Natural Hazards: natural processes-> damaging event-> loss of life, extreme geophysical and biological events, human environmental,

ecological Physical, natural, technical and behavioural Causes and impacts Impacts: 1. Adaptability 2. Adjustment 3. Mitigation effects Conditions and processes depend on source of danger Nature and concerns of human at risk Potential damage to life and property

Environmental damage: natural or man- made, presents risks or is a potential danger to life or property, prob of occurenance & consequence If human, socio- economic or physiological systems do not have the capacity sufficiently to reflect, buffer the impact, may occur

Risk: probability of ^ occurring and creating loss Human Vulnerability: vulnerabilityof social and economic systems, physical infrastructure, health, environment assets subject to the likelihood and scale of damage of a hazard Coping capacity: manner in which people & organisations use existing resources reactively, to limit losses Adaptive: the probability to redirect , to shape the development to minimize the production of a risk - Awareness of both hazards and the means by which they can be avoided Earth: dangerous, fraught with risk, chronic, extreme Geography: intrinsic to study risk and disaster, distinguished by its geographic location First: natural hazards-> technological biological (AIDS, industrial)

Human sensitiveity to hazards: physical exposure and human vulnerability Subject to: 1. Location 2. Vulnerability and adaptability 3. Human coping & hazard management 11% live in low human development countries-> 53% of total deaths Development status (ability to cope and recover) and disaster risks are closely linked Danger forms-> secondary-> secondary hazard (tertiary-> impairment of social functions, like disease outbreak, delayed economic impacts) Loss of life, injury, impairment Destruction of propert Disruption of activities, and denial supplies and services Disaster-> identify by a place where the destruction occurs-> essential context of harm, setting and spital context Gradual shift: impact of environment on mankind to opposite Geographical: spito temporal distribution of hazards, impact and vulnerability Anthropological: role of hazards in guiding socio- economic evolution in dispersing and destruction Sociological: vulnerability and impacts of hazards in terms of patterns of human behavour and the effects of disasters upon community functions Development studies: problems and relief of providing aids and address the problem of refugee management, Technical: engineering solutions and geophricsal approaches to disasters Technological: measuring and monitoring techniques of sophisciated engineering Development: such luxuries are not approachable^ Conclusion: formulated for the developed world, but accused of having doubtful validity

Acceptable risk: that is willing to Take care, Spatial distribution of risk: depends on differential vu.nerability within or between societies If unaffected, depends on the ability to adapt (awareness of how it can be avoided) - Current technology - Economic viability of alternative strategies - Social processes Mitigation: (reactive: recovery and restoration, anticipatory: avoiding and adjusting to ) Reduce the impacts of a disaster 1. Disaster aids 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. government Insurance International prepardness Predictions, warning systems Land use planning

Nothing is inherently catastrpophic: impact to human and lacking of vulnerability of a kin Benefits: nutrients, new land, dams Recently year: great increase in the risk of natural disaster (partially offset by better preparation) Reasons: 1. Geographical inertia (landscape, vulnerability by nature) 2. Economic advantages (like tea picking, natural resources)-> 3. Complexity of society-> more serious impacts (rich & poor: constraint of resources, more flexible to bear losses or adaptive) 4. Study of hazard and disasters-> relation ship between human and environment 1., enable environmental awareness

Dimensions of risk: (measurement & assessment)-> how human response apprioriately 1. Magnitude (almost all have): concentration of energy (magnitude ), seriousness of their impact on human and nature(intensity ) -> less adequate measures to control Earthquake: magnitude 12 momentum magnitude scale, a number to quantity, intensity-> modified mercalli scale: 12, observation of effects Tsunami: 6 height of the wave at landfall (magnitude and intensity) many physical factors & human : destruction, flooding Tropical cyclone/ typhoon 6 Magnitude 10 min average speed Hurricane: saffir- simpson 5 Magnitude: speed Intensity: observations like tsunami Volcanic eruptions: only on physical manifestiations (no human!) 1. Tsuya: magnitude, volume of materials ejected 2. Volcanit explosivitiy index: 0-8 (TYPE AND VIOLENCE, MAGMATIC PRODUCTS, DURATION, mudflows) Tornandoes: enhanced fujita scale 6 Magnitude & observations Time: 2. frequency (how often), greater need to compse 2. duration(persists), -> shorter, less can be done in mitigation , also test the tolerance of community 3. speed(first and the peak), -> elapses between increases, better ranges of emergency preparations and warning system 4. temporal spacing, (pattern of distribution over time)

Space: all things have different spatial patterns and geographical distributions -> better scheduling of human activities -> hazard- vulnerable activities concentrated in non-hazard season, schedule preparation Spatial 6.Area extent (space covered by the events) greater community to be loss 7. Spital dispersion: pattern of distribution over space -> have knowledge of where to occur more likely, what response is needed in which territory Inverse between magnitude and also frequency Structure of the earth: tectonic activity & climate change Not even distributed Inner core-> outer core-> mantle-> asthenosphere-> curst-> lithosphere 200m pangaea -> ocean Panthalassa Gondwanaland, Laurasia -> sea Tetheys Pattern of continents: Continental drift How it forumulates, process: 1960s: plate tectonic theory Large curst, plate, Curved to fit spherical 7 major plates: north, south, African, eurasian, indo Australian, pacific, Antarctic Move relative 1. Diverge-> move away-> lithosphere formed - Between two ocean plates: Mid- ocean ridges e.g. mid- atlantic ridges Seafloor spreading 2. Converge-> collide Collision between 2 Ocean lithopsere-> subduction zone-> more dense sink & melt, , melted magma, rose to form volcanoes - Collision between 2 continental lithopsere-> crunch-> form large mountains 3. Transform: Slide past each other (mostly in ocean) San andreas fault, pacific from north american

Lithopsere Oceanic: dark dense Continental: light, buoyant Volcanic-> plate boundaries Surface , interface between lithosphere and three others (energy flows and processes, elements of these systems-> hazard) 1. Atmosphere - Thin layer of air, conditions for life to exist, (energy and nutrients for lives) - Energy from sun-> basic power supply Absorb, reflect, emission solar, infrared 2. Day length 3. Angle of incidence 4. Conditions Spatial pattrens, greater in the lower attitudes Climate systems 1. Tropical cyclones 2. Hail 3. 4. 5. 6. Tornadoes Snow storms heatwaves Fog

Biosphere - Totality of living in oceans and land, within the environmental systems - Solar energy spread and impact, (biological influenced primarily by local and regional, climate and availability of food and other resources) Hazards: 1. 2. 3. 4. Epidemic diseasses of domesticated plants Epidemic of wildlife and plant Infestations of plants and animals (exotic) Communicable diseases of humans (epidemics and pandemics)

Epidemic: outbreak affect one or several communities in the same time

Pandemic: epidemic spread the whole world Hydrosphere - Solar energy drives movement of water between three atmosphere, oceans and continents - Flood, drought Earthquakes: vibrations of the earths crust, major occur along the boundaries of tectonic plates Mortality: highest in the pacific region, less developed Economic loss: more developed high infrastructures, like Japan 1. Physical exposure: japan, Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan Mid- plate earthquakes: less frequently and difficult to explain Magnitude and intensity-> comparison Map according to epic centre, focus below Inverse relationship Magnitude Momentum magnitude scale (richter scale)-> amplitude of waves generated at the focus and, amount of energy Intensity: Scale: modified mercalli scale Qualitative scale based of the damage to structures and peoples perceptions Seismic waves Energy released form focus of the earthquake Within the body, P , compressional - Move fast with push/ pull motion - Travel through all mass S, secondary or shear waves - Move slower with up/ down - Only solids And they reach the surface-> surface waves

along the surface Travel slower, move both horizontally and vertically with a rolling motion Damage near epicenter Seismographs-> record the arrivals of waves to station site Period: Inactive: stress built on fault Small earthquakes: stress begins to release, causing strain 1. Foreshocks (prior to major)/ not really 2. Mainshock, fault begins to release stress 3. After a major quake Effects: Primary 1. Ground rupture (displacement along the fault causes cracks in surface) 2. Loss of life 3. damage to infrastructure, Secondary-> secondary hazard 4. Fires 5. landslide 6. Tsunami 7. Liquefaction Tertiary:-> impairment of general social functions 1. Diseases 2. Contaminated water supplies Benefits: 1. new mineral resources to be exposed 2. scenic landscrapes 3. future earthquakes may be released due to release of energy Preparations: 1. education 2. insurance

3. critical facilities located in earthquake 4. buildings designed to withstrand vibrations (old buildings to be renovated)

Tsunami- harbor wave Vertical displacement of ocean water 1. large earthquake , uplift or downshifts of sea floor-> 2. tsunami move rapidly, frequence of wave crests is large and amplitudes small, cannot notice the change-> 3. near land , depth decreases, lose speed and gain height, more water piles up-> increasing amplitude and frequency 4. moves inland, destroys everything in its path, 10m, trough arrive first,exposuing the seafloor, run up: largest wave, more waves follow up 5. volcano flank collapse 6. submarine volcanic explosion 7. underwater landslide Regions (Pacific ocean, Mediterranean, Northeastern side of indian ocean) Coastal near sources (landslide, earthquake) Subduction zone High: vertical fault displacement & high earthquake hazard, active subduction zone with great earthquake, e.g. Alaska, japan, Indonesia, western south America Effects: Primary: (Flooding, erosion,) loss of life, debris eroded landscape and human structures Secondary: Fires, Tertiary contaminated water supplies, disease Benefits: 1. bring nutrients by soil Preparation: 1. warning system (monitor the zones, warning system: seismographs to detect, tidal gauges to see the sea level, buoy sensors to detect tsunami in open ocean)

2. structural control: building codes for susceptible coastline areas 3. run- up maps: show the height to which water is likely to rise 4. Better land use: vegetation for defense, monitor the development 5. Education: signs of tsunami & warning systems Volcanism: - Mountain formed by the accumulation of erupted lava/ volcanic ash - Many are extinct little threat - 600 highly active - Near plate boundaries-> narrow zone-> encircle pacific ocean, the ring of fire (subduction zone) Subduction zone volcanism: slabs of crust are deformed and move downward Spreading centre volcanism: divergent plate boundaries, mid oceanic ridges Intraplate volcanism: hotspots Hot spot: Yellowstone Mid-ocean ridges: Iceland Hazards: First: 1. Explosive eruption: superheated & poisonous gases, ash (tephra) falls, lava flows, volcanic bombs, debris and mud flows (lahars) Secondary: 2. Earthquakes 3. Landslides 4. Tsunami 5. Fire (hot lava) 6. Climate change: So2, Co2, alters climate Tertiary: Water supplies Benefits: 1. Volcanic soils (good for agricultural growing grapes, coffee,) 2. Mineral resouces (gold, silver), used for soap, building 3. Recreation: health spas, snow sports & education 4. Creation of new land 5. Geothermal power: create energy

Landslide: mass and rapid movement down slope of rock soil, coherent mass Falling & gravity

Forces: 1. Climate & vegetation( depends on the amount of water that infiltrates & eropes, types & abundance, vegetation defense, roots add strength to slope materials) 2. Human activities: urban areas, failure to be vulnerable, as artificial slopes and constructions 3. Caused by others like earthquakes, volcanoes, storms, fires Cause flooding & tsunami Tropical cyclone: centre of low pressure with low rotating winds, temporal spacing (seasons) Mortality low in dc, but great economic loss, vice versa for uc Tropical cyclone: warm, subtropical, tropical over ocean water quantative Extra- tropical: form over land or water in temperate regions Criteria: 1. Low pressure 2. A moist tropical atmosphere 3. Ocean temperatures>26 4. Minimum distance >500

Spirial rain bands: Clouds that spiril inward around centre Increase in intensity as towards the centre Eyewall: Innermost band of clouds Contain the greatest winds & rainfall Eye: area of calm at centre Narrow at surface & wide at top 80 occur, 15000 death 15% at risk 1500 m damage, Bhola- 1970, 300,000, lowlying in Bangladesh Warning system in HK: physical condition of it Effects: 1. Strong wind: structural damage 2. Heavy rainfall: flooding (affected by speed, interaction with other systems, amount of water in soil prior to storm) 3. Storm surge: rise in sea level result from strong winds, height greatest, as wind maximum, death, damage, salt contamination of farmland 4. High wind (saffir- simpson)- decrease exponentially with landfall Secondary: Coastal erosion Flooding Mass movements (landslide) How to prevent: 1. Engineer solution: Urbanization of vulnerable coastlines Destruction of sand dunes Constrcuction of sea wall Global warming Poor building materials & practices

2. Forcasting tools 3. 1. Weather satellites: detect early warning signals (no wind speed) Aircraft: fly into the storm to collect data Doppler radar: rainfall, win speed, direction of storm Weather buoys: automated systems Computer models: preduct & track, lack in predict intensity Community Warning systems Insurance Building design Shelter for emergency

Summer storms: 1. Thunderstorm: afternoon or evening in spring or summer Primary: 1. Lighting : - Electrocution of animals & humans - Vaporation of materials along its path - Fire (high temp) - Power surge damage sensitive elkctricla equipment 2. Hail: round pieces of ice from thunderstorms, contain rings due to updraft) - Hail move up & down, layers of water liquidify - Property damage 3. Torandoes (fujita scale): violently rotating, narrow column of air 200 m in diameter, extends from the ground to the base of a cumuliform cloud, 15-65 km in length Region: most in central USA

Winter: - Heavy snow - Accumulation of ice: damage electrical transoformation lines - Ice coating: highways & railways, disrupt the transport & communications

Blizzard: strong winds & low temperature Freezing rain Extremely cold

High extreme - High temp with humidity: imposing heat stress on the body Vulneragility: 1. Frequency 2. Age, behavioural (air condition, living alone, fatigue, low fitness, which house floor live in), personal (dehydration, )

Biological: Potato blight: 1.5 m, Bubonic plague Black death Influenza What threatens: Biotic agents: infectious disease spread by parasites, bacteria & virus AIDS, SARS, BSE, mad cow Vulnerability by: 1. Age 2. Gender 3. Previous health status 4. Occupation 5. Environmeal stting

6. Material setting Correlation between poverty & disease: Africa most serious affected by epidemics India How it prevails 1. Climate 2. Water supply 3. Sanitation 4. Socio- economic factors like nutritional, hygiene, population density Hydrological :

Flooding: high degree of inter- annual varability in flood losses, but broad trends

DC: decreasing flood related Increasing economic losses LDCs: inadequate warning systems and evacuation plans Why increase in flood losses: 1. Physically driven: greater frequency and magnitude (climate change) - Depth & velocity - Rate of rise & duration

Season factor

2. Human driven: vulnerability caused by greater human occupancy of flood prone areas Landuse Effectiveness of planning and warning Urbanisation: 1. highly impermeable surfaces which inhibit infiltration & enhance runoff 2. more quickly to the river, increasing the speed of onset to happen 3. construction of channel by intrusion of structures reduce capiacity 4. seawage systems cannot cope with runoff

Effects: Primary: 1. injury & loss of life 2. Damage caused by debris, to farms, buildings 3. Erosion of soil and vegetation Secondary: 1. River pollution Tertiary: 1.Hunger & disease 2. Homeless

Planning: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Flood diversion: diversify away from the vulnerable areas Building solutions: levees, embankments, channel improvements, reservoirs Land use planning & zoning Community: raise awareness by education , Effective plans at the onset of the event, given to the public forecasting & warning measures: intensive monitor of both rainfall, modeling to predict

Drought: slow onset!!! (usually associated with low rainfall, but even normal can happen) Unusually dry period which results in a shortage of water 1. Rainfall deficiency-> shortage of water in reservios & rivers Death: afraica, Economic low: spain, more well developed like Europe, south easter Australia 4 types: 1. Meteorological: short fall of participation 2. Hydrological: reduction in natural stream flow & reservoirs for water supply or hydropower generation 3. Agricultural: widespread, affecting agricultural production: particularly in DCs, but also many LDCs 4. Famine drought: agricultural-> redcuced food supply -> large starvation