Chapter 1 The water cycle plays a vital role on Earth Section 1.

1 Distribution of Water
The vast majority of water on Earth, about 97 percent, is salt water. Only 3 percent of the planets water is fresh water, meaning it does not contain salt. Two thirds of that freshwater supply is frozen in large masses of ice. That leaves less than 1 percent of Earths water as liquid fresh water.

The Water Cycle

Two common changes of state: evaporation and condensation. Evaporation is the change of state from a liquid to a gas. Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. These two changes of state make the water cycle possible. The suns energy drives the water cycle.

Section 1.2 Comparing Ocean Water and Fresh Water

The amount of salt dissolved in a specific amount of water is called salinity. The average salinity in all the worlds oceans is about 35 parts per thousand. Salinity in sea water can differ depending on the location In oceans salt comes from: Dissolved solids in the ground Volcanoes By far the most common material that is deposited into the ocean is sodium chloride, which is the chemical name for salt.

Density of Salt Water and Fresh Water

Density is the amount of mass of a substance in a certain unit volume. Because of the amount of salt in it, ocean water is denser than fresh water. There is more mass in 1L of fresh water. Ocean water has a density of 1027 kg/L and fresh water has a density of 1000kg/L.

Freezing Point of Salt Water and Fresh Water

The freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which it freezes. The freezing point of fresh water is 0C. Salt water has a freezing point of about -1.9C.

Section 1.3 Sources of Fresh Water

Lakes, Ponds; standing bodies of water Wetlands; low areas usually saturated with water Rivers and Streams; fast flowing bodies of water Ground Water; water in the ground Glaciers; large moving masses of ice and snow Deep cracks called crevasses will begin to form across the front of the glacier. Under gravitys pull, large pieces of the glacier will eventually break off and crash into the ocean. These big chunks of ice are called icebergs.

Glaciers and The Water Cycle

Glaciers exert a direct influence on the water cycle by slowing the passage of water through the cycle. They release the most, during the hot dry summer months.

Ice Ages
The most recent ice age began about 120 000 years ago, and ended only 11 000 years ago.

Glaciers and Global Warming

Global Warming refers to the increase in the average temperatures of Earths near surface air and oceans. Most glaciers in the world today are receding meaning that theyre melting and shrinking.

Drainage Basin
A drainage basin is the area of land that drains into a body of water such as a large pond, lake or ocean. What usually separates one drainage basin from another is called a divide, an area of very high ground. Water that does not soak into the ground or evaporate but instead flows across Earths surface is called run-off. The force pulling down to the lowest point is gravity, the same force that keeps us on the ground. Under gravitys influence, run-off will flow along the ground until it hits a low point on the surface or finds its way into a stream.

Factors Affecting Run-Off

The The The The The The nature of the ground material amount of rain length of time it rains slope of the land amount of vegetation amount of development in the area

Chapter 1 Definitions
1.) 2.) 3.) 4.) 5.) 6.) 7.) Atmosphere the air surrounding the planet Crevasse a deep crack in the glacier Density the amount of mass in a certain volume; how tightly packed together the material is in a substance Drainage Basin the area of land from which water drains into a certain body of water Freezing Point the temperature at which a substance freezes or solidifies Glacier a large compressed mass of ice and snow that does not melt away in the summer Global Warming the increase in the average temperatures of Earths oceans and air near Earths surface

8.) 9.) 10.) 11.) 12.) 13.) 14.) 15.)

Gravity the force that pulls all masses toward the center of Earth or any large mass Groundwater precipitation that falls on land and sinks out of sight and remains in the cracks underground Hydrosphere all of the water on Earth including that in the atmosphere and lithosphere Iceberg a large chunk of ice that has broken off a glacier and floats in the ocean Lithosphere the solid rocky ground of Earths crust Run-Off precipitation that falls to land and flows into creeks, streams, and rivers and eventually into the ocean Salinity the amount of salt dissolved in a specific amount of water Water Cycle the evaporation of water into a gas in the atmosphere and the precipitation of water in the air as it falls back to Earth in the form of rain or snow

Chapter 2 Oceans control the Water Cycle Section 2.1 Ocean Basins
The five major oceans, in order from largest to smallest, are the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern and Artic.

Origin of the Oceans

All of the continents were together in one land mass called Pangea. Slowly Pangea began to split. In a process called plate tectonics, pieces of the land mass began to move over Earths surface.

The Origin of Ocean Water

Water trapped inside the volcanic materials was also released into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor much like steam escaping from a kettle. As the water vapor cooled and condensed, it fell to Earths surface and precipitation.

A Journey on the Ocean Floor

When two plates are pushed apart, the underlying magma oozes up and quickly hardens, and forms long, undersea mountain chains called ocean ridges. With each new eruption, the now material pushes the tectonic plates further apart. The longest oceanic ridge is the mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the denser ocean plate is forced to bend steeply down beneath the less dense continental plate. When this happens, an ocean trench is formed. The deepest trench called the Marianas Trench, extends 11km below sea level.

Continental Margins
The area between the basin and the coastline is called the continental margin. These margins are made up of the continental shelf, and the continental slope. The continental shelf is the submerged part of the continent between the coast and the edge of the basin. Continental shelves slope gradually away from the land before dropping steeply downward at the shelf edge.

Exploring the Oceans

Sonar Mapping

Sonar mapping uses sound waves to probe the seabed. The depth of water is found by sending sound waves directly down from a shop and measuring the time it takes for the signals to hit the sea floor and bounce back to the surface.

Satellites

Satellites are able to record and transmit data in all kinds of weather and in both day and night. These satellites then transmit this data to stations all over the world.

Submersibles
Submersibles are small but extremely strong vehicles that are capable of travelling to great depths. There are two types of submersibles: manned submersibles remotely operated vehicles

Deep Sea Cameras and Video

New deep sea cameras and video allow pictures and video to be taken 6000m beneath the surface.

Section 2.2 Ocean Currents

An ocean current is a large amount of ocean water that moves in a particular unchanging direction. The most important currents for us are: Labrador Current (cold water from the North Pole) Gulf Stream (warm water from the tropics) Ocean currents can be divided into two types: surface currents (that extend to an average depth of 200m) deep water currents (that occur deeper than 200m)

Surface Currents
The steady flow of currents results from major wind patterns. *see Figure 2.14 on page 54 of the text. Three factors that influence ocean surface currents: wind, rotation of the Earth, and the shape of the Earths continents.

The Effect of Wind

The direction and speed of surface currents are directly connected to the direction and speed of the wind blowing over the water.

The Effect of the Earths Rotation

The spinning of Earth on its axis affects both winds and ocean currents all over the planet. As winds and currents move over this spinning body, their path gets redirected (deflected) depending on what side of the equator they are on. This alteration of direction is called the Coriolis Effect.

The Effect of the Continent Shape

Continents deflect east-west currents either to the north or to the south.

Deep Currents
For currents deep in the ocean, the most important influences on movement are water temperature and salinity.

Layers of the Ocean

1.) 2.) 3.)

Surface Layer heated by the sun, light can penetrate. ~0-200m deep Thermocline where sun cant, little to no light, temperature falls rapidly. ~200m-1000m Deep Ocean no light. Mostly very cold water ~1000m

Temperature affects the density of ocean water and cold water is denser than warm water and tends to sink. In the oceans, sinking masses of cold water flow downward and move along the ocean floor. These masses of cold water produce density currents that flow beneath the surface waters.

Water Salinity and Deep Currents

Density currents are also produced by the differences in the salinity (the amount of sea water. Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity)

Upwellings
Upwellings are the vertical movement of water from the sea floor to the ocean surface. These winds push the surface water away from the land. Cold, deep water then rises from below to replace the surface water that has been moved out to sea.

Section 2.3 Waves and Tides Ocean Waves

Ocean waves begin on the open ocean. Their height depends on how fast, how long, and how far the wind blows over the water. An increase in anyone of these variables can cause an increase in wave height. A waves height is measured from, its crest (the highest part of the wave) to its trough (the lowest part of the wave). Second, ocean waves also have a wavelength, which is the distance from one crest to the next.

Headland Erosion Erosion of a Headland

A headland is an area of hard rock which sticks out into the sea. Headlands form in areas of alternating hard and soft rock. Where the soft rock erodes bays are formed either side of the headland. As the headland becomes more exposed to the wind and waves the rate of its erosion increases. When headlands erode they create distinct features such as caves, arches, stacks and stumps.

Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4: stack. Stage 5:

Waves attack a weakness in the headland. A cave is formed. Eventually the cave erodes through the headland to form an arch. The roof of the arch collapses leaving a column of rock called The stack collapses leaving a stump.

How Beaches are Formed

As rock fragments rub against each other in the surging water, rock fragments are smoothed and ground down into smaller pebbles and grains of sand. Where the shoreline has a gentler slope and calmer waters, smaller rock fragments can settle and build up forming a beach.

Tides
Ocean tides are the regular daily cycles of the rise and fall of ocean water. The upper and lower edges of a beach are determined by the hightide and low-tide mark. The largest tidal movements called spring tides occur when the Earth, the Moon and the Sun are in a line. The smallest tidal movements called neap tides occur when the Sun and the Moon are at right angles to each other. The difference in level between high tide and a low tide is called the tidal range.

Chapter 2 Definitions
1.) 2.) 3.) Abyssal Plain the wide open regions of the ocean floor between the continents and the mountain ranges at the center of the ocean. Bays indented areas of coastland or areas in the coastline that are in between headlands. Breaker the crest of a wave that topples forward, collapsing onshore.

4.) 5.) 6.) 7.) 8.)

9.) 10.) 11.) 12.) 13.) 14.) 15.) 16.) 17.) 18.) 19.) 20.) 21.)

Continental Shelf the submerged, or underwater, part of the edge of the continents that slopes gradually away from land before dropping steeply downward. Continental Slope the submerged area of the edge of the continents, beyond the continental shelf, that drops steeply down to the ocean basin. Coriolis Effect the change in the direction of winds and currents caused by the rotation of Earth. Crest the highest part of a wave. Density Current a movement or flow of water along the sea floor caused by the sinking of dense water (cold water has higher density than warm water, and highly salty water has higher density than water with low salinity). Headlands the parts of the coastline that project farther out into the ocean than the land next to them. Neap Tide the smallest tidal movements that occur when the Sun and the Moon are at right angles to each other. Ocean Currents a large amount of ocean water that moves in a particular and unchanging direction. Ocean Ridges the undersea mountain chains that are formed when magma oozes up and solidifies between tectonic plates that are moving apart. Spring Tide the largest tidal movements that occur when Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are in a line. Swell a long smooth wave that moves steadily without breaking. Thermocline part of the ocean below the surface where the temperature drops sharply with depth. Tidal Range the difference between high tide and low tide. Tide slow rise and fall of the ocean caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. Trench the deep area that is formed when an ocean plate collides with a continental plate and is forced to bend steeply down beneath the continental plate. Trough the lowest part of a wave Tsunami a giant wave caused by an earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide on the ocean floor Upwelling vertical movement of water from the ocean floor, often caused by wind blowing surface water away from a shore.

22.) Wavelength distance from one wave crest to the next; length of one unit of a wave that repeats itself.

Chapter 3 Bodies of water influence climate and species distribution Section 3.1 Oceans and Climate
Weather is the short-term conditions in the atmosphere at a specific place and time. Weather can be described in terms of temperature, wind speed and direction, air pressure, and moisture (precipitation). Climate is weather conditions for a region average over a period of time.

Warm and Cold Currents

Warm ocean currents affect climate by transferring their heat to the atmosphere. Water has a very high specific heat capacity, which means that it takes a large amount of heat to increase its temperature a small amount.

The Transfer of Heat Affects Weather Convection

sun heats the ocean water this heat is released back into the air the now warm air rises because heat causes the air particles to spread out making it less dense as it rises it cools back down this cooler, denser air sinks back toward the ocean and starts the cycle again this process of heat transfer is called convection.

El Nino et La Nina El Nino occurs every 3-7 years

 changes wind patterns so surface water doesnt move and upwelling doesnt occur as normal. waters are warmer than usual affecting weather La Nina often happens after El Nino winds reverse so constant upwelling occurs waters are colder than normal affecting weather patterns.

Section 3.2 Freshwater Environment Lakes and Ponds

Much of the life in a lake or pond can be found near the shore, where the water is shallow and there are many nutrients for the plants and animals. There are two types of plankton: 1.) Phytoplankton (plant) 2.) Zooplankton (animal) Together these types of plankton form the first link in the aquatic food chain providing food for everything from insects to fish.

Life in Rivers and Streams

The types of organisms fund in the fast-moving waters of rivers depend on the temperature of the water, its speed and the amount of sediment in the water (turbidity)

Life of Wetlands
year. A wetland is lowland that is saturated with water for part or all of the

Wetlands contribute to the environment in many ways: the vegetation acts as filters for removing pollutant from the water. wetlands hold a huge quantity of water, which helps prevent flooding. they act as a resting point for many migrating birds

the thick vegetation of wetlands helps keep shorelines stable (they act as buffers) and minimizes erosion.

Life in Estuaries
An estuary is an area of wetland that builds up where a river meets the ocean. Nutrients that come from the land, rivers, and the ocean accumulate in estuaries. This makes estuaries ideal environments for both plants and animals.

Bioindicator Species
They are generally better at detecting changes in water quality than are testing instruments made by people. They are very sensitive to pollution, so their absence often indicates that the water may be polluted.

Saltwater Environments
Oceans form the worlds largest aquatic habitat. The greatest abundance of marine organisms is found in the top 180m of water. Bioluminescence is the ability of certain marine fish and invertebres to light up part of their bodies through a chemical reaction found in the deep sea.

Section 3.3 Human impact on Water Systems

Water is considered a renewable resource because it is recycled in the water.

Sources of Water Pollution

Pollution is a term that refers to any of numerous types of harmful materials that are released into the environment through natural or human activities.

The Effects of Water Pollution

Most pollution in the worlds oceans is found along the coasts of continents, which is where most of the worlds population lives. Environments such as beaches and estuaries are particularly sensitive because the pattern of eater flow can cause pollutants to become trapped.

Acid Precipitation
Pollution can then fall from the sky in the form of dissolved chemicals. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide get into the atmosphere as a result of the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline, oil and coal. The chemicals combine with water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acids and nitric acids. When this material falls to Earth, it is called Acid Precipitation.

-pH is a measure of how acidic or basic something is. -the pH scale ranges from 1-14 -low pH means acidic -high pH means basic -pH= 7 is neutral

Chapter 3 Definitions
1.) 2.) 3.) Acid Precipitation precipitation that carries acids formed by nitrogen and sulfur oxides, produced by burning coal and gasoline that have combined with water in the air. Aquaculture the growing and harvesting of marine species in a controlled marine area. Bioindicator Species organisms that are sensitive to pollution or other environmental changes; monitoring the numbers of these organisms helps scientists to gather information about the health of an ecosystem. Bioluminescence light produced by chemical reactions in the bodies of some living marine organisms.

4.)

5.) 6.) 7.) 8.) 9.) 10.) 11.) 12.) 13.) 14.)

Climateweather conditions of a specific area averaged over a long period of time, usually 30 years. Convection the process of heat transfer from one place to another by the movement of warm fluids from place to place. Estuary an area of wetland that builds up where a river meets the ocean. Invasive Species a new or foreign species that is introduced into a food web. Overfishing more of a particular species of fish are removed from an area than can be replaced by reproduction. Phytoplankton microscopic plant-like organisms that are a major source of food for many species of fish. Specific Heat Capacity the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a specific amount of a substance by 1.0 Weather the short-term conditions in the atmosphere at a specific place and time. Zooplankton tiny animals that eat other types of plankton for food; also a food source for larger marine animals. Wetland lowland that is saturated with water for part or all of the year.