectedwhen compulsory state compensation was introduced to protect workers(Hajo Holborn, 1982).

Emilie Durkheim Emilie Durkheim suggests that religion is not an illusion. Instead, he claims that religion is very real. There are some similarities between Durkheim and Weber for example instead of declining, Durkheim postulates that religion will be reproduced into a secular form. He uses the term civil religion that is purely secular. A good example for civil religion is the use of bible to swear in as a leader and monuments to commemorate the founding fathers of a country. Unlike Weber, Durkheim view religion as an expression of societys collective consciousness(mile Durkheim, 1912). He refers collective consciousness as a shared credence and moral attitude that function as a unifying force in

society. In relation to Marxs view of religion as a measure to keep the society in order, Durkheims view of religion as a collective consciousness can also be a measure to preserve harmony in a society(Wallwork, 1985). Based on Durkheims understanding of religion, Secularization is defined as the decline of societys collective consciousness. The decline of collective consciousness is a normal characteristic of a modern society(mile Durkheim, 1997). Religion itself as in the belief in god in a non Durkheimian sense instead of declining, it is predicted to be relegated to private life (Schoenfeld, 1990). This is because rational thinking and differentiation between society and religion has reduced religious belief from a macro societal to individual level (Durkheim 1912).

Although Durkheim lived during the same timeframe as Weber, the settings of Durkheim in his studies on sociology of religion are different. His work was predominantly from the Aborigines of Australia, New Guinea and Native Americans that often attribute to modern rites, symbols or custom that underlies primitive rites, symbols and customs. The reason for this is that he wanted to study religion on its initial state. Therefore, the closest he can get to the past was to study primitive societies.These societies believe in Totemism. Totemism is a system of belief that believes in kingship between spirits of animals and plants. The essence of the belief is the dichotomous relationship between the sacred and profane (Durkheim 1912). Working together as a community is very important. Gathering within a tribe is considered sacred. This includes traditional economic activities such as hunting, farming and raising livestocks as long as these things are done together. Anything else, which is not done together, is considered profane (ibid).

Peter Berger Peter Bergers definitions of religion were greatly influenced by Weber and Luckmann. Webers influence on Berger was in terms of the sacred and profane. The sacred and profane was from Durkheims book The protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism.

Based on Durkheim view of the sacred and profane, Bergers view of the profane is related to fear that can be overcome by performing rituals(Grossman, 1975). On Luckmanns side, Berger was influenced by the concept of transcendence where the higher the transcendence the more out-worldly the religion would be.Religion is supposed to reaffirm the lower or higher transcendence(P. L. Berger, 1974).

Peter Berger describes secularization as the progression by which sectors of the society and culture are detached from the dominion of religious institutions and symbols(P. Berger, 1967).During the earlier stage of Bergers career, he was a strong advocate of secularization. He was influenced by Webers Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism whereby the origin of secularization was in Christianity specifically Calvinism (ibid). For Berger, the main factor that leads to secularization is in the rationality of Calvinism.

As the society modernizes, he postulated that religious belief woulddecline; values and lifestyle will be secular instead of religious. This is because this stage, Berger finds that between late 1950s and 1970s,as predicted by Weber and Marx, the society becomes more modern and the standard of living continues to improve. Most people are expected to own a car, a house and better future for their children. The growth of mass media and globalization has made people exposed to different religions(Peter Ludwig Berger, 1996). To certain extent, this has created a religious market that competes against each other to get believers.This has made it difficult to accept any teachings as the truth that in turn weakens the authority of all religions.

Later, Berger reified his stand by suggesting that despite the modernization and significant improvement of standard of living, in non western European countries, religion is still prevalent and widely practiced(P. L. Berger, 1999).This shows the topicality of secularization. His studies include Europe, Asia particularly China and the Middle East.Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, there was remarkable revival of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia (Berger 1996). In the Middle East, before the 1960 Muslims relaxed about their faith. However in the 70s and 80s the Muslim world experienced rapid increase in Islamic infrastructure, religious education and pilgrimage to

Makkah(Hefner, 2003). The unique thing about Islamic revival was it was not restricted to the less modernize sectors of society but it was very strong in the urban areas with high degree of modernization (Berger 1996).Western Europe is an exception where the secularization theory still holds. Increase in modernization has increased the important indicators of secularization such as expressed beliefs, church related behavior and adherence to religious codes (ibid).

Thomas Luckman According to Luckmann, religion is abasic feature of human condition. Human condition includes the experiences of being human in a social, cultural and personal context. It transforms humans into actors in a historical social order. This transformation is possible by the human ability to transcend. For Luckmann, the concept of transcendence is very important is very important to understand religion because it is the foundation of religion. Transcendence in this case is a concept of being that ranges between everyday reality (little transcendence) and other than everyday reality (great transcendence) .Along with Berger, Thomas Luckmann also believes religion is still prevalent in modern society. The difference is the level of transcendence. Instead of declining, he suggests that religion is invisible because it is now an institutionally privatized matter(Luckmann, 1963b). In his book The Invisible Religion, he mentioned the word invisible is because there are no more traces of the sacredness of religion that means that the level of transcendence low. This kind of view is very similar to Durkheims Civil religion without the emphasis of the collective consciousness coined by Durkheim.

Secularization, as defined by Thomas Luckmann is a process of insightful change in the location of religion in society(Luckmann, 1990). Before this, religion is located within every aspect of society. Religion was then shifted specifically in religious institution i.e. Churches.Then as the society modernize, Churches lose their social effectiveness and validity (Luckmann, 1963a).Now religion is located within individual private life(Luckman, 1999). Another definition of secularization as suggested by Luckmann is the shrinking of transcendence (Luckman 1963). Religion, which used to have great transcendence, is now shrunken to low transcendence.

In his studies, he examinesmodern industrial societies particularly the United States.Some of them are of the same economic situation with Berger.United States is a unique case. It is a modern country and one of the biggest economies in the world with affluent society. Despite all that, America is still religious. However, as described by Luckman, American religiosity is mundane, which means a secular form of religiosity with low transcendence level.

KarelDobbelaere Dobbelaeres view of religion is a hodgepodge between different authors. The separation of religion and dimensions of societies, his ideas was mainly influenced by Durkheim, Luckmann and Berger. In terms of religious involvement, he was more influenced by Marxs critique on religion that says that religion would eventually disappear. Weber and Berger influenced Dobbelaere on religious change.

Secularization as defined by Dobbelaere means Laicization. It refers to the process of differentiation(Dobbelaere, 1981). Differentiation for this case includes laicising education, land ownership and everything that had to do with the Church. This view is also shared with Casanova who cited Shiner (1967) on what the agreement that has been made during the Treaty of Wesphalia.

According to Dobbelaere, Secularization is also a process of religious change. The process of religious change suggested by Dobbelaere is religious modernization. The issue of religious modernization has been discussed by Durkheim, Luckmann and Weber. Luckmann for example discussed about the concept of transcendence. Traditional forms of religion have high transcendence. As societies modernize, the transcendence becomes low(Luckmann, 1963a).

Secularization and mean decline in religious involvement. Itrefers to Individuals whether the religion is practiced or not. This includes the norms of religion, beliefs, rituals and morals. This view is similar with Marx, Berger and Durkheim in terms of religious

decline. Marx discussed about the evolution of socio-economy and religious decline. As the socioeconomic situation of a person improves, that means a person can achieve true happiness which means that religion is no longer needed. Meanwhile, Durkheim (1912) discussed about collective consciousness and its decline over the course of modernization.

Mark Chavez Mark Chavez has the same idea as Luckman in terms of the process of insightful change in location of religion. He suggests that secularization is the decline of religious authority in society(Chaves, 1994). Hisexplanation on the decline of religion is based on Dobbelaires three level of analysis of secularization which are societal, organizational and individual level(Dobbelaere 1981). Before 18th century Europe, Religion used to have authority in every aspect of society i.e the judiciary, education and politics. However, as the society modernize, the scope of religious authority declines if not disappear. In terms of organizational secularization Dobbelaere, (1981) interpret it as replacing outdated religious ideologies with updated secular ones. However, Chaves (1994) focus on religious authority inside the organization instead of the organization itself. A good example is in the administration of the church, the church members are free tochoose eitherprofessional administrators from outside the church or somebody inside the church. For individual level, Chaves asserts it quite differently from Dobbelaere. Dobbelaere pays more attention towards individual beliefs such as believe in god and the afterlife. Chaves on the other hand pays more attention to the individual dictated actions such as diet, sexual orientation, marriage etc.

Jose Casanova Jose Casanova defines secularization in three different ways see(Casanova, 1994).1)The first definition is secularization as the decline of religious beliefs and practices. This notion dates back during the enlightenment critique of religion. For enlightenment philosophers, faith was conceived as irrational thus incompatible with modernity. This applies in modern societies often claimed as a universal human development process. For example, it is evident that since the 1960s an increasing majority of Europeans has ceased participating in church service regularly(Kennedy, 2005).

2) The next definition is secularization as the privatization of religion, which is understood as a general trend of modernization and as a normative condition.Religion is argued to be progressively marginalized in a social point of view. As described by Luckmann (1967) there are two spheres that individuals participate. One sphere is the secular sphere and the latter is the religious sphere. Each sphere is autonomous from each other. For example,the Turkish Prime Minister as an individual is religious. However, as the prime minister of Turkey, he is upholding secular laws and values.For this view, Casanova refers extensively to Thomas Luckmann in his book The Invisible Religion. Along with Luckman, religion will not disappear; eventually it will lose its traditional social function.

3) The differentiation of the secular spheres is the last and most central definition of secularization theory. It refers to the transfer of persons, things and meanings from religious to public control.The first appearance of this was the Peace Treaty of Westphalia where he lands and possession were transferred from church to civil control (Shiner, 1967). Then other things follow such as education, science and astronomy. All of them are differentiated from religion for example our early discussion on Darwin and Coppernicus.

What is unique about Casanova as compared to Berger is that there are three different definition of secularization and these definitions are not inter-related.The economic situation during Casanovas time is similar with the time of Berger where societies are modernizing.However Casanovas studies South America particularly Brazil apart from Europe.Brazil is a good example of Casanovas second definition of religion, which is privatization of religion. Brazilians are still believers but most of them do not belong to any denominations.

Conclusion and Comparison

Classical theorists of sociology such as Marx, Weber and Durkheim indeed havethe foundation of secularization. Their works mainly focused on questioning religion and its relevance in societies. However, the living sociologists of religion like Berger and Casanova did extensive work on questioning religion as well as secularization. Secularization, as a process evolves economic condition as well as location. Based on our understanding of Marxs view of religion, although he refers religion to the Opiate of the masses, he looks at religion upon individual belief. Therefore, secularization in Marxs case means individual true happiness. Contrast to Durkheim, he looks at religion on the scale of the mass that he calls it collective consciousness. Consequently, Secularization for Durkheim is essentially decline in collective conciousness. To compare Marx and Durkheim, although Marx himself was an atheist, Marxs view of religion was more transendant as in Luckmanian trancendence than Durkheim. The irony is the settings of Marx was much modern than Durkheim. One possible explanation for thiswas because of Durkheims post laictic secular French background and Marxs former religious background. Another explanation, which is more obvious, was the settings that these two authors had. Marx dealt with early industrious society while the latter author was exploring primitive society.

Weber on the other hand, looks at religion itself. Religion itself is bound to be secular over time. The reason is non other that the religion itself. This is however applies in Protestant belief. Luckmann helped us to understand Weber better when he came up with the concept of transcendence. Therefore, secularization for Weber and luckmann is the reduction of the transcendence.

Peter Berger, KarelDobbelaere and Jose Casanova are the modern sociologists of religion that base their ideas with Marx, Weber and Durkheim. The concept of secularization as a differentiation is shared by all three modern sociologists of religion. Berger however wasunique when he reified his stand regarding the secularization theory when he wrote the book Desecularization of the World.Dobbelaere on the other hand analyzed

secularization at three levels. interpretation of secularization.

Casanova on the other hand has three different

Our definition of secularization is the process of decline of religious beliefs in individuals. This includes values, belief and practice that are no longer religious. 1) Values in terms of the respect to the elderly and neighbors, sexuality and caring for the environment. Almost all-major religions of the world encourage followers to uphold religious values. For example, Christianity, Islam and Judaism stress the importance of respecting neighbors. This is similar to Durkheim in his concept of collective consciousness. Secularization in this sense is the decline in respect to neighbors. Homosexuality is not tolerated in any mainstream Abrahamic monotheistic religions. Secularization in this sense means toleration and the acceptance of Homosexuality.

2) Belief is in terms of believing to the tenants of religion and most importantly the existence of god. For Christians, there is the belief in the trinity. Trinity includes the belief in the father, son and the Holy Spirit. Muslims on the other hand believe in the concept of Tauhid that means the oneness of god that is not a father and do not have a son. Both believers of these religions acknowledge the Holy Bible and the Holy Quran as the word of god. Any rejection or any views that these holy books should be modified are considered secularization. This can be related to Luckmanns postulation of the shrinking of transcendence where some verse in the holy books is considered high in transcendence thus considered not accordance to modernity.

Lastly is the 3) practice in terms of attendance to church, religious contribution, dietary restrictions and financial practice. All Abrahamic religion prohibits the consumption of Swine and usury. Therefore the consumption of such things indicates secularization. Rituals for example Sabbath, going to church and Friday prayers are essential practices for Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Absent of such rituals also indicates secularization.

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