Research Methods for Business

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Editing Coding Data entry Univariate data analysis

To detect errors and omissions, to correct them when possible. The purpose is to guarantee that data are:
Accurate Consistent with the intent of the question and other information Uniformly entered Complete Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation

By the field supervisor, soon after the data have been collected. Especially in a personal interview or paper-andpencil observation. Callback should be made rather than guessing To validate the results by reinterviewing some (#10%) of the respondents, verifying that they have participated and that the interviewer performed adequately.

By researcher or senior office supervisor After all data have been collected Sometimes answers can be detected by reviewing other information in the data set (ex: marital status) Editing can also help detect fake interviews by checking open-ended questions. Edited data should be identifiable by using different color pen/ pencil

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Two categories of DK: Legitimate DK responses (when the respondent does not know the answer):
If the information is meaningful (by researchers design) keep as one category If the questions for which a DK response is unsatisfactory redesign it.

Occur when participants accidentally skip, refuse to answer, or do not know the answer to an item. In longitudinal studies, missing data may result from participants dropping out of the study, or being absent for one or more data collection periods.

Failure to get the needed information (respondent does not want to answer)
Motivate respondents to provide more usable answers (in direct interview). Modify the way to ask to avoid sensitive questions

Assign the midpoint in the scale (interval-scaled item) Ignore the blank responses Assign the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that item Assign the mean value of the responses of the respondent to all other questions measuring the variable Give a random number within the range for that scale The best way to enhance the validity of the study: omit the case (big sample size)

Coding = assigning numbers/symbols to answers so that the responses can be grouped into categories. Ex: If the variable is gender, the partitions are male & female. Categorization: using rules to partition a body of data. sacrifices data detail but is necessary for analysis. Statistical programs work more efficiently in numeric mode. Instead of entering male or female, we would use codes 0 for male and 1 for female.
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A codebook, or coding scheme, contains each variable in the study and specifies the application of coding rules to the variable. Used by researcher for data entry and analysis process In many statistical programs (i.e. SPSS), the coding scheme is integral to the data file. Most codebooks contain the: Question number and Variable name Descriptors for the response options Specification as to whether the variable is alphabetic or numeric.
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Responses to closed questions include scaled items for which answers can be anticipated. It is possible to precode the questionnaire during the design stage. Precoding is helpful for data entry

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Use open-ended questions when being unable to prepare response categories in advance. Researchers must categorize responses after the data are collected. The variety of answers can be staggering, hampering categorization.

The categories within a single variable should be: Appropriate (for testing hypotheses/showing relationships/comparing). Exhaustive (fully capture all possible responses) Mutually exclusive (each specific answer can only be placed in one category) Derived from one classification principle (every option in the category set is defined in terms of one concept or construct. Ex: unemployed salesperson

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Research Methods for Business

Remember to reverse some negatively worded questions All answers should be in the same direction Example with Likert scale

Converts gathered data to a medium for viewing and analysis. Keyboarding remains a main measure for creating a data file and store it. Means of data entry for statistical packages: SPSS or SAS.

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Example of SPSS data file

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Create your data file on SPSS

Selecting the analysis method: No of variables to be analyzed at the same time? Purpose: sample description or generalization Scale of variables

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Start More than 2 variables

One variable

Number of variables

2 variables

Univariate Analysis

Bivariate Analysis

Multivariate Analysis

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Research Methods for Business

Nominal / ordinal scales

Response Category 1(Benthanh) 2 (Foster) 3 (Saigon) 4 (Heineken) 5 (Tiger) Frequency 1 3 45 120 92 261 Percentage 1 18 46 35 100% Cum. Percentage 1 19 65 100

N (sample size) Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis

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215 1 5 Statistic Std. Error (e) Statistic Statistic Std. Error (e) Statistic Std. Error (e) 2.25 0.06 0.83 0.57 0.17 0.45 0.33 22

Present the distribution of a nominal or ordinal scaled variable. Help detect mistakes during data coding/entry. Compare with the required distribution of variables. Provide a base for data transformation Sampling check.

S1: Statements of Ho and H1

Ex: The average age of 100 students in a sample = 24 (s=5). The researcher wants to test this estimate in the population: Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Ho: = 23 H1: 23

S2: Select the statistical test S3: Select (significance level, normally 0.05) S4: Calculate the critical value at sig. (one/two tailed) S5: Calculate the test statistics from the data set. S6: If test statistics > critical value reject Ho

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Research Methods for Business

Use t Test or Z Test to test the population mean given the sample mean. Z test is employed when: + Std. deviation of the population and any sample size. + Do not know Std. deviation of the population and sample size > 30 T test is employed when: + Do not know Std. deviation of the population and any sample size. + When Sample size > 30, t distribution = Z distribution

Average age of 100 students in the sample: = 24 (s=5). The researcher wants to test the estimate in the population: Null hypothesis Ho: = 23 Alternative hypothesis H1: 23 n = 100 >30 employ Z test Adopted sig. level = 0.05 (two tailed) Zc=1.96 Calculate Z with unknown : Z = ( ) n1/2/s = (24-23) x 1001/2/5 = 2 Z = 2 > Zc = 1.96 reject Ho Cannot conclude with 95 confidence that = 23 For proportion variable: Z = (p-)/(pq/n)1/2
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Employ Chi-square test to compare the distribution of categories in the sample with the expected distribution in the population. S1: Statements of H0, H1 S2: Determine and dF. dF = k 1 (k = no. of categories) S3: Calculate Critical Chi-Square S4: Calculate Chi-square test value S5: Accept/reject H0 : reject H0 if x2 (test value) > x2c(critical value). There is a statistically significant difference between the sample distribution and the population distribution of the variable in study. Chi-Square test is not reliable if the count in any cell <5.
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Occupation (1) Labour Office staff Manager Student Total

Oi (2) 15 20 25 35 100

Ei (3) 25 25 25 25 100

Oi Ei (4) -10 -5 5 10

(Oi - Ei)2 (5) 100 25 25 100

(Oi - Ei)2/ Ei (6) 4 1 1 4 x2=10

x2c

(1): Categories of occupation of internet users (2): Observed count (3) Expected count Ho: There is no difference in the occupation of internet users K=4 categories dF = k-1 = 3 x2c= 6.25 ( = 10%) x2=10 > x2c = 6.25 reject H0
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