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(Design Case): A tensile testing apparatus is to be constructed that must
withstand a maximum load of 220,000 N. The design calls for two cylindrical
support posts, each of which is to support half of the maximumload. Furthermore,
plain carbon steel (1045) steel ground and polished shafting rounds are to be
used; the maximum yield and tensile strength of this alloy are 310 MPa and 565
MPa, respectively. Specify a suitable diameter for these support posts.
The first step in this design process is to decide on a factor of safety, N, which
then allows determination of a working stress. In addition, to ensure that the
apparatus will be safe to operate, we also want to minimize any elastic deflection
of the rods during testing; a relatively conservative factor of safety is to be used,
say N=2. Thus, the working stress (o
w
):
MPa
MPa
N
y
w
155
2
310
= = =
o
o
w
F d
A
o
t =
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
0
2
From the definition of stress:
Where d is the rod diameter and F is the applied force; furthermore, each of the
two rods must support half of the total force or 110,000 N. Solving for d leads to:
( )
( ) mm xx m x
m N x
N F
d
w
) (
/
= = = =
2
2 6
10
10 155
110000
2 2
t to
Therefore the diameter of the two rods should be (xx) mm.
Case: Design of Tensile Testing Apparatus
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82
Fast Fracture Failure of the Ammonia Tank
The tank was used to transport liquid ammonia. In order to contain the liquid ammonia the
pressure had to be equal to the saturation pressure. The maximum operating pressure was
2.07 MPa gauge. The normal operating pressure of the compressor was 1.83 MPa; the maximum
pressure (set by a safety valve) was 2.07 MPa. While liquid was being unloaded from the tank a
fast fracture occurred in one of the circumferential welds and the cap was blown off the end of
the shell. The initial crack, 2.5-mm deep, had formed in the heat-affected zone between the
shell and the circumferential weld. The tank was made from high-strength low-alloy steel with
yield strength of 712 MPa and a fracture toughness of 80 MPa-m
1/2
. Consider the geometry
factor of Y = 1.92 for this case.
Figure shows part of a steel tank which
came from a road tank vehicle. The tank
consisted of a cylindrical shell about 6-m
long. A hemispherical cap was welded to
each end of the shell with a
circumferential weld.
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83
The geometry of the failure is shown in figure.
The initial crack, 2.5mm deep, had formed in the
Heat-Affected Zone between the shell and the
circumferential weld. The defect went some way
around the circumference of the vessel.
The cracking was intergranular, and had
occurred by a process called stress corrosion
cracking.. The final fast fracture occurred by
transgranular cleavage This indicates that the
HAZ must have had a very low fracture
toughness. In this case study we predict the
critical crack size for fast fracture using the
fast fracture equation.
Fast Fracture Failure of the Ammonia Tank
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84
Material properties
The tank was made from high-strength low-alloy steel with a yield strength of 712MPa
and a fracture toughness of 80MPa-m
1/2
. The heat from the welding process had
altered the structure of the steel in the heat-affected zone to give a much greater
yield strength (940 MPa) but a much lower fracture toughness (39MPa-m
1/2
).
Calculation of critical stress for fast fracture
The longitudinal stress,o in the wall of a cylindrical pressure vessel containing gas
at pressure p is given by:
provided that the wall is thin (t << y) . p =
1.83MPa, y = 1067mm and t = 7mm, so o = 140MPa.
The fast fracture equation is . Because the crack penetrates a long
way into the wall of the vessel, it is necessary to take into account the correction
factor Y . For this case that Y = 1.92 for the crack.
Fast Fracture Failure of the Ammonia Tank
t
pr
2
= o

m
a Y K
c
t o =
1
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85
Since Y = 1.92 for the crack. The critical stress for fast fracture is given by
Fast Fracture Failure of the Ammonia Tank
MPa
a Y
K
c
229
0025 . 0 92 . 1
39
= = =
t t
o

m
The critical stress is 64% greater than the longitudinal stress. However, the
change in section from a cylinder to a sphere produces something akin to a stress
concentration; when this is taken into account the failure is accurately predicted.
Conclusions and recommendations
This case study provides a good example of the consequences of having an inadequate
fracture toughness. However, even if the heat-affected zone had a high toughness, the
crack would have continued to grow through the wall of the tank by stress-corrosion
cracking until fast fracture occurred. The critical crack size would have been greater,
but failure would have occurred eventually. The only way of avoiding failures of this
type is to prevent stress corrosion cracking in the first place.