Conflicting Visions: Jefferson and Hamilton I. Opposing views of 1790s 1. Leads to political II.Alexander Hamilton 1. Background: born in W.

Indies (illegitimate child), wanted reputation not wealth, ambitious, people either loved or hated him, lawyer 2. Though he was a supporter of the revolution he still admired British culture, 1790s he advocated stronger diplomatic/commercial ties with England 3. Not bound to strict wording of Constitution, strong central gov. III. Thomas Jefferson 1. Background: Tall Virginian, not a social butterfly, wanted to advance democratic principles (not interested in wealth or reputation), wrote Declaration of Independence, affected by the French Revolution (he witnessed some)-->believed the world was switching from monarchy to republicanism and favored France over England 4. Jefferson and Hamilton cont. Shared many fundamentalist ideas Commerce would play an important part in boths ideal societies Many serious differences too Hamilton wanted bold financial development Also feared democratic excess Gravest threat was anarchy, not monarchy Thought rich/upper class could help the republic survive Jefferson thought economy should focus on agriculture, not industry Immensity of land Also expressed faith in American people shaping policies Trusted people Despised getting rich quick gimmicks Didnt want to mortgage future of people to help national debt pg 200-207 I. Hamiltons Plan for Prosperity and Security (Hamiltons economic plan) a. Finds a high debt (debts from war, foreign loans, loan certificates to citizens+soldiers, states owe creditiors) b. Poor citizens had sold gov. certificates for cheap to get money, few original creditors still had their loans A. Funding and Assumption 1. Hamiltons Report on the Public Credit had 2 ideas a. US would pay foreign and domestic obligations at face value b. Federal gov. should cover remaining state debts 2. Plan would reduce state power in national economic policy (strong federal gov.), would make US a good place to invest (keep money here +develop industry/commerce)

3. Surprisingly, Madison disagreed with plan a. Honor current certificate holders less generously and pay distressed patriots with left over money b. still honor debts c. This plan wouldnt work (lack of records) d. Defeated by Congress in 1790 4. Assumption (state debt) part of Hamiltons plan was controversial a. Some states had already paid-seemed to reward states that didnt b. suspicious-people thought Hamilton was getting power+$ for friends c. Some protestors had real fears, others were scheming d. Some people had bought land in W. for cheap w/ gov. certificates to sell laterthis plan would ruin them e. 1790-Assumption is rejected at first, but agreement to move capital to VA (and give it $) makes it pass B. Interpreting the Constitution:The Bank Controversy 1. 1791-Hamiltons second report wants gov. to charted national bank (Bank of the United States) a. lots of $ in new bonds, bank as stable as gov. b. argues that central bank needed to facilitate complex commerce c. would issue currency acceptable to pay tax with, main depositary of govmoney would be valuable while in circulation 2. Madison+others thought this gave gov. too much power a. Bill passed in 1791, but Washington considered vetoing it b. Jeffersons essay to pres. was bad, but Hamiltons mentioned elastic clause and the new idea of implied powers (loose construction)-persuades Washington well 3. General public didnt like this a. high national debt+privileged banks rep. loss of virtue b. seemed like Englands system were spectators got political power (Hamilton actually liked England) c. Speculators who bought loan certicficates cheap to make money were seen as un-American by farmers, a greedy Treasury official caused bankruptcies in 1792-people like Madison+Jeffersons ideas more than Hamiltons C. Setback for Hamilton 1. Third report Report on Manufacture, 1791, how to stimulate manufacturing a. Dependence on Europe is bad, make own industry (textiles, etc.) b. need gov. to speed this up-protective tariffs and bounties in industry help 2. Loose coalition of Jefferon+Madison followers disagree with this a. Consolidation (concentrating power with federal gov. and taking from states) was seen as threat (Madison, who had previously been more for federal gov. switched sides here) b. Jefferson saw cities as vices, only way to stay virtuous is by investing in agriculture c. Washington hated this divisions, in 1792 he still believed political parties could be prevented, begs them to stop but too late

II. Charges of Treason: The Battle Over Foreign Affairs 1. Washingtons second term (1793-1797) had war in Europe-divisions led to citizens dividing politically and becoming pro-France or England a. Political organizations (federalists and republicans) were formed-disagree how to preserve republic b. R: state rights, strict interpretation, France, not industrious F: central economic plans, England, maintain public order even if troops are needed A. The Peril of Neutrality 1. England treats US with arrogance ( still troops in NW in 1794), not honoring treaty 2. French Revolution made US heroes popular but was bloody and confused US, Jefferson liked it but Hamilton didnt like the political excess 3. Tension makes neutrality seem good a. Weak state needs to be able to protect its stance 4. France declaring war on England 1793 is confusing-must US ally with France (Treaties in 1778)? 5. Jefferson+Hamilton want to avoid war but different ideas a. Jefferson wanted to give France special trade advantages if England cont. to impress sailors and seize US ships b. Hamilton wants to suck up to strong British navy 6. French diplomat Genet let private US ships seize British ships for France-NOT NEUTRAL!, US gov. tells him to stop but he appeals to our population a. Embarrasses Jefferson (pro-France) but he denounces Genet as stupid and tactless b. Washington issues a Proclamation of Neutrality (didnt wait to see if 1778 treaties were intact) B. Jays Treaty Sparks Domestic Unrest 1. 1793-British forts in NW cause tension and British navy capture US vessels trading with French W. Indies+blockade French ports to neutral shipping a. Didnt even warn US about new policy, Republicans call for retaliation (embargo, war, etc.) 2. 1794-Washington tries to preserve peace by sending John Jay to London with list of griveances ( humilation=Jays Treaty) a. Remove forts in NW, pay for ships captured in W. Indies, better commercial relations, accepting neutral rights of US-supposed to be favorable for US b. Hamilton wants to placate Britsh and secretly told England that US would compromise on most issues (now treaty is destined to fail) c. Jay meets resistance in London ( NW freed and small US ships can trade in British W. Indies but reject US neutral rights meaning navy would still search US ships and impress sailors thought to be British, no compensation for ships taken in 1793 until debts before Revolution paid, no mention of slaves British took after revolution) d. Outcry in colonies, even Washington didnt like it, Federalists get Senate to barely pass a revised treaty in 1795

e. Details of treaty leak to press, people who didnt care about politics before did now, angry demonstrations, Jay seen as sellout f. House of Reps. Republicans (led by Madison) thought they could stop treaty by refusing to fund it, demand that Washington show them papers relating to it-House claiming voice in treaty ratification+should executives keep secrets for national security? decided that pres. could keep secrets Pg. 208-212 -last section cont. Redefined the issue before Congress & instant public support of President Federalists won over the opposition Division b/w the parties Republicans called Federalists British party and Fed. thought Republicans were in league with the French Jays Treaty became law on June 14, 1795 Jefferson and Hamilton both left Washingtons cabinet Pushing the Native Americans Aside Before G.B. withdrew its troops from N.W. Territory and Great lakes, military leaders told Natives to attacks settlers and traders from U.S. Several confrontations : 1790 General Josiah Harmar led troops into ambush; General Arthur St. Clair had >900 casualties Native Americans still vulnerable Confronted by General Anthony Wayne & his army and received no British support Battle of Fallen Timbers (Aug. 20, 1794) Natives defeated and forced to sign Treaty of Greenville which had them formally giving the land that would become Ohio Spanish told U.S. representative in Madrid (Thomas Pinckney) to discuss the navigation of the Mississippi River Prior to: Spanish closed river to American commerce and incited the Indians to harrass settlers Spain assumed G.B. & U.S. formed an alliance to strip Spain of North Amercian possessions sooooo..... (to avoid) Spain offered opening of Mississippi, right to deposit goods In New Orleans w/out paying duties, a secure southern boundary on 31st parallel, and promise to stay out of Indian affairs Treaty of San Lorenzo (Pickneys Treaty) raqtified in U.S. on Oct. 27, 1795 w/out a dissenting vote & Pickeny became hero of Federalist party Popular Political Culture Jays treaty increased political strife People from both parties thought being partisan was a threat to political stability Also thought parties removed sense of common purpose that was prevalnet during revolution Intellectual currents and political parties increased suspicion Thus, Federalists and Republicans advocated the destruction of political adversaries Informing the Public: News and Politics

Newspaper transformed the American public John Fenno- Gazette of the United States supported Hamiltons ideals Phillip Freneau- National Gazette that was Republican Everyone, newspapers, poets, writers, caught up in partisanism Political clubs (1793)- modeled off French debating societies; Democratic or Republican Whiskey Rebellion: Charges of Republican Conspiracy Fed. convinced that Republicans were prepared to employ violence against govt. Group of farmers living in western PA protested a tax on distilled whiskey Tax threatened to put them out of business Repub. governor of PA refused to surpress any rebels; Washington and other Federalists thought the farmers represented a direct political challenge 15000 militiamen w/ Hamilton marched against rebels Distillers disappered and no one knew where they went Peace back on the frontier eventually and Republicans gained much electoral support Whiskey Rebellion just began in national political forum Parties blamed each other Washingtons Farewell Sept. 1796 Farewell Address- declaring his intention to retire Warned against political factions Warned against making allies with distant nations that didnt care about American security Isolationism By waiting until Sept. to announce retirement, Washington denied the republicans time to organize an effective campaign -last section cont. While Lyon sat in jail, he was reelected to Congress Federal courts became political tools Created martyrs and threatened Republicanism I. The (John) Adams Presidency (Federalist) 1. Elected in 1796 with Jefferson as VP (fluke because Hamilton messed with electorsThomas Pickney was supposed to be VP) 2. Washingtons Cabinet passed to him but secretly consulted with Hamilton (Adams didnt want to insult Washingtons judgement and fire them) 3. Though they used to be friends, Jefferson and Adams different political views did not allow them to cooperate XYZ Affair and Domestic Policies 1. By letting British define US neutrality it seemed like US had sided against France-bad relations a. The US ambassador not recieved in Paris, and French minister in Philly (Pierre Adet) meddled in elections to help republicans (embarrassed Jefferson/ offends citizens) b. 1797-French privateer (pirate) US ships but no war is declared by either side (Quasi-war)

2. Hamilton and friends (High Federalists) liked the anti-French sentiment-want Adams to start actual war a. Adams did not want to do this, so he sent a diplomatic team of Pickney, Marshall, and Gerry to France-insulted and was a disaster (never directly met with Talleyrand, the French minister of foreign relations) 3. The humiliation affects US politics-correspondence shown to Congress with Talleyrands workers (who actually received US) were named X, Y, and Z a. Federalists want war and say Americans who dont denounce French are basically terrorists (XYZ Affair) b. Republicans and Federalists are no longer able to be friendly ever Crushing Political Disssent 1. 1798-High Federalists want larger US Army but Adams doesnt think French will invade a. High Federalists really just wanted to threaten Republicans with army 2. Army starts to form anyways and George Washington led it on the condition that Hamilton was second in command (Adams agreed though Hamilton was known to undermine him) a. Hamilton (and Sec. of War McHenry) make sure only Federalists get commissions and even think about attacking Spanish colonies for glory b. Adams neglected army and it became idle (refused to declare war) c. 1798-Adams actually cared about navy and made Stoddert (did not respond to Hamilton) the head of the new Navy Department Silencing Political Opposition:The Alien and Sedition Acts 1. 1798-authorizes federal courts and presidential power to silence Republicans a. first crisis over civil liberties 2. Three Alien Acts-limited to 2 yrs a. Alien Enemies Law-during wartime pres. could detain/deport citizens of nations being fought by suspicion b. Alien Law-pres. could expel any foreigner by executive decree (not used but many French fled) c. Naturalization Law-14 yr period before immigrants can apply for whole US citizenship (Irish Republicans were the reason) 3. Sedition Law a. Criticising the gov. was a crime-if found guilty by jury prison+fines b. Republicans worried that first amendment rights were being taken away (state officials, not courts should punish lies) but High Federalists claim Constitution does not support lies (willing to be dictatorship-like to stop opposition press) c. District courts headed by Federalists began to indict people (even drunkards werent safe and jokes were dangerous) d. Trial of Matthew Lyon in VA was big-while running for reelection to Congress the Irishman said Adams mishandled the Quasi-war (he had spit in the eye of a Federalist before...he didnt usually agree with them), jailed and reelected while in jail e. cases prove that federal courts are political tools and Sedition Law actually sparks more insults on the gov., fear of losing even more rights

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Jefferson and Madison convinced Federalists wanted a police state Sedition Law would produce universal harm- Madison Threatened the free communication of ideas & in response, intense Republicans like John Taylor recommended secession from the Union Jefferson said last hope for American freedom was in state legislatures Jefferson and Madison drafted protests known as Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798)- defended right of individual state assemblies to interpret the constitutionality of federal law In Kentucky Resolutions, described federal union as a compact Jefferson rejected Hamiltons broad interpretation of the Elastic Clause Kentucky legislators also thought Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional Madison urged states to defend personal rights but didnt go as far as Thomas by saying that a single state shouldnt have the power to overthrow federal law The resolutions were pure political propaganda Adamss Finest Hour Feb. 1799 Adams became independent from the Hamiltonian wing of Federalist party In Feb., asked Senate to confirm William Vans Murray as U.S. representative to France Caught High Federalists by surprise In May, he fired Pickering and McHenry W/ peace in French offering, Americans saw no need to pay for an unneeded army and Adams was happy to dismantle it When the new negotiators came to France, realized a new govt. headed by Napoleon Bonaparte cooperated in drawing up an agreement called Convention of Mortefontaine French refused to compensate American vessels taken during the Quasi-War, but did declare treaties of 1778 void Removed French restrictions on U.S. commerce Adams avoided war and made mututal trust that paved the way for the Louisiana Purchase The Peaceful Revolution: The Election of 1800 Adams was popular among Federalists (esp. in New England) Hamilton vowed to punish president for betrayal of militant policies Hamilton tried to rig the votes so Pickney would win Elections not resolved in electoral college House of Representatives had to choose Federalists finally decided Jefferson would make a more responsible president than Burr 12th Amendment- electoral college will cast separate votes for president and vice president Adams in the final days of his presidency appointed as many Federalists as possible to the federal bench John Marshall became chief justice Ultimate issue- Federalists lost touch with American people Jeffersons Presidency pg 222-227

During Jeffersonian times, common people believed they were equals, but still treated blacks as lesser beings-underlying racism common. -Federalists accuse Democratic Republicans (esp. southerners) of being hypocritical about human rights (slaves) -Jefferson ends up loosely interpreting Constitution, regulating economy, and almost causing war during his presidency (not republican principles) Regional Identities in a New Republic I. Population growth, optimism is futures (skills over familial ties) II. Regional personalities 1. Southerners, New Englanders,Westerners 2. Shared economic interests, but disagree over slavery-already sectional loyalties Westward Course of Empire I. 1790-People go West for good farmland (NW Territory) 1. Pittsburgh+Cincinnati (on Ohio River) become commercial centers, new states formed, WATER TRANSPORTATION is key (cheapest way to get supplies) 2. Settlers try to maintain eastern culture, but often make their own, Western heroes like Daniel Boone, settlers usually ambitious and confident Native American Resistance I. Many Natives had lived in Ohio River Valley, but declining pop. forced them to sell land for cheap 1. These loses disgust Shawnee leaders Tenskwatawa and brothers Tecumseh a. Urge natives to not contact whites, not drink alcohol, and hold onto land (preserve culture) b. Seen as bad to white settlers, in War of 1812 natives are crushed (all the way to Alabama) 2. Jeffersonians said they wanted to civilize Natives (into yeomen farmers), not crush them a. Still, most people did not see Native culture as worthy of preservation Commercial Life in the Cities I. US was land of farmers (even in North), old-fashioned routine (only real change was the agricultural fair) II. Merchant Marines also important 1. Ships carry a lot of trade, link Europe to Caribbean colonies, very successful 2. Since trade depended on friendly relations with Europe, big losses when France+England seize US ships III. Cities 1. Mainly for international trade, 7% of country lived there+they were involved with carrying trade, very high population densities, high rents, rich demand artisan furniture, all jobs somehow affect shipping business (design ships, load ships, sail ships) Jefferson as President I. DC was a good fit for the laid-back man, he read a lot , true politician a. Goals: reduce size and cost of federal gov. and repeal the Alien Acts b. Close ties with leaders in Congress

c. Carefully selected Cabinet: James Madison=Sectary of State and Albert Gallatin (swiss banker)=Sectary of Treasury Jeffersonian Reforms I. Cut Nation Debt a. Thought debt was harmful to the republic b. Congress repeals all tax (including Whiskey Tax) instead customs receipts used 1. worked until trade dried up c. Cuts in budget 1. Close embassies, reduce army, retire most of Navy 2. Reasoned that militias could protect US if necessary (like Revolution), opens Army Corp of Engineers and West Point to make sure citizen soldiers were trained d. Political Patronage-Loyal Republicans wanted jobs in the gov. but Jefferson let half of the people who were appointed by Washington or Adams stay in office (hoped that some Moderate Republicans would switch sides) e. Federalist attempt revival 1. Federalists wary of expansion 2. 1804-campaign better but results still disappointing, young Federalists embarrassed to ask for votes 3. Diehards like Thomas Pickering promote secessionist schemes but good moderates like Adams join the Republicans II. The Louisiana Purchase 1. Originally planned to persuade Spain to give him colonies 2. In 1801, Napolean got land first and planned to revive French colonies and end rebellion in Haiti-threatened US trade in New Orleans a. crisis-1802, Spain closes port to US, some want war against France b. 1803-Sends Monroe and Livingston to Paris to make a treaty-if it failed would have to side with British against France c. By the time they got to France, Napoleon lost interest in colonies (army to Haiti had gotten ill), sold Louisiana Territory to US thru Talleyrand for $15 million (doubles size of US) d. Good response in US, only some Federalists who wanted a small country were mad, happy to avoid war with France e. Jefferson worried that purchase was unconstitutional (new land and citizens)tried to pass amendment but instead rushes papers for payment to France and forgets about amendment f. Many French and Spanish people lived in territory, they were used to autocratic gov. and Jefferson didnt want them to ruin the republic with bad reps. - recommends Louisiana Government Bill (1804) which allows tax on the people there but no reps. (even Republicans didnt like, but it passed) Lewis and Clark Expedition I. Jefferson sends secret message to Congress for $2500 to explore Louisiana Territory (1803) II. Meriwether Lewis (Jeffersons private secretary) chosen to see if Missouri River would be good for trade, and to collect data about flora and fauna Pg. 236-239

Attack on the Judges Much controcersy came from Jeffersons presidency Judiciary Act of 1801- created several circuit courts and 16 new judgeships Federalists realizing they would lose control over exective branch Midnight appointments Some of Jeffersons allies tried to repeal act Needlessly expensive Marbury v. Madison- Marshall berated the secretary of state for withholding Marburys commission- Sumpreme Court had no jusrisdiction over the matter Republican victory Jefferson wanted Samuel Chase (a justice of the supreme court) out of office because of his heavy criticism of Jeffersons presidency Chase and defense team were great & persuasive Prosecution (John Randolph) was erratic and ignored points of law Aquitted Chase March 1, 1805 Chase stopped criticizing the Democratic Republican party after Americans still didnt like tampering w/ the Constitution to get rid of specific judges Politics of Desperation Destruction of Federalist party on national level caused conflict in Republican party Extremists wanted President to listen to them only & rebelled when he did otherwise One group- the good old republicans Newspapers called them Tertium Quids which means nothings Quigs said the Presidents policies sacrficed virtue for pragmatism Two chief spokesmen- John Randolph and John Taylor Thought Jefferson betrayed his own party Yazoo claims- corrupt Georgia assembly sold 35 million acres of land to private company at bargain prices Became known: every member of legislature was bribed & 1796- agreement became void Still, the land belonged to someone else, so Congress set aside 5 million acres for buyers who had unwillingly purchased land from discredited companies Murder and Conspiracy: The Curious Career of Aaron Burr VP Aaron Burr & P Jefferson were never close Spring of 1804- burr wanted to run for governor of NY Hamilton didnt like & called Burr dangerous Burr was defeated and he blamed Hamilton; led to a duel b/w the two July 11, 1804 Weehawken, NY- Burr shot and killed Hamilton Wanted for murder in NY and NJ Final weeks of VP, he suggested that he was going on a trip down the Ohio River & was planning a private military attack against a Spanish colony Also said he could imagine western states leaving the Union Wherever he traveled (never really sure) he gained adventurers, mingeled with leading politicians of Louisiana Purchase territory, and accepted a role in some kind of conspiracy

Late summer of 1806- Small group of Burrs followers persuaded Harman Blennerhassett to allow them to construct riverboats on his island General Wilkinson who was w/ Burr on this conspiracy had a change of heart Destroyed any chance of success at whatever they were trying to do Burr tried to flee to Florida but he was arrested & sentenced to trial in Richmond Marshall was a Federalist, so he tried to help out Burr Sept. 1, 1807 proved not guilty Burr went into exile in Europe Pg. 252-256, 261 Expansion and Migration Peace after War of 1812: Americans shifted attention from Europe to N.A. Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)- limited U.S. and British naval forces on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain Britain would never attack U.S. from Canada if U.S. never tried to take over Canada Anglo-American Convention of 1818- set the border b/w the Louisiana Purchase lands and Canada at the 49th parallel & joint U.S. and British occupation of Oregon Louisiana admitted as a state 1812 & thriving settlement around Natchez in Mississippi Territory Other than that, not much settlement westward Extending the Boundaries Expansionists looked at Spanish owned settlements first (a lot of the west and Florida) B/w 1810 and 1812, U.S. annexed area b/w Mississippi R. and Perdido R. (Alabama) claiming it was a part of the Lousiana Purchase Remainder was E. Florida President Monroe eager to expand General Andrew Jackson led troops to E. FL to pursue hostile Seminole Indians Ended up occupying that area (beyond orders); known as First Seminole War Many condemned this action as aggressive except for Adams Adams told the Spanish govt. the occupation was in self-defense and conflict would end if Florida was ceded to U.S. Agreement ratified by Adams-Onis Treaty (Feb. 22, 1819) Also stated U.S. would assume $5 million of financial claims of American citizens against Spain Adams also made Spain give up claim to Pacific coast north of CA--> path for future American expansion John Jacob Astor founded fur-trading post of Astoria (mouth of Columbia R.) Fur traders went to Missouri, northern Rockies Some mated with Indians and spread western culture more Notable post-war expedition: Major Stephen S. Long (1819-1820) surveyed parts of Great Plains and Rockys Gave misleading reports about Great Plains- called it a desert Native American Societies Under Pressure Five Civilized Tribes= Cherokee, Chickasaw. Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole

Adopted an agriculture economy, republican form of govt., and slavery Whites still didnt want them in their society no matter how westernized John Ross (mixed-blood leader) encouraged Cherokee to adopt survival strategy while Creek and Seminole collected arms Cherokees: Nuclear family took over clan life Shift towards agriculture economy Introduced slavery Republican govt. Seminole: Stark cultural contrast to Cherokee Responded to white settlers w/ weapons, not accommodation Adopted some slavery, but not the same as the white settlerss sense of the word 1820s-1830s: War b/w Americans vs. Seminole and estelusti (Second Seminole War) Alliance strained: Seminoles moved to Tampa (Treaty of Moultrie Creek) Black Seminoles- huge factor in fighting against Indian displacement U.S. used bribery, threats, and deception to induce land successions Stage set for removal of Indians to trans-Mississippi West under Andrew Jackson Not much Indian rebellion up North 1831-1832: Last stand of Natives Sac and Fox Indians refused to abandon lands east of Mississippi Federal troops pursued them to across the river Monroe didnt want Indians, but Jackson was aggressively anti-Indian A Revolution in Transportation Along eastern seaboard, transportation was pathetic Traveling west over the mountains would take months After War of 1812, leaders wanted to mobilize more John Calhouns vision: perfect, united transportation Fed. govt. role not very important Roads and Steamboats First great federal transportation project was building a National Road b/w Cumberland, Maryland, and on the Ohio (1811-1818) Impressive toll road Toll roads good for travellers but too costly for trade River systems (Ohio-Mississippi) better, flatboats go from Pittsburgh to New Orleans (downstream only) 1807-Robert Fultons steamboat (The Clermont sails Hudson) helps trade Steamboats are cheap, good hotels+casinos as well as trade Many blew up The Canal Boom Natural rivers, while useful, did not connect enough areas 1817- Erie canal approved in between Albany and Buffalo, finished by 1825-very useful helps make NYC a commercial capital, canal inspire other states to make some

boom ends in 1830-40s, when canals are not making enough profit, railroads coming anyways, still canals had been useful to public Emergence of a Market Economy New transportation lets farmers sell more crops and get cheaper manufactured goods Increased farm income and stimulate commercial agriculture Beginning of the Commercial Age Traditional farms only made food for themselves and sold the surplus Better plows allowed for more crops to be produced More land and new markets start commercial farming Move away from diversified farming, wheat belt moves west, cotton king crop in South Cotton was needed for textiles, cotton gin invented in 1793 (Eli Whitney), good land available in SW, slavery natural rivers good for transport in the South Commerce Banking Commission merchants are intermediaries in trade Credit: farmers borrow from local merchants who recieved advances when crops consigned to factors merchants charge, but using them cheaper than doing business alone Barter no longer worked, but US gov. did not make enough money to sustain new economy Private/state banks issue bank notes w/ promise to return in gold/silver BUS had expired its charter, state banks grow, too many banknotes cause a loss in face value Congress makes second BUS to avoid inflation and force banks to pay people Did not work at first, and people become wary of banks Early Industrialism 1820-most clothes made in households by women Putting out system-merchants give raw material to homes, pick up finished products and distribute them, usually in NE Artisans made high-quality materials, shops later expand in size and become more like factories Lowell, Appleton, and Patrick Jackson make Boston Manufacturing Company-1813 power loom used to turn fiber into cloth-idea from England Very successful, Lowell mill popular work force of unmarried women who lived in dorms, mechanized every stage of production, still mill conditions got bad Sarah Bagley-Lowell Female Labor Reform Association, against long hours and large requirements New England made manufacturing center Putting out system declines, merchants switch from ocean trade to manufacturing, politicians favor high tariffs to protect US industry Other industries included iron in PA and manufacture of small arms, corn whiskey in Ohio -Despite growth, still not a full industrial revolution -More of a distribution revoltuion

-People who benefited saw it as progress, people who suffered wanted security and were aginst money power and corporations pg 282-284 prefered equistrian scupltures to classic ones morals, romance, optimism (Hawthrone Scarlet Letter, Moby Dick not popular until later-too unhappy), point to encourage virtue landscape paintings, Poe and Whitman (not popular until later) Democratic Political Institutions All white men can vote, more judges and office-holder chosen by the people-> campaigns Martin Van Buren (NY)-thought 2 party system was needed as a check, loyal opposition, 1820s 1828-electors chosen by vote instead of legislature in most states, grassroot voters needed, DEMOCRATS AND WHIGS-Jacksonian parties form conventions more people vote after parties form-result of organization and campaigns Economic Issues The Panic of 1819 and depression cause interest in economy farmers want return to small honest economy entrepreneurs want gov. aid and charters for special priviliges to banks, corportations, and transport agencies Party disputes over tariffs, banks, internal improvements--when one side was more popular it was accuses of corruption jacksonians fear money power, opponents see republicans as rabble rousers everyone wants equal oppertunity economy but dont know how involved gov. should be Labor Radicalism and Equal Rights 1830s-unions form, say equality is at risk, hate wealth gap, producers=them, parasites=bankers, merchants, speculators Thomas Skidmore (one of the radicals, founder of NY Working Mens party), wants to abolish inheritence and redistribute land Supporters want better public education-still does not help people at that moment (only good for future) Unions try cooperative production and want ten hr work days, no prison for debt, currency not based on bank notes (only hard money) 1830s-federated unions in many cities, worked until depression of 1837 Norther abolitionists and womens rights supporters try to advocate more equality but the country is still too racist and sexist to give in-blacks and women lose status while white men rise pg 268-271 I. Politics of the Nation after War of 1812 1. Expansion, economic growth change life in N, S, and W in different ways

2. Era of good feelings-these differences were not showcased, politics less popular but seem to be working, one party, Monroe is president unopposed 3. Nationalism II. Republicans in power 1. 1815-republicans only party and adopt some federalist policies (Madison recommends ideas from Hamilton plans) 2. Henry Clay supports this American System, key was protective tariff 3. 1816-Congress raises a tariff 25%, everyone supports it, want to have independence economically 4.1816-Second BUS, provides national financial stability 5. Other than national road, transportation networks not tackled (not in Constitution) III. Monroe as President 1. third VA in a row, 2 terms unopposed 2. avoids controversy, wants to keep harmony 3. relied more on Congress to deal with issues (keep harmony himself) IV. The Missouri Compromise 1. 1817-Missouri applies for statehood, wanted to be a slave state 2. 1819-N. hates Compromise,S. want balance of power, Missouri would make 12 slave states and 11 free 3. 1819-Tallmadge amendment to statehood bill-gradual emacipation of slaves in Missouri and no new ones, approved 4. Missouri Compromise- Missouri slave state if Maine (from Mass.) is free, new states above 36 degree free, below slave (in Louisiana Territory) passes 5. Seeds of division (regional loyalty before party) V. Postwar Nationalism and Supreme Court 1. John Marshall-cheif justice (1801-1835)-really in charge of court, shapes role of Constitution and court, valued liberty over political/social/economic equality, Court is to interpret and enforce Constitution to help economy (and protect property rights) 2. Legal watchdog of capitalism 3. Major Decisions 1819-1824 enhance judicial power and use contract clause to limit state powers, loose contruction and federal gov. over states 4. 1819-Dartmouth College vs. Woodward-can New Hampshire make Dartmouth state university (from private college)? Daniel Webster- Dartmouths original charter was valid and irrevocable Court accepted his argument Decision increased the power and independence of business corporations by weakening the ability of states to regulate them Ruling helped foster the growth of the modern corporation as a profit-making enterprise but w/ limited piblic responsibilities McCulloch v. Maryland- ML levied tax on the Baltimore branch of B.U.S. Ruling: tax was unconstitutional Two main qs: whether Congress could make a national bank and whether a state had power to tax or regulate industry made by Congress 1- implied powers and loose construction of document

2- No; giving the state the power to tax it would also give the power to destroy it Gibbons v. Ogden- bolstered the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce; steamboat monopoly granted by NY was challenged by a competing ferry service b/w NY and NJ Court ruling: NY grant was unconstitutional Decision furthered the transportation revolution from state interference Dual effect of Marshalls decision making Broadened power of federal govt. at expense of states while encouraging growth of a national market economy Nationalism in Foreign Policy: The Monroe Doctrine Monroes first problem: how to respond to revolt of Spains Latin American colonies after Napoleonic wars Henry Clay called for recognition of new republics Problem: U.S. stuck to a neutral stance until 1822, but Congressional pressure to recognize independence of the freed colonies increased Monroe agreed to recognize the republics Possible collision w/ major European powers Threat from Grand Alliance made U.S. try to cooperate w/ England Monroe Doctrine- U.S. opposed any further colonization in the Americas or any effort by European nations to extend their political systems outside their own hemisphere; in return U.S. would not involve itself in internal affairs of Euurope or to take part in European wars Signified rise of independence and self confidence in U.S. Pg. 284-5 & 288 Jacksonian Democracy-Jacksons presidency makes national politics more democratic The Election of 1824/J. Q. Adams Administration I. After Monroes term, republican party confused about who to pick 1. The partys congressional caucus chose William Crawford (Jeffersonian), 2. Many congressmen no longer support this method of nomination-several dont attend the caucus 3. Monroe himself liked John Quincy Adams last section cont. Monroe supported John Quincy Adams; gave him an important boost Jackson not given much of a chance at first Sole background was military hero Once all south candidates dropped out, Jackson gained their support and the support of people from north who didnt like the economic nationalism of Clay and Adams Jackson won a plurality of electoral votes, lacked necessary majority Thrown to House of Representatives Adams won under suspicious circumstances; Clay (speaker) persuaded supporters to vote for Adams w/ Clay as Secretary of State Jackson- corrupt bargain Adams had a hard presidency: refused to yield to public opinion and wanted to expand federal govt. (wanted to create a national university in Washington)

Advocates of states rights and strict constructions were apphauled New Congress of 1826 were hostile to the Adams administration; tariff issue was main business on their agenda Pressure for greater protection came from manufacturers and most farmers who would supply votes in the next election Jackson felt it would be safe to support a high tariff if it was judicious(ignoring the south where all tariffs were unpopular because the south already supported Jackson) Resulting tariff law was not judicious however! Substantial across-the-board increase in duties and angered southern free traders; known as tariff of adominations Early example of how special-interest groups can achieve goals in politics by trading votes in legislative bargaining process (logrolling) Pg. 288-289 Jackson Comes to Power Jackson and supporters began to rally for next election immediately after Adamss elecion (1824) Late 1827- Jackson committee in every county and important town or city Many influencial leaders supported Jackson Most significant: John C. Calhoun (VP; spoke for militant states rights sentiment of the South), Sen. Martin Van Buren (dominated NY politics through the Albany Regency), Francis P. Blair and Amos Kendall (KT editors; worked in West to create opposition to Clay and his American System These leaders and many followers laid foundation for the Democrat party Political parties existed to engage in a contest for the presidecy Election of 1828- birth of new era of mass democracy Creation of large, public rallies, lavish BBQs, picnics paid for candidates supporters, etc. Politicians providing treats and gifts brings people to the polls Both sides created rumors about the other Jacksons side: Adams wife born out of wedlock Adams side: Jacksons wife had two husbands Jackson was authentic to the public; gave him some edge Won by a landslide Was one of the most forceful presidents Open endorsement of rotation of officeholders First to say his policies were legitimate applications of democratic doctrine Halfway through first term, replaced almost all of his cabinet Growing feud b/w Jackson and Calhoun pg 290-292 Van Buren resigned to promote reorganization is rewarded by being made minister of England Indian Removal I. First major policy issue for Jackson 1. He had been directly involved in coercing tribes to leave (military)

2. How fast and through should removal be? 3. S. states had troubles with Natives, thought Adams was slow on the issue A. Right after election, GA extends state laws to the Cherokee in its borders (alabama and mississippi do the same), defies Constitution (no meddling in Indian affairs) 1. Jackson stills supports them (racist towards natives anyways) 2. He also knows that he owes the S. for their votes 3. Dec. 1829-message to Congress that states have rights over the Natives, coercive removal policy of natives B. 1830 1. Bill to implement this policy barely passes (defies Constitution, humanity issues) 2. Threatens to force tribes into submission, condones GA defiance of Worcester v Georgia (supreme court case) that denied states the right to have jurisdiction over tribal lands C. 1833 1. All SE tribe agreed to evacuate but Cherokee D. 1838 1. Trail of Tears-Cherokee forced by military to go from GA to Oklahoma a. Harsh journey- 4000 of 16000 die b. shows prejudice and greed in Jacksonian Democracy

pg. 292-294 The Nulification Crisis 1820s- south feared federal encroachment on the rights of the states Also a strengthened commitment to preservation of slavery SC talked about the protective tariff to keep slavery out of the political limelight Their stance: in favor of a state veto power over federal actions that went against their interests Tariffs increased prices that asouthern agriculturists paid for manufactured goods and threatened to undermine their foreign markets by inciting counterproduction VP Calhoun- leader of states rights in South Carolina After passage of tariff of abominations in 1828- new duties unconstitutional State legislatures endorsed a statement written anon. by Calhoun that affirmed the right of a state to set aside federal law (nulification) Early in term- Jackson was okay with souths position on state v. federal power Vetoed a major internal imporovements bill in 1830 that invoked a strict construction of the Constitution to deny federal funds for the building of Maysville Rd. in KT Feud b/w Calhoun and Jackson developed Jackson thought Calhoun and wife were prime movers in ostracism of Peggy Eaton, and Calhoun advocated punishing Jackson for incursion into FL Became clear that Van Buren would become successor to Jackson, not Calhoun (he was losing favor, but he wanted to be president) Intensified the twos confrontation over nulification and the tariff

Two men differed on matters of principle as well; Jackson opposed nulification as a threat to the survival of the union 1830-1831: Movement against tariff gained momentum in SC w/ Calhouns support 1832 Congress passed a tariff that lowered that slightly lowered rates but still retained principle of protection Nulification supporters: no genuine relief could be expected from Washington SC called a special convention; members voted to nulify tariffs and forbid collection of duties within the state Jackson alerted Secretary of War for possible military action, issued proclamation denouncing nulification as a treasonous attack of the Union, and asked Congress to vote him the authority to use military action to enforce the tariff Force Bill- gave President military powers he wanted and the compromise tariff of 1833 Latter was work of Henry Clay SC suspened nulification ordinance in prospect of lower tariff and in Jan. 1833 rescinded it after new tariff was enacted; however they nulified the Force Bill Nulification crisis showed SC wouldnt tolerate any federal action that seemed contrary to their federal interests or raised doubts about institution of slavery Other south states hadnt developed fear about future of slavery Some farsighted southern loyalists were alarmed by Unionist doctrines that Jackson suggested in his proclamation against nulification He aserted more than any other president federal govt. supremacy The Bank War and the Second Pary System Bank War- Jacksons successful attack on Bank of the United States (BUS) Mr. Biddles Bank BUS always caused controversy; especially during Panic of 1819 by extending credit freely and suddenly calling in its loans; many attributed it to cause of following depression Nicholas Biddle- Banks president in 1823; institution regained public confidence A very able president, understood banking and currency very well Relied too much on his own judgement; arrogant Criticism: unconsitutional, monopoly Blamed for anything that happened to economy The Banks Veto and Election of 1832 Jackson came into office with strong reservations against banking and paper money Also thought the Bank of the United States ilicitly used their influence on behalf of his opponent Jackson called on Congress to discuss modifications to the Bank Jackson was listening to his kitchen cabinet (unofficial cabinet) when they said an attack on the BUS would provide a good party issue for the election of 1832 Biddle- panicked- tried to seek recharter by Congress four years ahead of schedule The bill for recharter angered Jackson and turned his administration and party against renewal Many supporters in Congress, however, and passed with ease Jackson vetoed the bill and said Bank was unconsitutional

Called on common people to help him fight this monster Congress attempts to override veto failed and Jackson was to take this issue to the campaign Killing the Bank I. Successful Jackson now wants to end the second BUS 1. BUS had used political influence in self-defense, but Jackson saw its actions as personal attacks 2. Jackson did not agree with Van Buren; he did not believe 2-party systems were legit (his opponents were evil) 3. His win convinced him that he was chosen to preserve Jeffersonian republicanism and end the bank II. Resistance from Cabinet 1. Removing deposits from BUS was a struggle 2. Jackson shifted two Sec. of Treasury before settling on Roger B. Taney (someone who undoubtedly agreed with him) 3. 1833-Taney moves funds in BUS and puts them in 23 selected state banks (hasty-no real plan from Jackson after stopping BUS funds) -These banks are seen as pet banks that were chosen for political reasons -Congress refused to regulate these banks credit policies-->Jacksons attempt to shift to a hard money economy failed anyway since pet banks recklessly extend credit+increase circulation money 4. BUS responds by calling in loans and implementing credit contraction (helps bring economic recession) -Biddle hoped to win support for a recharter of BUS ( shows BUS needed for a strong economy) -Causes economic distress to maintain power of BUS 5. Strong opposition to Jacksons policies -Henry Clay says Jackson violated BUS charter when he withdrew funds -Senate approves measure of censure (House blocks it) -Senate refuses to confirm Taney as Sec. of Treasury -Some original Jackson supporters no longer like him since he went to far in asserting his offices powers The Emergence of the Whigs I. New Party (Whigs) 1. Same group that wanted censure 2. Mostly Nation Republican led by Clay and ex-Federalists led by Daniel Webster -Also support from S. that wanted state rights who didnt like nullification and thought Jacksons actions concerning BUS were unconstitutional (abuse of power) -Even Calhoun would cooperate with Whigs at times 3. Executive usurpation, Whig label chosen due to association with US and English opposition to royal power -Portray Jackson as King Andrew 4. Anti-Masonic Party absorbed

-NE in 1820-30s, after hysteria around murder of NYer who had threatened to reveal Masonic secrets -Capitilize on fear of secret societies, appeal to evangelical Protestant morals -Dont like Jackson-too much tolerance of diverse lifestyles, want to restrict sinful behavior (drinking, gambling, etc.), want moral+religious uniformity -adds cultural dimension to Whigs 5. Election of 1836 approaches, urban working class Democrats mad about fiscal policies 1. NYC-faction breaks out over banking and currency disagreements 2. Called Loco-Focos , want hard money system and think moving funds to state banks caused inflation 3. Want workers paid in specie over banknotes and disapprove of BUS and state banks 4. Still dont agree with Whigs, SEPARATE PARTY, Equal Rights Party, nominate separate state ticket in election 6. Jackson also like hard money, but saw state deposits as stopgap measure 1. Surrenders to Congress-1836, surplus federal revenues to deposit banks, increases their numbers, and weakens federal control over them -Causes huge inflation -State banks in S and W responded to land-speculating interests by printing new money 2. As a result, Jackson pops the bubble -1836 (july 11)-specie circular, only gold and silver used to pay for public lands, curbs inflation -so drastic that it helps start Panic of 1837 Rise and Fall of Van Buren I. Jackson chose Van Buren to succeed him 1. VB promises to follow in Jacksons footsteps 2. New Whig Party elects Webster, Harrison, and Hugh Lawson as candidates (throw election into House) 3. VB still wins electoral college -Still, in the S. the Whigs had managed to win some votes and implement a two party system II. VB in office 1. Depression-price of cotton fell, banks suspend specie payments, bankruptcy, unemployed protest, public lands became defiects 2. Panic of 1837-international in scope, yet the Whigs still blamed it on Jacksonian finance and the administration -VB committed to laissez-faire theory so all he could do was remove federal funds from the now shaky state banks -VB proposes a public depositary not connected to banking, the Whigs disagree and want another BUS-their resistance held up Independent Subtreasury Bill for 3 yrs but it passed in 1840 3. 1838-brief relief from panic, deeper depression next yr

III. Election of 1840 1. VB chance hurt by economy 2. Whigs more organized, but instead of chosing Clay as candidate they pick William Henry Harrison (of Tippecanoe fame), John Tyler is his VP 3. Whigs campaign hard and even portray VB as aristocratic->huge turn out to vote 4. Whigs win in a landslide, even get control in Congress 5. Policy and hoopla did not decide the election, the Whigs economic plan (new version of Clays American System) offered hope -Revive BUS for stability, raise tariffs to protect jobs, distribute federal revenue to states for internal developments to stimulate commerce+jobs 6. Whigs victories on the state and local levels show that supporters liked the party+program, not just the candidate or hoopla Heyday of the Second Party System I. Second Party System-came out in election of 1840, was a normal part of electoral politics (unlike Federalists v Republicans), the parties were on equal terms and allegiance to a certain party was important and interesting pg. 299-301 In addition to drama and entertainment, parties offered voters differences in ideologies Whigs- positive liberal state- govt. had right and duty to subsudize or protect enterprises that could contribute to economic growth had industrialists who wanted tariff protection, merchants who wanted internal improvements as a stimulus to commerece, and farmers and planters evangelical Protestant Strong support among Protestants of old stock living in smaller cities Welcomed market economy but wanted to restrain the individualism and disorder it created by enforcing Puritan values Loose contrustruction&fed. support for business and econ. development Orderly progress under guidance of enlightened elite Propertied, well educated, and pious were responsible for common good Had no qualms about rise of commercial and industrial capitalism Democrats- negative liberal state- govt. should stay away from economy; favored the average citizens rights like smaller farmers, workers, and emerging entrepreneuers Democratic rhetoric appealed to those had mixed/negative feelings about rise of national market economy Voters more likely attended ritualized service like Catholic, Lutheran, or Episcopalian, or didnt go to church at all favored by immigrants, Catholics, freethinkers, backwoods farmers, and people who liked the new moral standards all wanted to have no restrictions on their thinking or how they behaved Strict construction, states rights, laissez-faire, personal liberty and white male equality Ambivalent about rise of market economy Division organized richer citizens against poorer/ less socially or economically secure

Still didnt follow a class line in any specific ways (many businessmen were Democrats and a lot of wage earners voted Whig) Conclusion: Tocquevilles Wisdom Alexid de Tocqueville (French traveler)- visited U.S. in 1831 and 1832; thought essence of American democracy was local self-government Was aware of limitations of American democracy: foreshadowed nulification crisis would destroy the Union, didnt like womens position in society, disliked sufferings of Natives (said we were prejudiced against people of color too) Said democracy was only for certain people in our society pg. 496-501 The Bonanza West B/w 1850 and 1900- rush of newcomers in West looking for fertile prarie lands and to get rich Consequences- uneven growth, boom and bust economic cycles, and wasted resources, rise of instant cities like Denver, San Fran, and Salt Lake City The Mining Bonanza Many wanted to get rich in gold and silver CA Gold Rush of 1849 started mining boom Placer Mining- a way to reach the gold; required little skill, capital, and technology Mining became expensive (out of reach of normal miners) so big companies stepped in Comstock Load- Strike of almost pure gold and silver found in Nevada; drifter named Henry Comstock talked his way into partnership in the claim Virginia City- tumultuous mining town; Mark Twain was there Big Bonanza- biggest strike yet; seam of gold and sliver more than 54 ft long founded by John Mackay and 3 partners Worth over $300 million; Mackay became richest man in the world Black Hills rush (1874-1876)- final fling of rushers; army tried to keep miners out (was a Sioux hunting ground); most lawless of all mining camps Camps organized by simple democracy; organized a mining district and adopted rules governing behavior in it camps mostly made of men who can rough it Chinese Exlusion Act of 1882- one of many acts of hostility against foreign miners By early 1890s- bonanza was over Gold from the Roots Up: The Cattle Bonanza Cattle ranching dominated the open range- TX panhandle north into Canada Vaqueros created branding, raching, and roping of cattle Cattle came from Mexico too Problem- getting beed to eastern markets Joseph McCoy- took cattle to railheads in Kansas to solve problem (enormous profits) Chishom- most famous trail (from s. Texas to Ellsworth) Dodge City- prime shipping center James Jim Perry- renouned black cowboy who worked for more than 20 yrs as rider, roper, and cook for XIT ranch

Before each drive, cowboys drew up rules (much like miners who were also beyond the law) By 1880, cattle boom slowed down when farmers planted wheat on old buffalo ranges and barbed wire divided up ranches; more ranches opened up north 1885- presidential order ordered cattle ranchers out of Indian Territory (began overcrowding cattle in the north) Winter of 1886-1887 terrible- temp. was -45 degrees and cattle couldnt graze on the frozen ground (many died) Melting snow produced lush grass for cattle business recovery By 1900, more ranches switched to sheep; cattle industry dying out pg 502-507 last sec. cont. The days of open range end due to Homesteaders Sodbusters on the Plains: The Farming Bonanza after 1870s many farmers move W. for new life-some lucky, some not farmers cultivate historic amounts of land, huge population increase farms took predictable patterns westward (slumps during depression of 1870), freak high amounts of rain gave false impression of good farmland for a while Exodusters:blacks who fled S. (Black Codes, beatings, murders) move to John Browns home state of Kansas-->farmers, laborers and women were in fields, houses, washed clothes for money too, still some prejudice but ok Other blacks go to Oklahoma to make first black state, movers kept family, customs, some self-gov. for first time ever Farming on plains was hard-little surface water, wells deep and expensive to drill, windmills to bring water to surface expensive too, lumber scarce Built sod houses with cloth windows-cheap, no other materials Few neighbors (too far), windy, lonely winter=bad storms, summer=hot and very harsh rain (hurts young corn), grasshoppers ruin crops and block sun New Farming Methods 1874-cheap barbed wire made (fencing) Dry Farming: plow deep furrows and use dust mulch to slow down evaporation in soil Wheat that could take hard winters imported from Europe-1881 milling centers for new process flour 1877-James Olivers chilled iron plow wont clog thick praire soils other tools also help (ex: lister plants and covers at once) 1866-first baling press, hay loader-1876 1878-corn binder is first successful harvester threashers popularized due to lots of grain 1890-loads of corporations make farm tools, scientific farming also grows (Samuel Johnson finds nitrogen as fertilizer) Hatch Act (1887): support agricultural experiment stations that spread findings to farmers-->lots of reports published late 1870s-Bonanza Farms: new machines and financed by outside capital

Oliver Dalrymple was a bonanza farmer, HUGE farms bonanza farm production is dazzling, inspiring to country until drought in 1885-90--> big farms were not as instense or diversified as small ones so they go bankrupt Dicontent on the Farm Oliver H. Kelley (clerk in Dep. of Agriculture) founds National Grange of the Patrons of Husbundry (aka the Grange):provides social, cultural, educational activites for members not supposed to get involved in politics but liked railroad regulation anyways The Grange grows during the depression of 1870s in Midwest/S. , set up cooperative stores, grain elevators, warehouses, insurance companies, farm machinery factories (many failed but the organization made its mark Shoot-off groups like Farmers Alliance pick up followers after the Grange Farming boom ends after 1887 due to droughts Angry farmers leave the West and go home The (now unhappy) farmers had changed American culture-thr state past Mississippi River was the garden land (not Jersey...) CA had fruit/wine/wheat, Mormons in Utah irrigate, TX beef, wheat from Minnesota, Dakotas, Montana, Colorado--surplus exported Farmers more commercial and scientific, hard work Mail allows them to enter the world sphere The Final Fling Pressure grew to open Natives Oklahoma (last Native territory) to settlers March 1889: Congress forced Creek and Seminole tribes to give up rights to the land, Pres. Benjamin Harris announces it will open on April 22, 1889 Opening of the last territory was a huge deal-LOTS of people went Literally overnight the place was populated by the Boomers (wait for signal) and Sooners (cheated) Conclusion: The Meaning of the West Between Civil War and 1900 there was a great migration Natives driven into less and less land while mines, farms, ranches, cities took over the west frontier line almost gone the move shaped customs, character, independence, self-confidence, and invidiualism Invention and adaption important Turners Thesis: previous themes plus family, community, race, ideas from Europe--men women children had same roles in E as did in W Rejecting turners view new Western historians claim white settlers conquered (not settled) the west Different race waves (white, black, mexican, asian) interact with natives and produce modern west--did not end in 1890 since people kept migrating even after Image of frontier/west influenced american development: attracts immigrants from everywhere, mines/farms/forests fuel economy/feed people/raw materials, Mexicans and Natives still influence culture West was first American empire and affected American mind and imagination pg. 518-520

Problems of Growth Big problem of overbuilding Competition was severe and managers fought desparately for traffic Albert Fink (manager of the Louisville & Nashville) tried first to arrange pooling agreements to manage the competition Eastern Trunk Line Association- divided traffic among four trunk lines; legally unenforcable so people depended on hand-shake agreements Special rates granted to customers increased throughout the first 6 mo. in 1880 Throught purchase, lease, and merging, managers gobbled up competition and dominated entire regions Many of these expensive systems fell in the Panic of 1893 (Union Pacific, Santa Fe, Northern Pacific) Needing money, railroads asked banks for help; J.P. Morgan arranged a trafficsharing agreement and collected a million-dollar fee (brought stability to the system) In 1893, he took control of railroad system His methods were direct: ruthlessly cut costs, issued new stock to provide capital, rates were stabilized, and competition was eliminated; he took over half a dozen railroads An Industrial Empire New industrial empire based on a number of dramatic innovations (steel, oil, and other inventions) Steel: harder and more durable than other types of iron, permitted construction of longer types of bridges, taller buildings, stronger railroads, deadlier weapons, etc The Bessemer process- developed by Henry Bessemer in England and William Kelly in US; blast of air forced through molten iron burned off carbon and other impurities resulting in steel of a better quality (began mass production of steel) Carnegie and Steel Bessemer plants demanded excessive raw materials and capital (research departments also became integral parts of the plant later) PA, Ohio, and Alabama became distinct steel districts Pittsburgh- center of the industry In 1900, US produced 4x the amount of steel that Britain did Iron ore was abumdant in Lake Superior Powered lifts, self loading devices sped up process of extracting iron ore Carnegie Steel Company produced more than 1 million tons of steel a year Vertical integration- a type of organization in which 1 company owns and controls the entire process from the unearthing of raw materials to sale of final product Andrew Carnegie- master of the industry started as Thomas Scotts (was a railroad owner) personal telegrapher spent 12 yrs on the PA training ground for company managers

last sec. cont. Carnegie made good investments and built the J. Edgar Thomas Steel Works on the Monongahela He was friendly and got partners like Henry Frick and Charles M. Schwab Wages of workers low, disliked unions, crushes violent strike with Frick in 1892 1878-contract for steel for Brooklyn Bridge, Homestead works near Pittsburgh churn out steel for railway, skyscrapers, Washington Mounument-more steel than all of England 1901-Carnegie wants to devote time to charity and sells company to rival J. Pierpont Morgan (Federal Steel), message delieverd by Schwab, no problems (half a billion bucks) Morgan (1903) absorbs even more-United States Steel Corporation-first billion dollar company, controls of countrys steel More giants come: Bethleham Steel, Republic Steel, National Steel Steel was a hug product though it was new Rockefeller and Oil Petroleum lubricates machienes, kerosene good for light-night life popularized Oil boom was fast 1850s petroleum was annoying, clever entreprenuers bottle it into medicines or burn it, drilling leads to oil pockets underground 1859-Edwin L. Drake drilled first oil well in Titusville, PA and black gold fever struck Chemists transform petrol into lube oil, grease, paint, wax, ect. Growth in oil industry was chaotic-drillers and refiners made local markets, drilling and refineries were cheap to make so competition grows and prices fluctuate, refineries near drilling in Pittsburgh/Cleveland John D. Rockefeller builds Standard Oil Company at age 24 He sees competition as wasteful, small scale industry as inefficient,and consilidation as good Rockefeller absorbed/destroyed his competition, lacked Carnegies charm, religious, likes efficiency/cost cutting/tech Attention to every detail, small reductions=big savings in big industries Chemist Herman Frasch (Standard employee) finds solutions to oil refining issues Threatens rivals, bribes politicians, harassment, extorts railroad rates (cheap transport), undercut competitors-by 1879 he controlled 90% of sector Standard Oil was vertically integrated and exported across the globe-its tin cans of kerosene were symbolic To organize the busniess trusts were developed Standards lawyer, Samuel C. T. Dodd set up Standard Oil Trust with board of nine trustees to manage all the properties of the company Stockholders exchange stock for trusts -Jan 2, 1882 the first modern trust born, centralized control of the empire

Competition disappeared, profits soar, other industries (big ones like whiskey/sugar) develop trusts too Trust came to mean monopoly, anti-trust meant generation of reformers Rockefellers trust actually just organized an already existing monopoly 1890s-Rockefeller also made the holding company, a NJ law let him buy other companies so he moved center there and bought stock of companies to get control-mergers he did this b/c trusts were being debated and were cumbersome Other companies (American Sugar Refining, Northern Securities Company, National Biscut Company) also use mergers By 1900 1% of companies control of production Rockefeller retired in 1897 (RICH), still the most expansive period for Standard Oil yet to come, since oil pools in TX OK not yet found Days of plastic and oil engine yet to come The Wage Earners labor, along with entreprueners, shape new industrial society wages rose, better conditions, better health/education services, still hard Working Men, Women, and Children Earned $100 less than needed for family of 4 if unskilled, miners/less skilled jobs payed higher in the west Few holidays/vacations, skilled workers had luxury (get stuff read to them) but others had to work hard all the time Bad safety standards make work dangerous, accidents very common (especially in US), railroad was deadly, chronic illness from dust/chemicals/pollution, 1900s Dr. Alice Hamiltion found connection between jobs and disease Breadwinner=woman or child (more of each were getting jobs) Textile industry hires many women, large amounts of children worked as well in several industries (under 15) Child labor=under 14, boys paid little but still more than girls, who were expected to get married and quit (just working to help families now) Most working women were 16 or 17, worked about 6 yrs, then got married and quit Few married white women employed, many (married) black women worked They were on small farms, laundresses, servants, or clerics (then secrataries/clerks at stores (b4 these were male jobs)) Very few women became ministers, lawyers, doctors Arabella Mansfield was first woman lawyer (1869), still many law schools dont accpet women Professionally educated women became teachers, nurses, librarians->feminization occured where women were majority of workers, men took management jobs, then left and lowered the professions status

Men got payed more and women generally worked more maternal jobs (clothes, textiles, food, tabacco, shoes, sewing/finishing), men got big jobs, women belong at home anyways Working was hard, teaching was a drain on the teachers paycheck (rent room), long days for every job (esp. factory-work hard, earn little) adults earn more than kids, native born more than immigrants, Protestants more than Catholics/Jews, whites more than blacks/asians -last section cont women made a little less than half of what men did White Protestant American men made the most money in the industrial society blacks were the last hired and the first fired the Chinese Exclusion Act prohibiting the immigration of Chinese workers for 10 years Culture of work In almost all groups, industrialization shattered age-old patterns including work habits and the culture of work people adopted pre-modern patterns of labor adaption was difficult Women and men from farms not accustomed to factory's disciplines (work indoors rather than out, paced themselves to the clock, and followed the needs of the market) as industries grew larger work became more impersonal Stephen Thernstrom- half of the people recorded in any census still lived in the same community 10 years later (restless people) most business leaders came from middle-class families laborers were more likely to rise on the social class ladder Chance for advancement vital role in American industrial development 540-546 The Lure of the City Cities full of life/art, new symbol of America Cities grew/were made very quickly-by 1920 a half of the pop. lived in cities Contrast to the millions of years it took to build cities in the past, they just popped up here (ex: Philly, NYC, Chicago) Skyscrapers and Suburbs steel+glass=skyscrapers, streetcars=suburbs before steel, buildings could not be tallers than 12 stories, cities were in small areas (need to walk everywhere), church steeples were the highest things around lighter curtain walls covered the new steel building-Home Insurance Building in Chicago was first metal frame building in US (1885) John Root and Louis Sullivan of chicago led a new movement in architectureafter fire in 1871 they realized ornate decorations had fed and move towards modern architecture (simplicity=business)

Sullivan made Chicagos skyscrapers-urban skyline changed, focus on function before form, new rules, trained Frank Lloyd Wright who thinks cities should stretch to the sky 1871-electric elevators used in skyscrapers, streetcars let people move out cable lines, electric lines, elevated transit, streetcars-cities no longer just for walking (mass transit was affordable and cars let the middle-class move to suburbs) Immigrants and working-class left in city, take the old brownstones etc. and turn them into slums (so many people) Streetcar city took away the intermixing of classes, people were now seperated from other groups Tenements and the Problems of Overcrowding Along with skyscrapers, grimy tenements were a staple in cities Jacob Riis (How the Other Half Lives)=famous photographer/writer about immigrants Jame E. Ware (1870) made dumbbell tenement house design, they were common, also know firetraps, crowded NYC super crowded and dark, smelly, poverty 1870-80s, cities smelled horrible due to: horse manure, privy, lack of bathtubs, dumping waste in nearest water bodies then drinking from them Many cities had purifying works but growth was to big to give everyone filtered water Factories polluted city air (like Pittsburgh), false claims that the smog would prevent malaria/lung disease Crime was a big issue: 1880s homicide grew, slum youth made street gangs, suicide and alcoholic rates grew, many more saloons Strangers in a New Land Most city-dwellers moved in from other countries, they knew people already in US so they knew about freedom and jobs, come to escape disease (Italy), genocide (Jews in Russia) By 1890, 15% of population was foreign born Most immigrants were men (15-40 yrs old), looking for jobs, unskilled laborers, settle in the East, overcrowding in eastern cities 1901-Industrial Relocation Office made to deal with overcrowding-Galveston, TX port opened (many Russian Jews go there) still most prefer shorter and familar path to Ellis Island (stay in North or East, settle with others of their religion/nationality) Immigrants surprised by electric lights, indoor plumbing, soda fountains, streetcars, plush train seats in every car, ice cream, lemons, bananas Relatives took them to stores like Woolworth to buy American clothes; immigrants felt like America was safe Big cities (like NYC) were mostly immigrants or descendants of immigrants 1880s, chief source of immigrants switched from north western Europe to south eastern Europe (greece, italy, poland, russia, austria-hungary)

they were new immigrants: usually catholic or jewish, unskilled (like old immigrants), spoke strange languages, poor/uneducated, stuck together, clung to religion/culture/language/customs Mainstream society troubled: could they assimilate?, did they have American values?--> groups like American Protective Association (anti-catholic) form in 1890s and fight immigration Insulting names for immigrants made (wop/dago=italian, bohunk=bohemian/hungarian/slavs, greaseball=greeks, kike=jews) pg. 547-550 -last section cont. Anti-Catholicism and Anti-Semitism flared up again 1889- head of the Fresh Air Fund that sent NYC children on vacation to the suburbs noted that no one asked for Italian children Immigration Restriction League wanted a literacy test for immigrants from southern and eastern Europe (president vetoed) Immigrants and the City Industrial capitalism tested immigrants and placed strain on their families Immigrants had the nuclear family structure too: fathers worked, women cared for home Margaret Byington- studied that fathers played small role in child rearing or managing familys income Jane Addams discovered that women wanted mens paycheck unopened and given to them Immigrants shaped their city as much as it shaped them; tried to hold onto parts of their old culture while adapting new life Immigrant associations offered partnership in strange places to lose in similar situations Deutsch-Amerikanischer Nationalbund- largest of immigrant associations Many groups exclusively for immigrant women Polish National Alliance- offered financial help to immigrants, established libraries and youth programs, and organized trips back to Poland Major cities had many foreign languagage newspapers First one published in Lithuanian Taught immigrants how to vote and become citizens Religious institutions were of the utmost importance to immigrants: Eastern European Jewish immigrants established synagogues and created religious schools wherever they settled; some institutions taught children about their own heritage and American life The House that Tweed Built Political machines traded favors for votes Headed by the strong boss Tweed William Tweed headed the Tweed Ring in New York New York County Courthouse (house that Tweed built) was designed to cost $250k but bills ran higher to $13 million

Still, bosses were not the only ruling figure in the city; bankers, real estate investors, investors, etc. played roles in governing the city In retrospect, city governments were fairly successful Created Central Park, Brooklyn Bridge, Bostons largest public library, Some bosses were noted for honesty; like Honest John Kelly (kept taxes low), Voters kept bosses in power because immigrants who voted had little experience and were vulnerable to being bought over Tweed would find immigrants jobs, donated food and clothing to immigrants, and run picnics for slum children all at the taxpayers expense Social and Cultural Change, 1877-1900 Cities change American life: morals, families, life expectancies, education, tech., new of world travels faster Some people work harder than ever before, others have more free time Old issues (economy, race) not answered, but after Reconstruction ppl want new issues Population grows (by alot), mostly white protestants from Anglo-Saxon countries in Europe (WASPS), one-tenth of pop is black, a few Asians, some natives 1900: most ppl still live on farms, better health care=longer lives (if white), fewer kids clapboard houses in small towns, set apart from road, front porch, outhouse, backyard, gardens (even in cities) People eat heavy meals (and get fatter): lots of courses, homegrown produce in summer and ship it in winter-->shipping fresh fruits, canned food, icebox, ice cream Louis Pasteur finds germs=disease leads to microbiology+better medicine/eventual vaccines Still, TB/typhoid/diphtheria/pneumonia (though curable) were leading causes of death, infant mortality slowly starts to decline Few hospitals, no insurance, patients stay at home Medical practices like surgery are safer and easier (anesthetics like cholorform/ether and antiseptic practices that prevent disease) Psychology was new, William James starts behavioral psych (environment is important) Manners and Mores Strict standards for dress, morals, manners, sexual behavior in Victorian Age Kids t be seen and not heard, speak only when spoken to Older boys and girls chaperoned but they still snuck off (spin the bottle, smokes), still some stick to the morals Gentlemen of middle class wore heavy black suits, derby hats, white shirts w/ paper collars Women wear corsets, long dark dresses, over-the-ankle black shoes

By end of century, sports (like tennis,golf biking) make loose clothes more fashionable (shirtwaists, long skirts, no corsets) Religion and politics important, mostly Protestants, then Catholics, Evangelists had revivals in colleges Slavery abolished so new issues Mugwumps want to end corruption in politics 1874: Womens Christian Temperance Movement (WCTU): led by Frances E. Willard, big+spread out group NYC: Anthony Comstock made Society for Suppression of Vice-->Congress passes Comstock Law (1873): prohibits mailing of lewd articles, fails b/c these articles were everywhere Leisure and Entertainment 1870s: ppl wake up early, bathe, school, housewifes market daly (no fridges), in evening famiy gathers in second parlor/living room, did lessons, bible, games Popular games were cards, dominoes, backgammon, chess, checkers, author cards/magic lantern to review art/history/literature Outdoor games=croquet, first one for both sexes, good for courtship Old songs, then ragtime (said to be vulgar), then classic (symphonies come) music popular Travelling circuses in big and small towns-brought songs, jokes relieved dullness Fairs, horse races, balloon ascensions, bike tourneys, football, baseball get avid fans 1870-1900:rise of organized spectator sports, due to rise of cities and free time Baseballs first pro-team is Cincinnati Red Stockings (1869), soon it is most popular sport nationwide pg. 553-555 -last section cont. Modern rules adopted; umpires designated to call balls and strikes, fielders had to catch ball on the fly 1901- Anerican League organized 1869- Princeton and Rutgers played in first football game Boxing- popular topic of convo was outlawed in most states; fights held in secret for a while; matches were long and bloody John L. Sullivan- era's most popular champ leisure habits changed- with advantage of technology, people stayed at home less often (dance halls, evening strolls) Changes in Family Life On the farm- parents and children worked more or less together and the family was a producing unit In factories- family members rarely worked together

working-class families lived in complex household units that took in all relatives and boarders to pay the rent As many as of all households had people who were not members of the immediate family Middle-class wife and children became isolated from world of work Middle-class fam became more self-contained Older children spent more time in adolescence and periods of formal schooling were longer By end of century, most middle-class offspring cont. to live with parents into their late teens and 20s Separate sphere of domesticity- fewer middle class wives participated directly in their husbands work; set apart from the masculine sphere of income-producing work Home became walled garden sanctuary Middle class fathers began moving family to suburbs and commuted to work on streetcar Family took on new emotional and ideological responsibilities Family became more important as means of social control- new burden on wives Status of housewives declined under the factory system (which emphasized money rewardsand devauled household labor Major decline in fertility rates (1800-1939); people married later and had fewer children Some women to devote more time to less children Increase in number of young unmarried women working for wages or attending school Decline in rates of premartial pregnancy Decline in fertility stemmed from peoples responses to the social and economic forces around them- rise of cities and industry Changing Views: A Growing Assertiveness Among Women Growing recognition of self-sufficient women (employed in telephone factory, exchange or business office) 1882- Census Bureau took first census of working women (out of necessity, not choice) Many regarded new woman as a corruption of the ideal vision of the American woman Femme couverte- wives couldnt legally control their own earnings, property, or children unless they had drawn up a specific contract before marriage Cases of divorce- recognized womens rights to custody or joint custody (rates more than doubled during last of century) Women fought for the vote, lobbied equal pay, and sought self-fulfillment Charlotte Perkins Gilman (Women and Economics) joined other women in questioning the ideal of womanly innocence

Edward Bliss Footes Plain Home Talk of Love, Marriage, and Planning- best seller that went through many editions; challenged Victorian Notions that sex was unhealthy National American Woman Suffrage Association- Susan Anthony formed; worked for enfranchisement of women Ladies Anti-Beef Trust Association- formed to protest increases in price of meat; boycott in butcher shops Set fire to butcher shops when demands were ignored pg. 560-562 The Stirrings of Reform Social Darwinism- based on writings of Herbert Spencer; applied Darwins evolutionary theories and applied to real life; social selection and survival of the fittest Follower: William Graham Sumner (prof. of political science and social science at Yale; What Social Classes Owe to Each Other- govt. action on behalf of poor interfered w/ evolution and sapped the species (tampered w/ laws of nature) Its influence has been exaggerated,but had some influence in hands of important people Came under increasing attack in religion, economics, politics, literature, and law Progress and Poverty Henry Georges Progress and Poverty led to critical appraisal of American society George was born to a poor Philly family and was self-educated as an economist; Disturbed by Depression of 1870s and railroad strikes, saw modern society as sadly flawed; proposed a single-tax that would replace all other taxes and only tax an unearned increment that caused prices of land to rise Simplistic and unappealing- but raised questions that needed to be answered New Currents in Social Thought Georges emphasis on deprivation in environment excited a country lawyer in Ohio- Clarence Darrow Darrow was sure criminals were made, not born and grew out of bad conditions; wanted to convince people that poverty was the root of crime; rejected Social Darwinism Richard T. Ely and group of young economists poked holes in traditional economic thought Attacked simple faith in laissez-faire and reliance on self-interest as guide for human conduct Accepted a post at Johns Hopkins; assigned graduate students to study labor conditions in Baltimore and other cities John Commons- published 4-volume study History of Labour in the United States

1885- Ely led band of rebels to create American Economic Association- linked social and economic problems; urged govt. intervention in economic affairs Thorstein Veblen saw economic laws as mask for human greed (The Theory of the Leisure Class) Edward Bellamy- dreamed of cooperative society and crime and greed didnt exist Looking Backward- novel protagonist falls asleep in 1887 and wakes up in 2000; finds himself in socialist utopia, govt. owns means of production, citizens share rewards--> followers of book formed Nationalist Clubs to work its objectives Walter Rauschenbusch- Baptist minister; read Bellamy and Georges writings; saw poverty in Hells Kitchen; expounded responsibility of religion to help social reform Churches in 1880s began establishing missions in poor parts of cities William Dwight Porter Bliss- founded Church of the Carpenter Lewis Pease- worked in Five Points area of NY (grim) Alexander Irvine- lived in a flophouse in the Bowery Social Gospel- focused on society as well as individuals, improve social conditions and save souls; sermons called on chuch members to fulfill their social obligations; children excused from sermons, organized into age groups, and encouraged to make church center for social and religious activity Washington Gladden- most active Social Gospel leader; linked Christianity to social life- worked for social salvation Applied Christianity (1886)- denounced competition, urged an industrial partnership b/w employers and employees and called 2 help poor The Settlement Houses Growing number of social reformers living in slums shared Gladdens concerns Appreciated dependency of the poor (think Tweed) Formed settlement houses in slums; to eradicate conditions that caused social dependency Toynbee Hall- model for houses, founded in slums of East London to provide services Stanton Coit borrowed the idea and brought it to America- Neighborhood Guild (Lower East sIDE OF NY)---> idea spread quickly Some settlements: Jane Addams Hull House in Chicago (1889), Robert A. Woods South End House in Boston (1892), and Lillian Walds Henry Street Settlement in NY (1893) Hull House stressed education, offering classes in elementary English and Shakespeare, lectured on ethics, and history of art, and courses in cooking and other manual skillz. straight up g, yo (I wrote this very late at night) Reformers wanted to bridge gap b/w rich and poor, bring education and hope to slums Many settlement workers were women

pg 563-565 last section cont. Addams was a pragmatist, she studied problem before solving it, provide health care, bathing facilities, reading room-Hull House grows over a city block Addams and others study immigrants in tenement houses, study their heritage and teach them English/US history but have festival to preserve their culture too Boston: Robert Woods focuses on school dropouts-->manual training, clubs to keep kids off the streets, and cheap restuarant for the poor Lilian Wald: 1898: first Catholic-run settlement house in NYC, 1900 Bronson House in LA to help mexican americans Florence Kelley and Addams worry about tired children-->Illinois Factory Act of 1893 which mandates 8-hr factory workday for women and kids under 14 Settlement houses, percentage-wise, only attracted a few immigrants Immigrants sometimes resent the middle-class strangers who told them how to live Harriet Vittum (Northwestern University Settlement) was super strict (stopped a dance), sincerly tries to help but sees ppl as ignorant forgieners Addams offers a few programs for blacks, but most settlements didnt after 1900, blacks make own settlements, offer same help as whites (jobs, medical care, concerts, education, etc) Both black and white contribute to urban life A Crisis in Social Welfare depression of 1893 suprises young settlement workers who had just begun helping Hull House made Chicago Bureau of Charities to coordinate emergency relief Kelley led National Consumers League-women can encourage employers for better working conditions old organizations now fail to be effective (like churches, old societies), b/c they try to change not aid ppl, not called on for help New class of professional social workers takes over, unlike church/charity volunteers want to aid and study the poor Gather lots of useful data, like number rooms/ppl/sanitation Studies of poor popular, in 1891 Walter Wyckoff took labor jobs and put finding in The Worker (1897), big for sociology loads of others do this too (like Bu Bois in Philly), women study too, Helen Campbell suggests that factory conditions prepare women for hospital/prison/workhouse William T. Stead visits Chicago 1893 World Fair and studies the city, visits Hull House, tenements, writes If Christ Came to Chicago (1894): calls for civic revival which led to chicagos Civic Federation (make it the healthiest, best governed city)-->charity, morals, laws-->National Civic Federation (1900) reform urban life Conclusion:The Pluralistic Society

US was born in the country and moved to the city US most rapidly urbanizing country Lots of immigrants, bustling cities, by 1920 most Americans lived in cities, half the pop. were not decendents of ppl in the Revolution in cities, several cultures met-pluralistic society, melting pot softened distinctions but society not completely blended The Melting Pot was a play in 1908 that romantized the pluarality like all was well (minorites still struggling) The industrial/urban growth in 1870-1900 was jarring (explotate labor, racial tensions, poverty, a few were very wealthy) At Homestead,Pullman, etc. open warfare vs between capital and labor Reformers turn to state and federal gov to protect human welfare-->this annoys supreme court the depression of 1893 did not help division between poor and rich, could the country make it thru? pg 574-576 Politics of Stalemate 1876-1896:politics was like a religion (even tho really only white men voted), picnics etc., high percentage of voters come to the polls women could only vote in Wyoming, Utah, Idaho, and Colorado, National Women Suffarage Association sues in Supreme Court (1875s Minor v Happersett), but states given right to decide to deny 1877-GA uses poll tax to keep out blacks, 1882-SC uses eight-box law where ballots for sep. offices put in sep boxes (hard for illiterate), 1890-Miss. uses literacy tests (Supreme Court upholds them in Williams v Miss, 1898), 1898-LA uses grandfather clause (men who failed literacy test could vote if their fathers/grandfathers had voted before 1867, all white)-->these practices adopted widely in the S The Party Deadlock the civil war generation still around in 1870-80s, they rose to power in the 1850s, long rule and knew the differences between n/s (and therefore, party) Most of the presidents from 1865-1900 had been in the Civil War, several veterans from both sides into 1890s Party loyalty rooted in Civil War traditions, ethnicity, religion, class distinctions were very strong Voters clung to their old parties, staunch supporters Democrats quickly revive themselves after the war (even tho connected to the Confederacy)-in 1874 they got the House and basically kept it for 20 yrs Dems not on sectional base (the Republicans were), dems were for state rights, decentralization, and limited gov Republicans were for civil rights and military rule, sectional support, use gov to promote morals and wealth Republicans passed the Homestead Act (1862),gave grants to rails, etc., use laws to protect civil rights, want high protective tariff for the infant industries

Nationally most states were decided either Dem (S) or Republican (N), so elections depend on the undecided states:NY, NJ, Conn., Ohio, Indiana, Illinois->they get special attention during elections, lots of candidates came from there (esp. Ohio and NY) The two parties were evenly matched so elections were close-->small mistakes matter so politicians are careful, only twice did the same party have the white house an all of Congress (R in 1888 and D in 1892) The authority of pres had lessened after Johnsons almost impeachment, so ppl looked more at state/local gov than those in DC Experiments in the States State bureaus and commisions made to regulate new industry Lots of commissions overlook the railroad (biggest business) People who shipped with rails (farmers/merchants) want to end rate discrimination, etc. and in 1869 Mass. made first commission to regulate the rail, soon adopted by other states Early commissions were advisory (statistics, published reports to focus public attention) Legislatures in midwest/pacific est. commissions with power to fix rates, outlaw rebates, investigate rate discrimination These new, experimental, commissions, are models for future federal policy Illinois had a very through policy-local merchants upset with rail rate policies so Illinois state constitution of 1870 declares rails public highways thus letting the gov. set max rates and eliminate rate discrimination Munn v Illinois (1877)-Supreme Court rules the Ill. legislation is legal-private property with public interest must be used for common good Court weakens this judgment in Wabash case of 1886-narrows ruling saying that states cannot regulate commerce outside of its borders (only Congress could)-attention back on the federal government Congress passes Interstate Commerce Act of 1887-creates Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)-investigates and oversees railroad activities Act oulaws rebates, pooling agreements, ICC=model for federal commissions today Reestablishing Presidential Power Johnsons impeachment, Grant era scandals, and controversey of 1876 election weaken the presidency presidents fight to restore their power and by 1900, William McKinley does it, late 1890s=birth of modern presidencial power Hayes enters office clouded by the disputed election, called His Fraudulency, still starts to assert his authority as pres Hayes wants reform in the civil service, put reformers in office, orders troops out of S and ends military Reconstruction Wants to get Southern support by getting businessy ex-Whigs to join a national party that would support their economic interests more than Dems-->fails

Hayes committed to gold standard as only sound currency, he vetoes the 1878 Bland-Allision Silver Purchase Act (partial coinage of silver), passed anyways James A. Garfield-Union army hero, Congressman, after Hayes, won close election in 1880 and takes office determined to unite the Republicans Republicans split over polcy over tariffs/South/personality differences) Garfield wants to lower tariff to cut taxes, assert US economic/strategic interests in Latin America Several office seekers, everyone wants a governemnt job and they corner Garfield alot-->this issues provokes a bitter fight with Roscoe Conkiling (who resents some of Garfields choices) Garfield about to leave DC while on the verge of victory v Conkling pg. 577-579 -last section cont Planning to leave for vacation (July 2, 1881), Garfield was shot in the back by Charles Guiteau- a deranged lawyer and disappointed office seeker Died Sept. 19, 1881 and VP Chester Allen Arthur became pres. Arthur- better pres. than many expected; established independence of Conkling Reserved Garfields foreign policy in Latin America, but approved the construction of the modern American navy & worked to lower tariff rates Pendleton Act- reformed civil service; created a bipartisan Civil Service Commission to administer competitive examinations and appoint officeholders on basis of merit Election of 1884- Cleveland narrowly defeated James Blaine because of continuing division in the Republican Party (first Democratic president since 1861) As pres: Cleveland was slow and ponderous,known for honesty, stubbornness and hardwork; vetoed more than of bills presented to him Brought new respectibility to Democrats still tainted by its link with secession Continued Arthurs naval construction program and forced railroad, lumber, and cattle companies to surrender millions of acre occupied by public domain by fraud Committed himself to lowering the tariff- Republicans accused him of undermining American industries; Nominated in 1888 Benjamin Harrison (defender of tariff) Harrison won Republicans In Power: The Billion-Dollar Congress Election of 1888 was most sweeping victory for any party in 20 years although it was a narrow margin Dems wanted to embarass Repub. and block their bills used minority tactics (disappearing quorum rule which let members of the House join in debate but then refuse to answer the roll call to determine where a quorum was present

Used this rule to bring Congress to a halt Jan 29, 1890- fell 2 votes short of a quorum and speaker of House Thomas Reed required that the Clerk recorded who was present and did not vote Tumult continued for days until Republicans adopted the Reed rules and enacted the partys programs Tariffs, Trusts, and Silver Law after law poured out of Republican Congress during 1890 McKinley Tariff Act- raised tariff duties 4% (higher than before) and allowed president to lower duties if other countries did the same Act used duties to promote new industries Dependent Pensions Act- granted pensions to Union army veterans and their widows and children; modest pensions but number of pensioners doubled by 1893 Sherman Antitrust Act- the first federal attempt to regulate big business Declared illegal every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce; didnt effect business until a decade after it was passed Stiff penalties for violation (fines and imprisonment) Only industrialized nation to regulate business combinations United States v. E.C. Knight Co. - first judicial interpretation of the law; E.C. owned 98% sugar refining in country and Court drew distinction b/w commerce and manfucaturing; company as a manufacturer was not subject to the law---> changed after turn of century Sherman Silver Purchase Act- tried to end troublesome problem presented by silver; While not authorizing the free and unlimited coinage of silver that the Free Silver supporters wanted, it increased the amount of silver the government was required to purchase every month Support for silver coinage was strong in the South and West where people thought it might inflate currency, raise wages and crop prices, and challenge power of gold-oriented North The act directed Treasury to purchse 4.5 millions ounces of silver a month in form of Treasury notes---> satisfied both sides Opponents: pleased it didnt include free coinage Finally, Republicans passed federal elections bill to protect voting rights of blacks in the South---> set off a storm among Democrats: DIS IS A FORCE BILL DAT WOULD STATION ARMIES IN R LAND. GIT ER DUN!! Bill failed in Senate; last major effort until 1950s to enforce 15th Amendment pg. 579-584 The 1890 Elections Republican Congress of 1890- one of most important Congresses ever Billion-Dollar Congress labeled by Dems for being the first Congress to spend $1bil 1890 elections crushed Republicans Also lost big in midwest, where Republicans outlawed sale of alcohol

Required closing stores on Sunday- angered Roman Catholics, German Lutherans and deserted Republicans The Rise of the Populist Movement Elections of 1890 drew attention to populism (began quietly in rural areas) Summer of 1890- wagonloads of farm families converted on campgrounds and picnic areas to socialize and discuss problems National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union- formed by recruiters who came to the camps; promised unified action to solve agricultural problems Farmers joined by the buckets The Farm Problem Farm discontent was worldwide Caught up in complex international market they couldnt understand Farmers complained about declining prices of their crops (profits were low, prices of farm commodities fell, but their purchasing power increased) Rising railroad costs complaint not justified; fell during these yrs Not justified- farm mortgages were common because many farmers mortgaged their property to expand their holdings or buy new farm machinery mortgages lasted a short amount of time and could eventually increase their income New England farmers- suffered suffered from overworked land while farmers in Kansas broke in a severe drought that followed period of unusual rainfall "anaconda system"- southern farmers trapped in crop lien system that kept them in debt Farms in the Midwest (1860-1900) farm income rose substantially during 1860s and fell during depression of 1870s Valid grievances for some farmers; most farmers were sure their condition declined and sparked anger Farmers became "hayseeds" as they watched their offspring leave for city careers books- "The Spider and the Fly: or, Tricks, Traps, and Pitfalls of City Life by One Who Knows"- warned against moving The Fast-Growing Farmers' Alliance National Farmers Alliance, NW Alliance, Farmers; Alliance and and Industrial Union AKA Southern Alliance S. Alliance began in TX but didnt get momentum until Dr. Charles Macune took leadership (eventually changed named to Nationa; Farmers Alliance and Industrial Union Published a newspaper, sent lectures, and established cooperative grain elevator, marketing associations, and retail stores (to bring farmers together) Colored Farmers National Alliance and Cooperative Union enlisted black farmers in south, led by Ben Patterson; posse hunted them down and lynched 15 strikers

NW Alliance (1880) similar objectives to S. Alliance but disagreed with its emphasis on secrecy and separate organizations for blacks Former southern alliance dominated alliance movement Kansas Alliance members formed Peoples party Thomas Watson and Leonidas Polk reflected high quality of Alliance leadership Watson urged all farmers to unite against oppressors Polk- scientific farming and cooperative action Jeremiah Simpson- most able of Kansas leaders; pushed for major social and economic change Mary Lease- headed a movement open to women leadership that urged farmers to rise against Wall Street and industrial East Ocala Demands- Adopted by Southern Alliance; Sub-treasury system which would allow farmers to store crops in govt. warehouses and in return they could claim Treasury notes for up to 80% of local market value of crop (loan to be repaid when crops were sold) fARMERS COULD HOLD THEIR CROPS FOR THE BESt price Urged free coinage of silver, end protective tariffs and national banks, a fed income tax, direct election of senators by voters instead of state legislatures, and tighter regulation of railroad companies Alliance leaders claimed 38 Alliance supporters elected to Congress The Peoples Party Northern Alliance Leaders urged formation of national 3rd party to promote reform (S. still reluctant- wanted to be a part of Dem. party) Peoples (Populist) Party- formed by alliance conventions in 1891-1892; S. joined once they gave up hope of wanting to be a part of Dem. party Blacks and whites worked together in populist election committees 1892 black populist threatened to be lynched- took refuge w/ Tom Watson and 2000 white farmers guarded Watsons house until threat was gone Nominated James Weaver for pres. (former candidate on Greenback-Labor Party) Platform- adopted many of Ocala demands Results- first 3rd party movement to get more than 1 million votes, but didnt win S. Democrats used manipulation and fraud to deter Populist voters Also- platform had little appeal to factory workers or city dwellers One of most powerful protest movements in American history The Crisis of the Depression Economic crisis dominated last decade of the century Railroads overbuilt, economy expanded too quickly, companies grew beyond markets, farms and businesses borrowed heavily for expansion The Panic of 1893 Feb- panic hit NY stock markets

Investorys dumped 1 million shares of Philadelphia and Reading Railroad- went bankrupt Scared people quickly sold stocks and other things to buy gold; overwhelming demand for gold emptied gold reserve of U.S. Treasury April 22- first time in since 1870s reserve fell below $100 million Shattered business confidence and stock market broke May 3- railroad and industrial stocks plummeted and several major firms went bankrupt Industrial Black Friday- May 5- Wall Streets Worst day until Great Depression After, bank cut back on loans July 26, Erie Railroad (leading name in railroad history) failed August- factories and mines shut down Orange , NJ- Thomas Edison laid off 240 employees at Edison Phonographic Works Aug. 15- Northern Pacific Railroad went bankrupt; Union Pacific and Santa Fe failed About 2 million unemployed 1894 was worse- GNP dropped AGAIN! unemployment- 3mil.; in S.- price of cotton fell below 5 cents a pound Coxeys Army and Pullman Stike Easter 1894- army of 300 people left Massillon Ohio (headed by Coxey) to put nations jobless to work on building roads Wanted Congress to pass Coxey Good Roads Bill- would authorize printing of $500 million in paper money to finance road construction Marched to Washington; other armies sprang up around the country and joined them to Washington Once he reached Washington- police were everywhere and Coxey was arrested Pullman stike- one of largest strikes in history; employees of Pullman Palace Car Company protested wage cuts, continuing high rents, and layoffs June 26, 1894- American Railway Union under Eugene Debs joined strike by refusing to handle trains that carried Pullaman sleeping cars Within hours, strike paralyzed half of the nation (western) Grain and livestock couldnt reach markets, factories shut down for lack of coal Grover Cleveland (pres) decided to break strike on grounds that it obstructed delivery of the mail pg 585-560 last section cont. July 2, Cleveland ordered court injunction against ARU and sent troops to Chicago The troops got there on the 4th, violence broke out b/c of mobs of nonprotesters They vandalized and looted, overturned cars, burned them

The army restored order, occupied railroad yards in Illinois, CA, and other areas By end of July, the Pullman strike ended a Debs was jailed for violating the injunction-->public applauds Clevelands decision Pullman strike causes working class to resent Cleveland (he sided with railroads, not strikers) Supreme Court (In re Debs-1895) allows injunctions in labor disputes-business ad gov. given an effective weapon vs. labor and hindered union growth in 1890s Strikes failure makes Debs famous, in jail he turns to socialism and in 1900 makes Socialist Party of America The Miners of the Midwest Mining could be deadly, mines closed frequently, and wages were falling Midwestern mining was passed from father to son Required good judgment for when to blast, where to follow seams, and avoid rockfalls Until 1890, English and Irish immigrants dominate the business, go from mine to mine, lived in company shacks, struck for high wages many times (18871894) After 1890, immigration from SE Europe exploded, several Italians/Polish in areas like Coal City, Illinois and other mining towns The depression got worse, so tenson between miners/employess and old miners/new miners grew New=SE immigrants, old=English,Irish New miners often just there to make money before going back home, were not skilled, blamed fr accidents and work more for less pay, disliked by old miners April 1894: wage reductions spark labor unrest in miners, United Mine Workers (struggling, young union) called for a strike--> April 21, all midwestern an PA miners quit-->flow of crucial coal slacks, cities could blackout, factories close Violence breaks out: old miners had unspoken understandings with bosses, but new miners didnt and were more prone to violence in order to win strikes The depression was very hard on the noobs prevents them from going home w/ money quickly-many 1894 strikes turn into war 2 weeks in June 1894, fighting in Illinois, Ohio, Indiana: mobs blow up mines, defy state militias, miners of all backgrounds involved but violence divides old and new miners Spring Valley, Illinois: italian anarchists led strike and incite riots despite old miner oppositon, in another mine new miners prevent old one from putting out an arson Public shocked by violence and turn against strikers, strike was short-lived but had strong mpact Old miners got other job or higher positions, new miners faced racism, in PA and Ill. the state legislatures make laws to keep newbies out of mines

Lots of old miners vote Populist in 1894 (the platform wants reduced immigration), United Mine Workers (old miners) urge Congress to stop immigration (1896) Pullman strike was at the same time as coal strike, even though more miners Coalstrikes show tensions in society,miners in midwest first large group of skilled workers affected by immigrants from SE Europe, still every industry had issues

A Beleaguered President Dems easily won in midterm election of 1890, Grover Cleveland decisively defeats Populist James B. Weaver and incumbant president Ben Harrison in 1892 Dems incease power in cites among working-class, for first time sine 1850 the had control of Congress and White House Dems had broken party stalemate but Panic of 1893 struk when Cleveland took office he believed the Sherman SilverPurchase Act of 1890 had caused the panic: drained the Treasurys gold reserve, damaged business confidence and caused panic Solution: repeal the act June 1893, he summons Congress into a special session: India had just closed silver mints so Mexico was last country with free silver coinagesilverite defensively plead for a compromise but Grover rejects them and pushes repeal bill thru Congress November 1, 1893: signs it into law (if it worked spectacular, if not disaster) Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 was necessaryresponds to reality of international finance, kept more gold in country, and over time boosted business confidence However, it contracts currency where inflation might have helped, economic revival not brought-stock market, business, employment rates, farm priced all horrible The repeal battle in 1893 discredits conservative Cleveland Democrats who had been in charge of party since 1860-reshapes country politics Confines Dems to South, Republicans now majority party (1894), silver Dems stronger bid for presidency in 1896, made silver the issue (Cleveland wanted silver sentiment to go away-backfire) The repeal did not solve the Treasurys gold problem, loses millions of dollars Jan. 1894: Cleveland (desperate) sells $50 million in gold bonds to replenish Treasury, again in November, Feb 1895 again (outrage since he let J. Pierpont Morgan and other bankers get huge profits), fourth bond sale in 1896 again fails to stop drain on reserve and causes silverites to hate Cleveland even more 1894-Dems fail to fulfill promise of lower tariffs

Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act of 1894: slight reductions in duties, lowers tariffs on coal, iron, ore, wool , sugar, ends McKinley Tariff Acts popular reciprocity agreements with other nations, even made some duties higher than ever before small income tax as well Supreme Court overturned income tax in 1895 (Pollock v Farmers Loan and Trust Co.) Few dems were happy with Act, Cleveland passed it w/o signing Breaking the Party Deadlock The Dems were buried in election of 1894-greatest defeat in congressional history Only one Dem (John F. Fitzgerald, JFKs grandfather) elected from New England, dems even lost some of the solid S. and Midwest, the party basically destroyed Populists get labor and unemployed votes in some S. and W., but still not enough for a yr where thousands of voters switched parties (Southers Dems used fraud again to keep Populists down) Overall, discounted voted Republican, not Populist (discouraging for them) Grover a scapegoat for bad economy, he fears attack and places police barracks infront of white house, Democratic Party split and S/W dems left him, he is made fun of Election of 1894=end of party deadlock from 1870s:dems lost, populists got some, and republicans became the majority party Republican views of activism/national authority attractive in the depression, very important b/c Americans now accept use of gov. power to regulate the economy and safeguard individual welfare (allows for progressive era, New Deal, etc) Changing Attitudes Depression cause ppl to rethink traditional views about gov., economy, society Old ideas had failed to fix depression, need new ones In better times, ppl saw unemployment as a sign of laziness/personal failure/low morals, now that view does not work People debate previously agreed upon issues in societies/groups-how to change the status quo, reform wanted and gov. intervention for poor and unemployed ok Everybody Works But Father Women and children had been getting jobs for years, and this trend grew in the depression

 Fathers lost jobs, so more women/kids worked to make ends meet, even in 1901 half of dads out of work, a popular song in 1905 was Everybody works but father 1890s: over a million more women get jobs, they took in boarders, became laundresses, cleaners, or domestics Worked in offices unless factory was only option, female labor cheaper so while men still dominate business offices, women get telegraph/telephone jobs, clerks in stores, nurses, teachers,, stenographers, typists (much higher pay than factory work) About 60% of black women worked, compared to 27% of white/immigrant women Lots more children have to work, under-16s made up a third of mill work 8 and 9 yr olds work 12 hours for horrible wages in factories, still most kids were farming or in city street trades (papers, shoe shining), 1900: S had more than half of child labor 1896:middle-class women worry about child labor and form League for Protection of Family-call for compulsory education to keep kids out of work Mothers Congress of 1896 led National Congress of Parents and Teachers which led to PTAs Other groups took up similar issues, several members work for civil reforms in child welfare, education, sanitation (1890s) Changing Themes in Literature Depression led to realism/naturalism (after Civil War, romanticism was popular) Horatio Alger publishes sever al novels (like Sink or Swim) which talk about young poor people working hard to make it in business Louisa May Alcott (Little Women), Anna Sewell (Black Beauty), Lew Wallace (Ben Hur-about Roman Empire) in late 1800s, all romantic/escapist After 1870s, talented authors shift to realism and study local dialects, real relationships, regions, want true version of life, reflect on broader trends like industrialism, evolutionary theory, pragmatism (relativity of morals) Regionalist authors like Joel Chandler Harris and George Washington Garland talk about south, Hamlin Garland talks about sucky Great Plain life, Sarah Orne Jewett about New England (rural), Bret Harte talks about CA mining camps (famous) Mark Twain became countrys best realistic writer. He was actually named Samuel Langhorne Clemens and grew up near Mississippi River in Hannibal County, Missouri, wrote multiple works based off his own life

experienceces in late 1870-80s (The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn, Life on the Mississippi-Twain worked on steamboats) Twain used dialect, common speech rather than literary language-big change in American prose style, he got international fame William Dean Howells, second famous to Twain, used to write about happy side of life but industrialism changed him to the sadder realism Naturalists impatient with even realism, they follow Darwinian Theory which has a cruel environment that determined human fate Naturalists focus on economic hardship, study poor, low class, criminal mind, wrote like direct/honest social workers Stephen Crane (The Red Badge of Courage, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, in 1890s), depicts carnage of war, unimportance of the individual, he had spent time in a poor lodge which helped him write Frank Norris talks power of big business in 1901-3(The Octopus, The Pit), talk about individual futility vs heartless corporations, breaking down under economic pressure Jack London 1903-4 (The Sea Wolf, Call of the Wild)=power of nature over civilized society
Theodore Dreiser (foremost naturalist) grimly talks about world where ppl are tossed about by forces they cant control/understand Great novel by Dreiser- Sister Carrie (1901), writes about struggles of a poor farmgirl who works in factory Dreiser and other naturalists focus on environment and charcter, thinks writers should tell the truth about human affair (not romantic), sees work as picture of reality not literary work pg 595-597 last section cont. Tom Watson was Bryans VP candidate-being asscoiated w/ Populism prob hurt him (he was a straight-up democrat), Populism seen as a rag-tag party, Dems+Pops argue anyways August 1896-Bryan took his campaign to the ppl (E. press had left him ) This move was legendary:travelled all over country, merchandising form of campaign meant to educate and persuade voters Bryan endorses an older America view: farms even with factories, rural life>city, common ppl had chance, Jeffersonian distrust of authrority, like human reason Republican McKinley let the press and ppl literally come to his porch (they could use the railroad to get to him) McKinley appeals to labor, immigrants, rich farmers, business, middle-class: defends urban industry+economic nationalism

Voter turn out huge: McKinely won, he got cities, NE, and four border states

Election kills the Populists, the party could never win a majority and died in 1896, still their ideas (secret ballots, income tax, crop loans, direct election of senator) carried out by diff. leaders The McKinely Administration Election of 1896 cements voter realignment of 94 and begins over 3 decades of Republican rule (excluding Woodrow Wilson) 1897-McKinely takes office in good conditions: economy was getting better, farm prices up due to bumper crops, gold found in Austrailia and Alaska (and new cyanide process of getting gold from ore) increase the worlds gold supply, decrease its price, and inflate currency the way silverites wanted, for first time in 7 yrs the Treasury showed comfortable gold reserve McKinely and the Republicans now party of progress and prosperity, very popular, unlike Cleveland he was open and accessible (strolled thru town, was first pres to ride in a car, police barracks in White House removed) He was an acitivist president, set the policies of the administration, knew limits of his power so he worked closely w/ Congress, educated the public about issues, talked to press, travelled, like a modern president Congress summoned to special session in 1897 to revise tariff: Dingley Tariff passed, raised tariffs to record level, but it caused trouble for the party-conusmers, critics, and even Republicans wonder if tariff no longer useful in growing US economy 1860-90s, Republicans had said they would promote economy thru state/fed. Gov, by 1900 they regulate effects of industrialism this was a public concern and McKinely liked the focus change but he died before his plans matured McKinely toyed with idea of lowering tariffs but he fact that they were the major source of government income was a problem The Spainish-American War of 1898 persuaded ppl to accept stronger gov, and new forms of taxation, in 1899 McKinely spoke of lowering tariffs in the smaller, more technological, world (globiliazation-ish) 1898-99, the admistration focused on war w/ Spain, the peace treaty after made ppl realize the US now had world power In 1900, Congress passed the Gold Standard: declared gold the standard of currency and ends the 1890s controversy over silver The presidential campaign of 1900 was McKinely v Bryan again McKinely picked Theodore Roosevelt(war hero in Spanish-American War, former gov. of NY, nominated to capitalize on his popularity, enemies want to sidetrack his poltical career), McKinely stressed his record at home and abroad while Bryan stressed issues of imperialism and trusts, McKinely creams him Sept. 6, 1901: McKinely was at a recieveing line at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, where Leon Czolgosz (unemployed laborer and anarchist) shot him, , surgeons couldnt find the bullet even tho the new discovery of an X-ray was at the exposition (it was not used))McKinely died Sept 14, Roosevelt took over, a new century began Conclusion: A Decades Dramatic Changes People worried that a damned cowboy (Roosevelt) was now president The 1890s had political changes, a more powerful presidency, and unrest prompting social change

 The war w/ Spain brought new world responisbilities, economic hardship brought questions about industrialization/urbanization/quality of American life Worried people embrace new ideas an causes-their reform movements expand in the 1900s/Progressive Era Tech changes the way Americans lived: 1896:Henry Ford made his first car, 1899:first car salesroom opens in NY, some ppl already make service stations for cars, in Kitty Hawk, NC: Wilbur and Orville Wright make their plane The 1890s shaped the 19th, 20th, and 21st. centuries pg. 591-594 The Mystique of Silver Sentiment for free silver coinage grew swiftly after 1894 (dominating S and W) Prosilver literature flooded country (wizard of oz) Thought it would be a quick solution of economic crisis Silverites: free and independent coinage of silver at ratio od 16:1; free- US mints would coin all the silver offered to them; Independent- US would coin silver regardless of policies of other nations (on gold standard) Believed amt. of money in circulation determined activity in economy; if $ was short, meant there was a limit on economic activity and ultimately a depression; if govt. coined silver and gold, more $ in circulation and more buis. for everyone 1896- Silver was a symbol of US asserting its independency in the world (reflected rural, not urban, values) William Harveys Coins Financial School- most popular of all silver pamphlets had the eloquent Coin tutoring famous people on the currency Silver was social, political, and economic movement The Republicans and Gold Several Republicans fought for partys presidential nomination- Czar Thomas Reed, William McKinley McKinley- calm and able; Marcus Hanna made McKinley out to be the advance agent of prosperity; favored gold standard vs. free silver coinage Repubs. favoring silver proposed a prosilver platform, but convention defeated it 23 silverite Republicans marched out of convention hall The Democrats and Silver Silver- wanted by people in South and West Pres. Cleveland opposed; democrats became a sectional party anti-Cleveland Democrats had their issue, but lacked a leader; role taken on by Willian Jennings Bryan From outset of 1896 Democratic convention, silver Democrats were in charge and they put together a platform that stunned the Cleveland wing of party Attacked Clevelands actions on Pullman Strike, demanded free coinage of silver July 9 (delegates debated platform) Bryan had a captivating speech and everyone cheered After speech, anti-Cleveland platform was abandoned and Bryan won election Campaign and Election Democratic convention presented Populists with dilemma- thought neither major party would endorse silver Choice: nominate independent ticket and risk splitting silverite forces, or nominate Bryan and give up its separate identity as a party

pg. 609-611 War with Spain War reshaped old ideals in US Left lingering strain of isolationism and anti-war sentiments Established US as dominant force of 20th century A War for Principle Cuba and Puerto Rico- all that was left of Spanish empire Cuba rebelled against Spanish rule before; islands sugar empire was in ruins and Spain kept country alive Cubans tried to get Americans on their side and wage war against Spain General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau of Spain- relentless; gave rebels 10 days to lay down arms Reconcentration policy to move natives into camps and destroy rebellion; Cubans died by the thousands Yellow Journalism- a type of journalism that presents little or no legitimate well-researched news and instead uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism. Cleveland issued proclamation of neutrality Offered to mediate struggle too, but Spain declined McKinley also favored neutrality but leaned towards insurgents change in govt. in Madrid brought temporary lull in crisis Declared amnesty for political prisoners and released Americans from Cuban jails McKinley warned Spain to find humane end to rebellion NY Journal leader of yellow press oublished a letter stolen from Spanish ambassador in Washington which called McKinley weak Few days later, explosion in hull of the Maine and killed 266 ppl Remember the Maine and to hell with Spain! Accidental internal explosion? Ppl still blamed it on Spain McKinley still didnt want war Asked Congress for $50 million in emergency defense appropriations--> approved March27- McKinley cabled Spain his final terms- declare armistice and end reconcentration policy and move to Cuban independence Spain agreed with some things: suspension of hostilities and revoked concentration policy McKinley prepared for war; April 19- Congress passed joint resolution declaring Cuba independent and authorized utilization of army or navy Teller Amendment- US would not annex Cuba April 21, sPAIN SEVERED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS and McKinley declared blockade on Cuba Declaration of war April 25 pg 612-615 McKinely wanted Cuba to be free, Spain to be ok, and peace (as did Spain) but the conflicting national interests still brought them to war A Splendid Little War The war was over in 10 weeks (April to August), filled with US victories and few causualties US military was too small and untrained (unlike the navy, not used to big scale wars Several volunteers to fight in the US army, War Dept. enlists those in National Guard, William Jennings Bryan, Roosevelt, Cordell Hull (Sec. of Navy in 1930) sign up The problem was not a lack of men but an overflow of them Weapons for the newly large army were a problem:regulars had new rifles, but the National Guard had civil war-rifles that used black powder catridges (give off smoke when shot, position is known)

Spanish troops better equipped: smokeless powder US had food and sickness problems: fell behind in supplies and tropical disease kille/weakened many soldiers Soldiers keep town customs and see themselves as part of a (home)town unit in a national army National Guard members have familar social patterns: knew each other so easygoing, knew who was rich, etc. Men dont like officers who try to grab power, like first name basis Communities see their hometown units as extensions of themselves News was uncensored and travelled fast: small town papers are important Women make fabric bands (thought to ward off sickness), medals, ship food and clothing during the war, even local doctors are shipped off to help Smoked Yankees 1898: lots of black troops, of those at Cuba were black Black regiments had distinction but often campaigned vs Natives since the E. did not accept them War Dept. calls for 5 black volunteer regiments-thought that blacks were immune to tropic diseases Most state governments did not accept black volunteers (just Alabama, Ohio, and Mass.) Company L unit from Mass. went to Puerto Rico in 1898-only black volunteer unit in caribbean Black leaders P.B.S. Pinchback (gov of LA) and George White (only black cngressmen) protest discrimination McKiney administration intervenes and volunteer army gets 10 thousad black troops Black troops cheered along on way to Cuba until they got to Kentucky and Tennessee:station resturaunts refuse them, waiting rooms are segregated Some black soldiers not used to this-in TN some shot at bullying whites, forcibly desegreate a railroad car In GA they refuse to ride in segregated cars (trailers attached o trolley)-fights, take down No dogs and niggers sign, chop down a lynching tree in Fl there were segregated saloons, cafes, and drugstore--blacks pistol whip a drugstore owner who refused to serve a black soldier soda, drunken white soldiers fro Ohio shot at a black child so black soldiers fight back (in the end several were wounded) Ironic, sine fighting Spain to free Cubans, when blacks in America were treated bad as well Invasion force sailed wit segregated troopships-confusion of war temoparily ends this (black took command when white officers died, Spanishfear these smoked yankees, staved off defeat for Rough Riders at San Juan Hill Blacks get 26 Certificates of Merit and 5 Congressinal Medals of Honor The Course of the War Naval strategy= destroy Spanish fleet, damage Spainish merchant marne, coast the colonies Excitment-first time 2 steampowered armored fleets would battle Army had to defend US, invade Cuba+Puerto Rico, maybe act in Philippines or Spain Before war began, Sec of War made joint plannin between army and navy Knew size and location of Spanish troops, refuse to send a spy to Cuba during peacetime War Depts Military Information Division knew diagram o Spainsh forts like Havana anyways April 20, 1898-McKinely summons straegists and decides t simply blockade Cuba, send arms to insurgents, annoy Spain w/ small thrusts by the army Victories change this strategy: by May 1, 1898 naval Commodore George Dewey crushed Spain at Manila Bay(Philippines)-now in US grasp and he is a hero-a stunned but happy War Dept sends Dewey troops and on August 13 1898 US wins Philippines McKinely worries about Spanish Admiral Pascual Cerveras fleet (thought to be headed to attack FL)-on May 13 US finds then loses ships, Cevera slips into S. port of Santiago de Cuba but a spy in Havana tells US an on may 28 US Admiral William T. Sampson bottles Cevera up

in june, Marines take Guantanamo Bay-make naval refueling stations and pin down nearby Spanish troops June 14, invasion foce reached Daiquiri Cuba-insurgents and US push forward to Santiago first battle=Las Guasimas, Spanish fall back, July 1 the Rough Riders, blacks, others reach San Juan Hill and El Caney forts-surprise Spain w/ Comanche yells and Roosevelt takes Kettle Hill (next to San Juan) Charge directly into Spanish guns (under Roosevelt), big losses but they won-US occupied Santiago but were sick (luckily the Spanish didnt know and gave up on the city) Spanish command in Havana orders Cevera to escape (he knows its hopeless), on July 3 they leave but every Spanish vessel is destroyed-2 weeks later Santiago surrenders Army troops then easily occupy Puerto Rico (Cevera had commanded only battle fleet but it sunk and Spain was helpless against any attacks), war ends War was 113, few causalities-most died due to accident, malaria, yellow fever, typhoid, navy only lost 2 men pg 621-627 The Open Door US (due to Philippines) now had a stake in Asia, China was weak and easily influenced due to war (1898-99) Japan, England, France, Germany, Russia divide China into spheres of influence-force China to grant concessions that give them exclusive rights to develop particular areas-this threatens US hopes for extensive trade w China 1898-McKinely outlines new China policy-open trade for all-Sec. of State John Hay sends notes to Germany, England, Russia, France, Japan, and Italy asking them to join this Open Door Policy This policy has 3 parts: nations w/ sphere of infuence would respect righs of other nations in the sphere, China continues to collect duties in all spheres(tariffs), nations dont discriminate when levying port an railroad dues in policy, US would keep its comercial advantages, China gets to keep some national authority Britain almost accepts, others like Russia say they will if others do Hay boldly announces in 1900 that all powers had acceped The policy is tested in June 1900 when Boxer Rebellion boke out in Peking (Beijing) Boxers were a secret, nationalistic society that try t oust all foreginers Boxers take Peking and drive foreginers into their legislatons for 2 months-US, Germany, Britain send troops to life siege Hay worries that rebellion gave some nations excuse o expand their spheres of influence-in Jul he sends out more notes affirming US commitment to commercial equality and chinese indepenence first round of notes had recognized chinas independence and second notes express need to preserve it Together, 2 notes=Open Door Policy policy tried to help China, but US was meddling, by committing to a policy that wasnt proected by military the chance fo conflict with Pacific powers lik Japan was left open Feature Essay: The 400 Million Customers of China US independence opened up markets, like China, that Britain had monopolized Dream of selling US products to large Chinese market began 1800s-US moves toward trade w/ China: Sec. of State William H Sewards 1867 purchase of Alaska, HI, and Panama Canal, Philippines 1880-90s: business and political leaders fear that US goods were too much for customers at homeneed new markets or collapse(urgency) Not easy to sell in China: dif. language, far away, restrictive laws: even JP Morgan an E.H. Harriman (railroad magnte) failedin China

James B. Duke (American Tobacco) succeeds since he takes chinese customs into account 1890-ships first cigerattes to China, sales rise, build plants and advertise there, employs some native chinese, some westerners (bachelors under 25) learn chinese and go ($500 bonus if pass langauge exam)-have of tobacco sales in China Rockefellers Standard Oil does the same thing-1/2 of kerosene in China, the tin was famous and used in roofs/walls Progressive Era Americans export major social reforms (believe chinese cant do it for themselves Several organizations try to do things like: give women the vote, improve mail, get radio, prevent floods, open farms YMCA aims to improve schools, settlement houses, sanition, parks, jails, business-holds literacy campaigns, public health, social surveys, helps poor Princeton make settlement house (Princeton-in-Peking), Yale-in-China Medical shool at Changsha (1906) Business leaders encourage Open Door Policy After WW2 ends, attentions to Chin again but 1949 Mao Tse-tung victor closed trade Nixon visitsChina in 1972, Carter fixes relations, China enter WorldTrade Organizationin 2001 China buys US goods but US buys more from china-$202 billion (largest ever) trade deficit is growing Conclusion: Outcome of the War with Spain Rough Rider treated as heros, blacks not as recognized (resent) War set back civil rights-talk o inferior races again, whites in N and S united-outbreak of segregation and lynching after war Republicans hugely popular until1932- scandals like War Dept.conduct and canned beef are minor in a century, US had goe from 13 state to global power that dominated its hemisphere, dealt w/ Europe, an influenced Asia (sewards dream came true) The Progressive Era Muckrakers call for reform 1902-Samuel S. McClure (owner of McClures Magazine) wants his reporters to cover more Magazines now widespread and popular-cheap photoengraved llustrations, ads=income, magazines cheaper McClure sends editor Lincoln Steffens to find out whassup in US-he finds corruption linking business and politics (St. Louis lawyer Joesph W. Folk give him names)-story published=Tweed Days in St. Louis McClure publises more about corruption-Minneapolis, Standard Oil, abuses in labor unions show business+politicians are breaking laws the writers=muckrakers (coined by Roosevelt in 1906), entrall readers, practice of exposing corruption spreads across other mags too (Colliers, The Jungle, The Shame of Cities) 1902-06 pg. 628-634 The Changing Face of Industrialism 1901- economy reached full capacity; farming and factories were both prosperous There was still poverty and disease; racism was spreading Still economic conditions were better for most people; prosperity became a nature of progressive reform New Republic and New Statesman Mass cropped up frequently; mass production, mass circulation of products, mass transit from growing spiral of suburbs into the central cities Significant changes in nation's industrial system; business grew at a rapid rate The Innovative Model T automobile industry led the way toward large-scale business

Mass production of automobiles: using an assembly line turned out 5 thousand Olds runabouts Henry Ford created Fords Automobiles Ford was the speed demon of Detriot before starting company Ford gave lesson to modern economy when selling cars: smaller profit unit on large number of sales meant huge revenues Copied techniques of meat packing companies for mass production; emphasized continuous movement from raw materials to finished product Federal Aid Roads Act (1916) required every state desiring federal funds to establish a highway dept. to oversee construction, plan routes, and maintain roads Act produced national network of two-lane interity roads The Burgeoning Trusts As businesses grew, capital became more important, and trusts started forming Standard Oil- first trust and started trend Smaller firms disappeared, swallowed up by bigger ones Result was oligopoly; control of a commodity or service by a small number of large, powerful companies By 1909 1% of companies were controlling nearly half of all manufactured goods Finance capitalists (like JP Morgan) replaced industrial capitalists Morgans investment firm operated a network of control that ran from NYC to every industrial/financial center in the nation Massive business growth--->what should govt. do about trusts? Some believed big businesses raised prices for goods, others thought it helped progress economy Business leaders were divided on their viewpoints too; some welcomed reform on giant corporations Both progressive and business leaders had similar visions of the country: complex, expansive, and oriented towards efficiency Managing the Machines Size, system, and organization became more important Management focused on efficiency, not workers Rivaled assembly lines in importance- industrial research laboratories developed new products General Electric founded first one Businesses became large scale, mechanized, and managed; business that hired fewer than 12 workers became more small scale Industries that processed materials (iron and steel, paper, cement, and chemicals) were increasingly mechanical and operated continuously Irving Colburn (1908) invented glassmaking machine (very efficient) that reduced need for skilled glassmakers Workplace- less supervision, set their own pace of working---> scientific labor management to get maximum efficiency from all workers Fredrick Winslow Taylor- put system first, not worker; management must control workplace Benefits to workers in changing industrial system: workers in some industries got paid more Losses: bored easily, loss of motivation, jobs were monotonous and dangerous Meat cutters sliced hands/fingers when not paying attention, and IL steel mill had 46 men killed Triangle Shirtwaste Co. fire in NY- 146 people died when exit doors were locked; brought attention to need for safer working conditions March on Fifth Ave. for funeral procession Outcry pushed NY governor to appoint State Factory Investigating Commission to shorten work weeks and make safer conditions

Societys Masses Spreading consumer goods through mass production improved lives and costed lives too Tending to machines- dangerous Minorities played larger parts in factories because need for employment rose 1901-1910 8.8 million immigrants came After economic downturn was over, skilled trades were open and plentiful to work in Migrant workers found it hard to find jobs Efforts of immigrants and people who came to their aid- described progressive era Better Times on the Farm bY 1920 fewer than of ppl lived on farms Rural free delivery ended sense of isolation to farmers Exposed farmers to urban thinking, national advertising, and political events Parcel post- permitted sending packages through US mail Mail-order houses flourished, rural merchants suffered Telephone and electricity didnt reach rural societies, but other innovations knit them into society Farm problems: land prices rose, farm tenancy increased, and farm-bred diseases spread Rockefeller Sanitary Commission wiped out bookworm disease West- irrigation transformed land as fed govt. joined to import water from mountain watersheds Dry lands grew fertile Dams and canals streamed into CA- out came watermelons, cantaloupes, lettuce, etc. to national market pg. 642-645 Conflict in the Workplace Assembly lines, speedups, long hrs, and low pay produced dramatic increase in American industrial output (and profits) Gave rise to strikes (frequent) Tensions grew b/w capital and labor- some feared revolution unless workers conditions improved Organizing Labor Samuel Gompers American Federation of Labor- increased a lot by 1904 (largest union organization) Devoted to interests of skilled craftspeople Aimed partly at better wages and working conditions, sought limit entry into crafts and protect worker prerogatives AFL found acceptance among big businesses for conservative policies Gompers against women in AFL- too emotional Womens Trade Union League- founded by Margaret Robins; legislation to protect female workers and educate public on needs of working women Took in all women, regardless of skill WTUL didnt have many member; influence extended beyond membership Uprising of the 20000 strike of shirtwaist workers in NYC; female employees of Triangle Shirtwaist Company tried to form union, company fired them Industrial Workers if the World- welcomed everyone; ORGANIZED UNSKILLED AND FOREIGNborn laborers who worked in mass production industries; to promote laborers interests Leaders: Mary Harris Jones, Elizabeth Flynn, Big Bill Haywood Led number of strikes Working with Workers Some business leaders used violence and police action to keep workers in line; others tried to used new fields of psychology and personnel management

Industrial psychologists studied workers routines, showed output of work was affected by job satisfaction Established relations departments to improve corporate image Ivy Lee- pioneer in field of coporate public relations Urged openess on companys part Five dollar day created by Ford; doubled wage rate for common labor, reduced working day to 8 hrs, and made personnel dept. to place workers in appropriate jobs Many people tried to apply; output increased from workers Amoskeag Amoskeag Co. textile mills- produced more cloth than any other mills Company hired and fired at will; demanded relentless output from spindles and spinning frames Workers saw themselves as family Preferred industrial mills to the farm Families that left farming neither disintegrated nor lost their relationships Often toiled in the same workrooms Taught children technical skillz and how to get along with bosses and fellow workers Had a parental interest in employees; made a welfare and efficiency program Playgrounds, nurses--> curb labor unrest Amoskeag Bulletin Closed in 1935 bcuz of overproduction and foreign competition A New Urban Culture Quality of life improved b/e 1900-1920; jobs were plentiful; more ppl becoming doctors, lawyers, teachers, and engineers Mass production couldnt work w/out mass consumption Production and Consumption 1900, business firms spent $95 million on advertising Advertising techniques boomed Mass production swept clothing industry 646-650 Inspired by Civil War uniforms, standard clothes and shoe sizes that fit most used clothes cheaper, off-the-rack popularized in all classes Manufacture workers earning more (some due to inflation), middle class expands and rich get richer 1920 income tax proves that 5% of pop has of wealth Living and Dying in an Urban Nation 1920: young pop due to immigrants, medicine+better livin conditions increase life expectancy Infant morality still high, lives still shorter than today (less elderly), but increase in life makes heart disease+cancer problematic Cities grow alot: skyscrapers, dept. stores, hotels, factories, street rails expand and socioecomic segregation does too center ring=immigrants, then working class housing,suburbs w/ antisocial grid streets+strip malls NYC, Chicago, Philly were industrial giants, Cleveland, Rochester were specialized Rails, not highways, tie everything together 1909-15:LA uses urban zoning: 3 districts, one for residencial area, one for industry, one for mix NY zoning law of 1916 became modern model Zoning orders cities, in S. used to seperate races, in N vs immigrants Popular Pastimes shorter workdays=free time cars take fans to baseball, football seen as violent yet colleges pay for tramp athlete students

Pres. Teddy Roosevelt makes Intercollegiate Athletic Association (1910 became National Collegiate Athletic Association or NCAA) to clean up college sports Movie theatres open, comedies popular, 1915 D.W> Griffiths Birth of a Nation is artsy 1901 phonograph+recoding companies: Victor Talking Machine Comp,Edison Speaking Machine Comp, Columbia Records, Victrolas popular in middle-class, early rcords were vaudeville skits Music was now business, Congress has copyright law dmanding 2 cent royalty on songs, 1914Victor Herbert makes American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) to protect music rights and royalties 1911, Irving Berlin popularized ragtime w/ Alexanders ragtime band, dances like waltz/foxtrot/bunny hop popular, nightclubs open but partners must be 9 inches apart Yale bans tango at prom Vaudeville (1900-15): city life skits,songs, comics,acrobats. magicians, women show more skin 1914 St. Louis Blues W.C. Hardy take black music N,Bessie Smith was popular New Orleans: Charles Buddy Bolden, Ferdinand Jelly Roll Morton, Louis Armstrongmke nameless music, Chicago deems it Jazz Kate Wiggins Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm ad Lucy Montgomerys Anne of Greene Gables prove rural westerns books still popular, but detective thrillers and sci-fi were big too Edward L. Stratemeyers Tom Swift series market to all ages, Gilbert Patten does same w/ Frank Merriwell Experimentation in the Arts Isadora Ducnan and Ruth St Denis change dance: Ducnan exposes more skin, feel your dance, tragic 1927 death where her scarf caught race car wheel NYC Greenwich Village attract modern artists,writers, poets Robert Henri=realist painter (critics call it Ashcan School), depict the crowds (Cliff Dwellers by George Bellows, John Sloan was Henris pupil) 1913 NY Armory show has modernist work byPicasso, Cezanne, VanGogh, etc.,critics call it depraved postimpessionists/moderists like John Marn, Max Weber, Georgia OKeefe, Arthur Dove were avant-garde bold+abstract Poetry outburst-1912 Harriet Monroes mag Poetry, Ezra Pound,Vachel Lindsay, T.S. Eliots Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock critzied but changed the art, capture fleeting moments in verse, reject old meters Robert Frost, Edgar Lee Masters, Carl Sandburg experiment too Conclusion: A Ferment of Discovery and Freedom Manners and morals changed slowly, lesuire activities grew progressiveism at all levels changed country: playgrounds,taxes,regulated business,kindergarden,women vote, factory hrs/safety excitement and vitality, discovery racism, repression, labor conflict still issues but hope/progress/change talked about politics/sci/journalism/education/ etc. ppl believe they could make a difference=progressive generation (Ch. 23) The Republicans Split Roosevelt out of presidency, ppl hoped he wouldn't return In out of office time, toured Europe, shot animals (the usual) Taft was president Disliked by Gifford Pinchot (Roosevelts close friend) and Roosevelt was informed about this Taft confused; tried to cont. Roosevelts policies but conservative and progressive wings of Repubs split and Taft sided with conservative

Roosevelt got grand welcome home party when he arrived in NYC Election OF 1912- Taft won Republican nomination; Roosevelt angry and ran fr Progressive Party The Spirit of Progressivism Progressiveism sought to solve problems of city, state, and nation Intellectually- drew on new social ideas Culturally- new modes of dance, art, film, literature Acted out of concern of effects of industrialism on peoples lives NOT to harm big business, but to regulate Optimistic about human nature Investigate, educate, and legislate AKA people could identify problems and help solve them Confident to intervene in peoples lives (with the idea they had the right to) Turned to govt. and authority of state to carry out reforms Combined evangelical Protestantism (gave them duty to purge world of sins) with natural and social sciences (theories which made them think they could control the environment around them) Environment was a key to reform thinking; if they could change environment, they could change individual Party had a national reach and mass base (different from populism which was only popular in west) No single issue united them all; they all wanted progress and hated waste Believed in a better world and the ability for normal people to change it Stressed collective action, the scientific method, and value of expert opinions Historians defined as triumph of one group over another (farmers vs. railroads) The Rise of the Professions A bunch of national associations and comittees began to form that supported the Progressive ideal Grew rapidly the professions in law, medicine, business, religion, teaching Young, educated men and women Professionals were a part of new middle class whose wealth was not predetermined by family or status Formed societies to look after their professional needs For example, doctors wanted to increase requirements and licenses to become a professional (formed American Medical Association) The Social Justice Movement Focused national attention on need for tenement house laws, more stringent child labor laws, and better working conditions for women More interested in social cures than charity
pg 657-660 1915-became National Conference of Social Work, more professional, like a science field-schools in Harvard/Chicago/etc. 1909 magazine The Survey, program for min. wage, max hrs, workers compensation, widows pensions The Purity Crusade Workers drank away wages, men at saloon more than home, violence, annoyed employers Reformers, ministers, business leaders, etc. v. alcohol 1870s-Womens Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), by 1911 was largest women group 1893-Anti-Saloon League, both groups abolish alcohol, by 1916 outlawed drinking in 19 states, in moral fervor of WW1, 18th Amendment (prohibition) takes effect Jan 1920 At the time, progressives thought it eliminates moral wrong (changing times prove them wrong) Reformers also v prostitution: convinced poverty and ignorance drove women to it 1915: all states ban brothels, 1910: Mann Act prohibits transport of women for sex Both movements use gov. to purify society Woman Suffrage, Womans Rights 1890-1914: Feminists were active reformers: working class work for high wages, professional women support too, several unions/groups form

 Black women were often excluded so made own groups: The National Association of Colored Women in 1895 (like female NAACP), aims at social welfare, est. playgrounds, daycare, nursery homes, etc. General Federation of Womens Clubs grew from 1900 to 1912, met in coffee shops, look at the world around them Industrial Section and Committee on Legislation for Women and Children formed in GFWC: improve schools, protect workers, pure food, beautify community 1914: GFWC supports suffrage (which dated back to Seneca Falls 1848): opinions on Civil War, male opposition, indecision over asking state or federal gov., Catholic resistance, temperance divide movement Politics was way to reform-more women activists join suffrage movement, National Women Suffrage Association and American Woman Suffrage Association merge in 1890 to make National American Women Suffrage Association (signals unity) 1900: Carrie Catt becomes pres. of organization in 1920 (she is good organizer), she and Anna Shaw (head) peacefully lobby for vote Alice Paul and Lucy Burns found Congressional Union and are more militant: go to Congress rather than states, picket white house in 1917, interrupt meetings In 1800s vote claimed as natural right, new leaders stress that women are more moral and would vote to protect society (pragmatic reason)-they would support reforms like temperance+purify politics 1918: House passed amendment that voting not based on sex, 1920 the 19th Amendment passed+took effect Reform most successful in limiting work hrs for women 1913: 39 states set max hrs for women or banned night work for them Some states use expert commissions to decide sep. ideas for diff. jobs 1900: National Child Labor Committee gets 28 states to regulate child labor Courts often against these laws, families ignore them if poor 1916: Pres. Wilson backed child labor law (Keating-Owen Act) but Hammer v Dagenhart (1918) overturns it, Congress tries again w/ Second Child Labor Act but Bailey v Drexel Furniture Company (1922) ends it 1930s Congress finally succeeds Pg 670-672 The Ordeal of William Howard Taft Conservative Republicans influenced the platform in 1908 election, conservative James S. Sherman made VP Taft wants pledge to lower tariff but only revision promised (progressives disappointed) Took office March 1909 Rich Ohio family, went to Yale, Ohio judge, US solicitor general, judge on federal circuit court 1900-McKinely sent him to Philippines, 1904 he is Teddys Sec of War Taft works quietly, avoids controversy, not political or zesty like Teddy but funny and charming, not a fighter Not as hardworking as Teddy and Wilson but got stuff done, honest, kindly, reflective Wants to be judge w/ Supreme court but his wife Helen prod him to White House, he turns down Supreme Court in 1906 Tafts presidency unhappy: wife got sick, Republican party split had been brushed aside by Teddy but was there now, Taft wavers but more conservative (angers progressives), Taft distrusts change+gov. cannot define morals, leaned more to business than labor, anti-union Taft deserves more recognition: he was honest and sincere but Teddy and Wilson take his spotlight Party Insurgency Taft+progressives try to curb Speaker Joe Cannons (anti-reformer) heavy power over legislation, Cannon threatens to end all tariff bills so a compromise is mad: stop anti-Cannon campaign if he helps with tariff cuts Republicans divided over tariff: House passes cuts, but protectionists in Senate raise tariffs Nelson Aldrich proposes new bill: no duties on curling stones, false teeth, canarybird seed, hog bristles La Follette and other republicans mad and attack bill-call themselves progressives like Teddy, urge Taft to join them Taft tries compromise but then backs protectionist Aldrich: The Payne-Aldrich Act passed in 1909, raised tariffs from original House bill but lowers them from Dingley Tariff of 1897-unpopular, shows tension and discredits Taft Progressives critize everything Taft does, he resents this, two sides of party drift apart, Taft tris to compromise but leans conservative-calls the act the best bill ever By 1910, progressives dnt see Taft as leader, challenge Cannon again but Taft wavers-embarrassing when they succeed in curtailing Cannons power, talk of Roosevelt return The Ballinger-Pinchot Affair 1909: Richard Ballinger, Sec. of Interior, offered 1 mil acres for sale that chief forester Pinchot had withdrawn from sale Pinchot fears that conservation efforts would be hurt-finds report saying Ballinger helped sell valuable coal mines to a syndicate including JP Morgan-ask Taft for help, but Taft supports Ballinger while asking Pinchot to stay in office Pinchot give anti-Ballinger material to magazines, wrote critical public letter-Taft fires the insubordinate (appropriate but unpopular) Public muckrakers angry that gov surrenders to Morgan, ruins national heritage Affair obscures Tafts important contributions to conservatism: won from Congress the power to remove lands from sale and saves more than Roosevelt Still, affair upset his friend Teddy, and Pinchot and Teddy met in Italy and later too (1910) Taft Alienates the Progressives Taft interested in railroad regulation-backs 1910 bill empowering ICC to fix max rail rates Progressive liked this, but attack Tafts plan to have a Commerce Court too since judges tended to be conservative about regulation, also think rails consulted too much in process-both Dems and Republicans try to add amendments to strengthen bill and a test of party loyalty starts

 Mann-Elkins Act (1910)-gives something to all: ICC can set rates, stiffens regulations, phone and telegraph companies under ICC rules too (progressives happy), Commerce Court (conservatives happy), pledge to let NM and Arizona, which would be Dem states get statehood to get Dem votes (Dems happy) The Act was good but the issue of party regularity was raised and progressives defied Taft Taft tries to defeat progressive Republicans in 1910 elections: campaigns against progressive Senate candidates, sends VP Sherman to Wisconsin to control the state convention Progressives retaliate by making anti-Taft Progressive Republican Clubs 1910 election results setback for Taft and Republicans (esp conservatives) PG. 673-675 -last section cont. More progressive influence in Republican party Democrats got votes from urban industrial states (NY to IL) won control of House and Senate Taft still able to accomplish some things: laws for regulating mines and railroads, Childrens Bureau, 8-HR days for govt. workers 1909 Congress made amendment (16th) authorizing federal income tax Taft- avid fighter against trusts Sued US Steel for being trust (absorbed Tennessee Coal and Iron &Teddy approved) Teddy attacked Taft for his actions Ran for pres. against Taft Differeing Philosophies in the Election 1912 Taft took Republican nomination Progressive party- anti-Tafts and progressive Republicans Taft was out of running before it even began New Nationalism- championed by Teddy; demanded national approach to countrys affairs; efficiency in govt.; large concentrations of labor and capital Prog. party enlisted women in affairs (first political party to do this) New Freedom- by Dem. Woodrow Wilson; emphasized competition and small govt; attacked Roosevelts planned state Both Wilson and Roosevelt saw the central problem of America as economic growth and its effect on people and society Roosevelt welcomed federal power, national planning, and business growth ----> Wilson distrusted them all Wilson won, Dems. won control of both Houses Pg 675-677 Woodrow Wilsons New Freedom Wilson was born in VA in 1856, son of minister, wanted career in public service, learned oratory and history, was a stubbornly judgemental moralist Went to Princeton, found being a lawyer was boring, by 1902 he is pres. of Princeton after teaching jurisprudence and political economy classes, by 1910 he was governor of NJ (reform election procedures, abolish corrupt practices, increase rail regulation) Wilson rose rapidly and was new to national issues/people but learns quickly Few political debts, fresh perspective, ideas not details interest him, like loyalty and flattery and hates candid criticism Self-righteous, believes in strong presidency, works closely with Dems in Congress and good at passing bills he likes as pres, more inspiring than Roosevelt and Taft, great speaker The New Freedom in Action On day of inauguration he calls special session in Congress-April 8, 1913 it opens and he is first pres to show up in over 100 yrs Wilson works w/ Congress and asks public support-triumphs w/ Underwood Tariff Act: 1913, lowers tariff by 15% removes duties from several consumer goods like sugar/wool To make up lost revenue, act includes graduated income tax (authorized under newly ratified 16th Amendment)-1% tax on incomes over 4000 (yearly), additional 1% if over 20,000, new unity in Dem party Wilson strong leader, keeps Congress in session in summer and by Dec. 1913 the Federal Reserve Act (most important domestic act of his administration) It gives US sound yet flexible currency-est first efficient banking system since Jackson killed 2nd BUS Creates 12 regional banks that answer to Federal Reserve Board (appointed by pres,) Compromise-blends private+public bank system: private bankers owned reserve banks but answer to board, reserve banks could issue currency and use discount rate to raise or lower amt. of currency in circulation-in one yr of US banking resources in system Clayton-Antitrust Act: 1914, Pujo Committee investigation of Wall Street found Morgan-Rockefeller empire held 1/10 of wealth Law outlaws interlocking directorates and unfair trade practices, no pricing policies that create monopolies, corporate officers were personally responsible for antitrust violations Gompers was happy that unions were legalized, injunctions to stop strike prohibited unless property destroyed (still, courts continue to rule v unions) Related law est. powerful Federal Trade Commission: five members, demand reports, investigate complaints, order corporate compliance (at first Wilson opposed this but changes mind), this is similar to Roosevelts New Nationalism idea 1914: Wilson announced New Freedom program was complete-some skeptical Wilson Moves Toward New Nationalism

 WW1 distracted Wilson for a yr, when it comes back he blends New Freedom and New Nationalism Republicans gained a lot in 1914 Congressional election, and recession struck (some business leaders blame new tariff rules, actual cause was WW1) Wilson invites opponents to White House, allows companies fearful of antitrust action to ask Justice Dept. for advice Wilson was preoccupied-in 1915 he blocks lots of bills like minimum wage for women, claims child labor law in unconstitutional, opposes longterm credit for farmers, wont endorse women suffrage (state, not federal, issue) Wilson also disappoints blacks: blacks supported him in 1912 election, but when Oswald Garrison Villard (pres. of NAACP) wants a National Race Commission to investigate race relation issues Wilson rejects it to keep Southern votes (and appoints many Southerners to high office-fist time since Civil War that southern views of race dominated capital) At cabinet meeting, postmaster general proposed segregation of blacks in federal service-this is put into place, black/clergymen/progressives protest and Wilson backs off but insistes it helps blacks 1916: Wilson focused on reforms again (even embraces some of Roosevelts ideas) Partly motivated by upcoming election: he was a minority pres. who won b/c Republican party had been broken (Roosevelt could now use war issues v Wilson, progressives angry over lack of action over farm credits, child labor, woman suffrage) Wilson fixes issue by naming Brandies(popular progressive, Jew) to Supreme Court in 1916-when conservatives dissent he stays firm (wooing progressives and Jews) 1916: Wilson reverses position of farm credits and accepts rural credits bill which est. famr-loan banks backed by gov. Federal Farm loan Act of 1916 makes Federal farm loan board (similar to federal reserve) Wilson already popular w/ labor movement (even more than Teddy), defends unions and collective bargaining-1913 appoints William B. Wilson (leader of United Mine Workers) to head of new Labor Dept. and strengthens Division of Conciliation 1914-in Ludlow, Colorado state militia and mine guards fire into tent colony of mine strikers (killed men, women, and kids)Wilson is outraged and uses federal troops to end violence while negotiations to end strike took place 1916: threat of rail strike, he invites both sides to White House and urges an 8-hr day with no overtime pay, upset when rail leader dnt accept (labor leaders did) soon signs Adamson Act (1916, 8 hr day on interstate rails, federal commission to study issue, ends strike threat and marks expansion in gov. ability to regulate industry) Wilson leads reform until election: Federal Workmens Compenstation Act (est. compensation for gov. employees), KeatingOwen Act (first child labor law, prohibits interstate shipping of products made from under-14s, expands gov. authority but is struck down by Supreme Court), Warehouse Act (authorized licensed warehouses to issue negotiable receipts for farm products deposited w/ them) 1916: Wilson signs Tariff Commission Act (expert commission to recommend tariff rates), Revenue Act of 1916 boosts income tax (furthers tax reform)

pg. 680-681 Many excited when Wilson finally came out in support of womens suffrage 2 weeks later supported 8 hr work days Wilson won 1916 elections because of issues in peace and progressivism Abandoned much of New Freedom and accepted New Nationalism (greater federal power) Conclusion: Fruits of Progressiveism Election of 1916 showed how deeply progressivism was rooted into American society Also marked decline of progressivism Did not tackle many important issues like race Institution of president expanded (by Roosevelt) Govt. accepted welfare of many groups Beginning of bueracratic society WWI was coming- not peaceful for long pg. 696-699 Toward War Colonel Edward House sailed to Europe on a fact finding mission; tensions were rising Large armies dominated Europe Web of alliances entangled nations, maximizing risk of conflict Kaiser Wilhelm II coveted a world empire Germany had treaties with Turkey and Austria-Hungary (central powers) England, France, and rUSSIA agreed to aid each other in case of attack (allied powers) June 28, 1914 Bosnian assassin linked to Serbia assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand; heir to Austro-Hungarian throne Within weeks two powers were at war

 Wilson shocked at first, but refused to join war THe Neutrality Policy At first Americans didnt want to enter conflict (tried to avoid involvement in foreign affairs besides Latin America) Progressives thought war wasnt spirit of progressive reform England represented international finance, an institution they detested Germany pioneered some of their favorite social reforms Blame for war- stockbrokers, bond dealers eager for wartime profits Also thought war would end reform American Union Against Militarism--> keep US out of war La Follettes Magazine was voice of progressive leaders, railed against Morgans, Rockefellers, Du Ponts Addams and Wald helped organize League to Limit Armament and Addams and Carrie Catt formed Womans Peace Party Immigrants from British Isles supported Allies, Ireland supported Germany, so did German Americans Immigrant population was another reason for neutrality Majority of country blamed Allied Powers Remembered times when France helped US Propaganda campaigns to sway both sides flourished German Literary Defense Committee Freedom of the Seas Demands of trade tested American neutrality and confronted Wilson w/ hard choices Under international law, neutral countries were permitted to trade in nonmilirary goods with all belligerent countries GB controllws seas and intended to cut off shipments of war materials to Central Powers When war broke out, GB blockaded German ports and limited goods Americans could sell to Germany; US had to go thru inspections at neutral ports to get to Germany Later, GB forbade shipment ro Germany of all foodstuffs and most raw materials, seizing and sensoring mail, blacklisting American firms that dealt directly w/ Central Powers Wilson protested against infringements; GB made a way to disrupt German-American relations w/out disrupting Anglo-American relations Other than German U-boats, no constraints on trade w/ Allies and a flood of Allied war orders fueled American economy England and France bought huge amt. of arms, grain, cotton, and clothing To finance, turned to American loans (greater debt to US than Germany) HUGE econmic boom in nations history Drew US closer to Allied causes The U-Boat Threat Strained guidelines of international law Traditional law required a submarine to surface, warn the target to stop, send a boarding party to check papers and cargo, then allow time for passengers and crew to board lifeboats before sinking the vessel Wilson protested against Germanys submarine campaign; Germans promised not to sink American ships until 1917 American citizens abroad British liner died when ship was sunk by U-Boats Against wishes of Bryan who urged Wilson to forbid traveling of Americans into war zones May 1915 U-boats sank Lusitania and Arabic; Wilson demanded Germans pay for losses Bryan, at odds with Wilson, resigned as Secretary of State and was replaced by Lansing

 Urged strong stands against German violations of US neutrality Feb. 1916 Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare against all armed ships April 18 Wilson sent ultimatum to Germany: call off attacks on cargo and passenger ships, or the US would sever relations Kaiser agreed to demands and promised to shoot on sight only ships of the enemys navy if the US helps end Allied blockade and comply w/ international law--> Wilson turned down demand but accepted pledge Sussex pledge marked short friendly period b/w two countries BUT Wilson said if Germany changed position on submarines, war was likely He Kept Us Out of War Some citizens urged stepped-up military actions in case of war Persuaded War Dept. to hold a military training camp Roosevelt led preparedness campaign Teddy called Wilson yellow for not pressing Germany harder After much criticism, Wilson asked War Dept. to increase military planning Approved large increases in army and navy (upset many progressives) Wilson toured country to promote preparedness Election of 1916: Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes Could lure back progressives while appealing to Conservatives (called for tougher line against Germany) Dem. renominated Wilson as a demonstration for peace Americanism and patriotic theme to Democratic convention He Kept us Out Of War slogan 700-702 Hughes took E d Wilsn thoughthe lost but CA,NM,ND barely support him alond w/Dem S. and Midwest/west state he got progressive vote, women (who could vote in 12 states) vote Wilson too The Final Months of Peace Britain limits neutral trade, German unrestricted submarine warfare Dec 1916: Wilson asked both sides their war aim, pledges US force to end war, Allis refuse but will negotiate if German terms are reasonable-Germans evasive but 1917 clear they want E. europe, africa,belgium, france Jan 22, 1917: Wilson calls for peace w/o victory: respect for all nations free seas, arm limitations, League of Nations to keep peace-impresses Europe but too late, German U-boats ready to attack Jan 31 1917: Germany says it will sink on sight any ship near England/France-Germany banking on possibility of winning in 6 months w/ U-boat use-Wilson cut off German ties Feb 25: Britain gave intercepted Zimmerman Telegram to Wilson: Zimmerman was German foregin minister, proposed alliance w/ Mexico in case of US war (offer $ and recovery of TX, NM, AR) public indignation, House lets Wilson arm merchant ships to deter U-boats but Senate (like La Follette) block it-March 9 1917 Wilson orders it anyways, March 13-Navy to fire on submarines, Uboats sink 5 US ships Wilson callsespecial session on April 2, 1917: asks to declare war, pacifists hold for 4 days and April 6 the declaration passes anyways Over There US got patriotic, Germans were sinking Allied shipping mutiny in French army, costly British Flanders drive stalls, by November Bolsheviks (led by V.I. Lenin) control Russia and sign treaty w/ Germany (which now only worries about Western Front), German+Austrian forces routed Italian Army, bitter 1918 awaited Mobilization

US not ready for war, some thought mere declaration would deter Germany/naval escorts of Allied ships enough/ $ and arms to Allies enough-surprise that troops need Wilson names young John J. Black Jack Pershing (leader of Mexico campaign) to head American Expeditionry Force (AEF) Army unprepared (small, recent battle was failing to catch Pancho Villa in Mexico) Just 2 plans: War Plan Orange-defensive war v Japan in Pacific, War Plan Black-counter German attack in Caribbean Wilson had said planning is not peaceful, so no plans for WW1 ready Some in Congress want volunteer army (like Spanish-American War) Wilson uses conscription (effective and democratic)-May1917 Selective Service Act: register men 21-30 (later 18-45) 9.5 million men register in June, by end of war 24.2 mil-2.8 mil inducted into army, Wilson defends draft, new intelligence tests part of selection process Draft includes black+white, 4 black regiments some of first in, no blacks march in victory parades in Paris and while blacks from other countries put in mural in France,no US blacks were War in the Trenches Euro armies dug themselves into trenches only hundreds of yards apart in places (pinned down by artillery, poison gas, grenades Cold fear, mud, rats, and disease took a heavy toll First American soldiers reached France in June 1917 Summer of 1917 Admiral William S. Sims (American strategist) pushed thru convoy plan that used Allied destroyers to escort merchants vessels across the ocean The plan cut shipping losses in half March 21, 1918 the Germans predictably assualt W. Europe-Russian front troops involved too, by May they had Allied forces backed to the Marne River (50 mi from Paris) Here, US see action: block Germany at Chateau-Thierry and out of stronghold Belleau Wood July 15, 1918: Germany try last drive at Paris but after 3 days at Marne they lose By the 18, Germany knows it lost (but it would return w/ a vengence....) German drives stalled Allies attack whole front,Sept US+some France drive Germans from France Nov-US troops cut rail line and push whole front of German back Oct 6, 1918: Germany asks Wilson for armistice,soon Turkey, Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary leave war 4 pm on 11/11/1918 Germany signs armistice AEF lost many to fighting and disease American help, tho small compared to European efforts,provides Allied morale and turns tide of war Over Here Victory means economic and emotional mobilization in US Wilson knows he needs to get public support for war The Conquest of Convictions Wilson makes Committee on Public Information (CPI), George Creel gets artists to publicize the war and voluntary censorship of the press, 4-minute men gave quick speeches at entertainment venues (at first not to be racist but soon they were), promote films like The Prussian Cur, Creel secretly subsidized prowar groups and made Division of Industrial Relations to rally labor propaganda caused huge anti-german sentiment: German not taught, rename German products, etc., Germans harassed Vigilates grow, kill anti-war (Industrial Workers of the World) Frank Little and German Robert Prager but court acquits them Wilson encouraged repression-Espionage Act of 1917: up to 20 yrs if disloyal acts or helping enemy, Trading with the enemy Act : censor foreign press,Sedition Act of 1918: insult gov. , several arrests

Tho there are spies these acts were meant to forcefully unite US and went way too far Big targets of acts were socialists and IWW-censored often Debs arrested under Espionage Act-candidate in 1920 election (for pres) Red Scare in 1919-US citizens mad at Russian Revolution when Lenin won/made peace w/ Germany Wilson increased Red Scare when he sent troops to Soviet Union: there to help Czechs and protect supplies but really there to try to ruin new Russia gov. (fear spread) Wilson has economic blocade on Russia, sends insurgents weapons, didnt recognize Lenins gov., dnt let Russia into peace conference-bad relations in future A Bureaucratic War Need quick action to ready for war: 5000 gov.federal agencies set up $32 billion in debt after war-liberty bonds and higher taxes pay it off Wilson uses boards to focus economy on war War Industries Board (WIB):Baruch (wall street broker), determines production priorities, control raw material, fix prices, work with business and transport (basically ran economy) Food Administration (Herbert Hoover): meatless and wheatless days to send food to armies,selfsacrifce, encourage victory gardens, fix prices boost production, bought and dstribute wheat Fuel Administration (Harry Garfield): daylight savings, ration coal and oil,impose gasless (nondriving) days, close consumer factories one a week, once closed all factories E. of Mississippi for 4 days so stranded NY ships got coal Railroad Adminisration: standard rates, limit passenger travel, speed arms transport War Shippig Board: coordnate shipping, Emegency Fleet Corporation: shipbuilding, War Trade Board: oversaw forgien trade Gov was intervening more than ever before: when strikes threaten phone/telegram companies the gov seize and ran companies pg. 710-712 Labor in the War Organized labor in partnership with the government Council of National Defense- Samuel Gompers; worked to unify business, labor, and government Formed War Committee on Labor to get workerss support for cause AFL and other worker unions grew To encourage production, Wilson provided 8 hr work days and higher wages War Labor Board- Felix Frankfurter; standardized work hours, discouraged strikes, ordered that women have equal pay, Immigration flow from Europe stopped and draft started Many of the women working didnt work in factories (unlike WWII) Did make up of workers in food, airplane, and electrical plants Wages increased and so did conflict w/ male coworkers Southern blacks called upon to work in factories (movement northward flooded) Most were young, unmarried, w/ varied skill levels Black women worked in textile factories, department stores, and restaurants Racial tensions increased due to higher competition for jobs and housing Race war in St. Louis killed 40 blacks and 9 whites (blacks were more inclined to fight back) Lift Evry Voice and Sing- Negro National Anthem For cheap labor- farmers and ranchers persuaded govt. to lower immigration standards Big picture- businesses had more profits, factories expanded, govt. authority swelled, economic tensions grew, minorities and women gained rights

 US emerged from war as strongest economic country (debtor country) The Treaty of Versailles B4 fighting ended, Wilson was formulating plans for peace Uneasy about Bolshevik govt. pg 743-746 The Scopes Monkey Trial-Contesting Cultural Differences New American values are more city than rural so cultural conflict within the country Protestant fundamentalists believe Bible should be interpreted literally, and that science threatens the religions teachings Americans trust science, it is hallmark of modernization and progress Accept Charles Darwins theory of evolution (evolve from lower life forms thru evolution) Theory enters public classrooms but fundamentalists see it as blasphemous and use southern legislation to keep it out of class TN: John W. Butlers law passes in 1925 (The Butler Act), illegal to teach anything denying Theory of Divine Creation/that humans came from lower life forms-punishment=misdemeanor fin of $100-$500 per offense American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) advertises for teachers to challenge the law, boosters in Dayton want attention and recommend John Scopes (opposed law on philosophical grounds, young, single, no ties to city, likeable w/ otherwise normal views, agrees to break law by using states Civic Biology textbook which includes evolution) Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes is a HUGE deal: laws supporters, like William Jennings Bryan (same one who ran for pres, also fervent fundamentalist) who helps prosecutor A. Thomas Stewart (TNs attorney general) Bryan frequently spoke against evolution in schools on radio, thinks science given too much importance ACLUs defense lawyer is Clarence Darrow (already famous, loves defending unpopular/radicals/murder suspects, volunteers his service here, outspokn agnostic) Reporters like H.L. Mencken come to Dayton from around the world to cover the Monkey trial, Judge John Raulston allows microphones into courtroom (radio) Case starts July 10 1925: prosecution says that state has constitutional right to regulate curriculum, Scopes broke law by teaching evolution (students+a school official testify against Scopes) Darrow: argue that law violates several clauses of TN constitution, v. gurantee of free speech and separation of church and state in the First Amendment, also contends that law is v. 14th Amendment (state passed law that abridges citizens privileges-too much control will interfere w/ private schools and even church in the future Darrow tries to get scientifc evidence proving evolution in but cour sides w/ Stewart against him since it would shed no light on the issues Bryans speech for prosecution is good: says he dnt advocate teaching Bible in school just dnt want taxpayers paying to have ppl deny their religion-really gets to ppl, obvious support and even courtroom excited Darrow asks to question Bryan as expert witness on Bible-Judge Raulston allows it and the two celebrities go after each other Darrow tries to undermine a strictly literal interpretation of the Bible (ppl arent salt, a big fish eating Jonah), Bryan defends Bible (God can make big fish like whales) Darrow: Did Joshua really make sun stand still, Bryan: yes, Darrow: did sun stop or did earth stop,do you even believe earth circles the sun? Bryan: I know earth circles sun, but the divinely inspired author of passage may not have known or he used language tht ppl in past (before Darrow) would understand-listeners side w/ Bryan but Darrow makes them squrim, they appluad Bryan

Bryan accuses Darrow of calling supporters yokels,Darrow accuses Bryan of insulting scientists against his fool religion,Judge has to stop this nastiness-dignity of trial is gone, more insults til end Stewart asks what the pt.of the questioning is, Darrow says it is to prevent bigots from controlling US education, allowed to cont. questioning (lasts 2 hrs)-little to do w/ case but larger issue of belief in revealed religion in NYC, ppl think Darrow proves Bryan wrong or at least ill-informed, in Memphis ppl think Bryan held his own (view depends on where you live) Scopes (unsurprisingly) is convicted and fined $100, Darrow wants to appeal to higher court anyway (asks jury for conviction) Anti-evolutionist view this as success, more secular ppl see it as Bryan and TN legislature being wrong, Bryan dies 5 days after trial (reporters say it was broken heart, Darrow says it was bad eating habits) Scopes trial settles nothing, defense appeals toTN Supreme Court where it is set aside on technicality Anti-evolution law left intact until repeal in 1967, both sides claim moral victory and case grows wider Fundmentalism discredited in city, bigger in country (if less visible), several states passed antievolution laws in 1920s but only GA and MISS also restrict teaching theory, lower textbook sales in S and W made publishers nix evolution in books(even w/o laws, evolution not taught in many schools) Issue not over even by 1960 (or now)