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Combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies in logistics research

John Mangan
Irish Management Institute, Dublin, Ireland, and

Quantitative and qualitative methodologies 565

Received November 2002 Revised August 2003 Accepted January 2004

Chandra Lalwani and Bernard Gardner

Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Keywords Logistics, Research methods, Quantitative methods, Quality assessment Abstract The majority of logistics research is primarily populated by quantitative research viewed through a positivist lens. Increasingly, there are calls for logistics research to more frequently employ qualitative methodologies. The trend in management research generally is increasingly to use methods and approaches which provide a middle ground between the contrasting positivist and phenomenological paradigms and perspectives. Methodological triangulation, using quantitative and qualitative methodologies, increasingly provides multidimensional insights into many management research problems. This paper urges logistics researchers to think about the paradigm through which they view the world and to explore the use of alternative methodologies. If the ultimate aim is to gain knowledge about the world then one needs to do this in the most valid way possible. This paper describes the dominant research paradigms and perspectives and their generally concomitant research methodologies and describes some research (decision-making concerning choice of ports/ferries) where methodological triangulation, using quantitative and qualitative methodologies, yielded greater insights than would have been the case if a single research methodology had been employed.

Introduction This paper seeks to highlight the benets which can result from combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies in logistics research. This continues the theme advanced by previous contributions to this journal (Naslund, 2002) that much logistics research is dominated by quantitative methodologies (Mentzer and Kahn, 1995), with qualitative methodologies less often applied. Naslund argues that it is necessary to use both quantitative and qualitative methodologies if we really want to develop and advance logistics research. He cites Dunn et al. (1993, p. 2) who, in their discussion of logistics, marketing and operations research, state that: . . . a given eld may be underachieving if all of its research is being conducted within a narrow methodological domain. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies are generally associated, respectively, with the two principal research paradigms which are generally labelled positivism and phenomenology. The next section of this paper begins from the perspective of research philosophy and will give a brief overview of both paradigms and the concomitant methodologies generally associated with them. The case for triangulation of research approaches will be put forward. The application of quantitative and qualitative methodologies to a research question (choice of ports and ferries in Ireland) will be described and the resultant benets from triangulating quantitative and qualitative methodologies will be evidenced.

International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol. 34 No. 7, 2004 pp. 565-578 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0960-0035 DOI 10.1108/09600030410552258

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Complete details of the research results from the triangulated research effort are reported elsewhere (Mangan et al.). The focus of this paper is not to detail the decision model generated, but, instead, to achieve two objectives: rst, starting at the level of research paradigms and perspectives, to summarise the (both philosophical and practical) case for combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies in logistics research and, second, to evidence the benets of such methodological triangulation, and the application of a qualitative methodology in particular (given the infrequent application of such methodologies in logistics research) via a real-world research application.

Paradigms and methodologies The concept of the paradigm is central to the research process in all areas of study. A paradigm is a very general conception of the nature of scientic endeavour within which a given enquiry is undertaken, or, according to Wittgenstein (1961), a paradigm is basically a world-view. Gummesson (2000, p. 18) notes that the concept of the paradigm was brought to the fore by Thomas Kuhn, in the early 1960s, and can be used to represent peoples value judgements, norms, standards, frames of reference, perspectives, ideologies, myths, theories, and approved procedures that govern their thinking and action. Burrell and Morgan (1979) in their seminal text Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis applied the notion of paradigm to the social sciences and described four distinct paradigms (Figure 1), each of which they regard as being dened by very basic meta-theoretical assumptions. The stress that these four paradigms are mutually exclusive and that inter-paradigmatic journeys by researchers are rare. To quote Naslund (2002): People view the world differently. This has obvious implications for the research process, in logistics as in other disciplines, in that both researchers choice of methodology and their approach to research is often (and sometimes unnecessarily) bound up with their paradigmatic preferences. In Burrell and Morgans classication, the vertical axis is concerned with assumptions about the nature of society, while the horizontal axis is concerned with assumptions about the nature of social science. Research in the business and management arena is generally concerned more with the latter dimension, with researchers positioned along the subjective-objective axis. On the Burrell and Morgan framework, those in the interpretative paradigm (subjective end of the axis) have a concern to understand the world as it is . . . see the world as an emergent social process . . . and seek to understand at the level of subjective experience; in contrast, those in the functionalist paradigm (objective end of the axis) approach their subject matter from an objectivist point of view . . . seek to provide essentially rational explanations . . . and apply the models and methods of the natural sciences to human affairs (Burrell and Morgan, 1979, p. 25-8). No doubt there is both considerable blurring (Hussey and Hussey, 1997, p. 47) and oversimplication, but, in management research, the various paradigmatic positions are now often discussed in terms of an antithesis between two schools of philosophy (Gummesson, 2000, p. 19; Hussey and Hussey, 1997, p. 47), which are generally referred to and loosely labelled as positivism and phenomenology, and which generally accord with the lower two paradigms (interpretivist and functionalist) on the Burrell and Morgan framework (Figure 1). Table I outlines some of the key features of both paradigms, while Table II lists some

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Figure 1. Four paradigms for the analysis of social theory

Positivist paradigm Basic beliefs The world is external and objective Observer is independent Science is value-free Focus on facts Look for causality and fundamental laws Reduce phenomena to simplest events Formulate hypotheses and then test them Operationalising concepts so that they can be measured Taking large samples

Phenomenological paradigm The world is socially constructed and subjective Observer is part of what is observed Science is driven by human interests Focus on meanings Try to understand what is happening Look at the totality of each situation Develop ideas through induction from data Using multiple methods to establish different views of phenomena Small samples investigated in-depth or over time

Researcher should

Preferred methods include

Source: Easterby-Smith et al., 1991

Table I. Key features of the positivist and phenomenological paradigms

of the alternative terms for these two paradigms (Gummesson, 2000, p. 19, notes how both paradigms have many facets and names). Social scientists adopted the positivist approach when the social sciences were emerging towards the end of the nineteenth century because the approach had been used to much success previously in many of the natural sciences (Capra, 2002, p. 75;

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Positivist paradigm Quantitative Objectivist Scientic Experimentalist Traditionalist Hypothetico deductive Social constructionism

Phenomenological paradigm Qualitative Subjectivist Humanistic Interpretivist/hermeneutic Inductive

568
Table II. Alternative terms for the main research paradigms

Notes: This listing of terms has been distilled from Denzin and Lincoln (2000), Easterby-Smith et al. (1991), Gill and Johnson (1991), Gummesson (2000), Hussey and Hussey (1997), Ticehurst and Veal (2000), and from essays by both Ray; Cohen and Omery in Morse (1994)

Hussey and Hussey, 1997, p. 52). It was not long, however, before social scientists began to argue against positivism, pointing out that physical sciences deal with objects which are outside people whereas social sciences deal with action and behaviour which are generated from within the human mind and that, furthermore, the interrelationship between the investigator and what was being investigated was impossible to separate. This debate resulted in the application of the phenomenological paradigm in the social sciences. It can be suggested that the positivist paradigm is a top-down, outside-in research approach and that the phenomenological paradigm is a bottom-up, inside-out research approach. With regard to research into decision making in logistics; for example, it could be suggested that positivism is relevant for getting an overview and for considering the broad structure of decisions, whereas phenomenology is useful for nding out at the microlevel about the behaviour of the decision maker. This suggested dichotomy will be illustrated in the research example discussed in the second half of the paper. A wide variety of methodologies are available to the researcher which lend themselves more so (but not necessarily exclusively, as some methodologies can be used under either paradigm) to either paradigm. Many of these methodologies are listed in Table III, although it should be noted that both lists are not exhaustive. Triangulation of research approaches As noted earlier, the social sciences, which had originally adopted positivism as they were emerging towards the end of the nineteenth century, migrated towards the phenomenological paradigm. This trend away from positivism towards
Positivist paradigm Cross-sectional studies Experimental studies Longitudinal studies Surveys Models and simulation Phenomenological paradigm Action research Case studies Ethnography Construct elicitation Grounded theory Hermeneutics Participative enquiry

Table III. Methodologies used in the positivist and phenomenological paradigms

Source: Hussey and Hussey, 1997

phenomenology was also evident in much business research, but in recent decades there has been a move among researchers to develop methods and approaches (triangulation) which provide a middle ground, and some bridging between the two extreme viewpoints (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991). Hussey and Hussey (1997) state that the use of different research approaches, methods and techniques in the same study is known as triangulation and such triangulation can overcome the potential bias and sterility of single method approaches. According to Ticehurst and Veal (2000), triangulation gets its name from the land surveying method of xing the position of an object by measuring it from two different positions. Easterby-Smith et al. (1991) identied four different types of triangulation: (1) data triangulation, where data are collected at different times or from different sources; (2) investigator triangulation, where different investigators independently collect data; (3) methodological triangulation, where both quantitative and qualitative techniques are employed; (4) triangulation of theories, where a theory is taken from one discipline and used to explain a phenomenon in another discipline. As noted already in the introduction, Naslund (2002) has pointed out the necessity to use both quantitative and qualitative methods if we really need to develop and advance logistics research. Mentzer and Flint (1997) also advocate the use of different methodologies in logistics research to triangulate on the true nature of the phenomenon (i.e. methodological triangulation). Through such methodological triangulation they suggest that in logistics research . . . we begin to approach the level of rigor sought in other areas of business research, and we begin to more fully understand the phenomena we are trying to research. Triangulation of research methods lends greater empirical support to the theory in question. Such methodological triangulation can compensate for the aws, and leverage the strengths, of the various available methodologies. As an example, Svensson (2001) provides a good illustration of such methodological triangulation in his study on the impact of outsourcing on inbound logistics ows. An application of methodological triangulation A three-phase, methodologically triangulated research effort (Figure 2) was employed to investigate how decision makers decide which seaport/ferry options to use for roll-on/roll-off (RoRo) freight units travelling between both Ireland and the UK and Ireland and Continental Europe. From a philosophical perspective, it was intended to make an attempt to view the issues under investigation from both positivist and phenomenological perspectives, rather than from either extreme viewpoint only. The rst phase was thus an overview examination of the market under investigation, Phase 2 comprised the core (quantitative) analytical phase, while Phase 3 sought to examine the validity, via qualitative, inductive research, of the Phase 2 results. The issue of seaport/ferry choice was of signicant interest to many stakeholders in the Irish logistics sector, as there was considerable competition for trafc among all the major seaports. Furthermore, there was considerable anecdotal evidence of consignments transiting port/ferry options which were quite a distant from the

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Figure 2. Three-phase triangulated research methodology

shortest feasible path by distance, between freight origin and destination. It was hoped that the output from the research would be of interest from an academic perspective in that it would yield insights into complex decision-making in logistics chains. From a practical perspective, it was hoped that the research would yield insights of benet to consignors, hauliers and consignees, and to port operators and ferry companies by giving them an insight into how and why their service offerings are chosen. The three phases in the research were: (1) Phase 1 involved an investigation of RoRo port/ferry choice in the Irish market in an inductive manner. This involved both desk analysis of the Irish RoRo freight market and a series of interviews with (24) key actors in the Irish RoRo freight market who were selected based on their industry reputation and knowledge of the market. In addition, the author and a team of surveyors spent a number of days at one of Irelands busiest RoRo ferry ports and conducted short interviews with 245 randomly selected truck drivers. Both sets of interviews provided an in-depth insight into various issues concerning the operation and structure of the market under investigation and, as such, provided a useful platform for embarking on the more focused Phase 2 research effort. (2) Phase 2 investigated RoRo port/ferry choice in a deductive manner. This involved: . a rigorous sampling exercise which involved eliciting a representative sample of decision makers engaged in the Irish RoRo freight trade from 14 separate sampling frames; . development and pilot testing of a questionnaire (across nine interviews); . A total of 57 personal interviews with decision makers using a structured questionnaire; and

survey data analysis using quantitative techniques (specically factor analysis, with which most readers will be familiar, and analysis using the Aaker and Day model). The Aaker and Day model (Brooks, 2000; XXX, 2002>) distinguishes factors judged merely to be important from actual determinants of choice: Brooks called the latter factors salient factors. Briey, the model works by testing for statistically signicant differences in performance of a particular (and ranked important) factor on two competing choice options. (3) Phase 3 involved again in investigating RoRo port/ferry choice in an inductive manner. The purpose of Phase 3 was, in essence, to clarify the validity of the (largely quantitative) Phase 2 results from an inductive, qualitative perspective. This involved taking the results obtained in Phase 2 and further investigating these using construct elicitation, a qualitative interviewing methodology based on Kellys theory of personal constructs. For Phase 3 it was decided to interview only route decision makers regarded by their peers as leaders in the eld of choosing appropriate routes, as it was felt that they would give the richest insight into optimum decision making (and, ultimately, the validity of the Phase 2 results). A total of ten such decision makers were interviewed, having been identied via a Delphi type exercise using a panel of seven experts within the Irish logistics sector (these experts were regarded as best positioned to identify the leading decision makers).
.

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Complete details of both the Phase 2 quantitative modelling and the research results from the triangulated research effort are reported elsewhere (XXX, 2002). The particular focus of this paper is not to detail the decision model generated, but, instead, to: . evidence the benets which arose from methodological triangulation; and . highlight the benets which arose from using a qualitative methodology in particular (in Phase 3), especially in the context of the relatively infrequent application of qualitative methodologies in logistics research. The next section of the paper details the selection of the qualitative methodology, employed in Phase 3, from the raft of available qualitative methodologies. Selecting an appropriate qualitative methodology The various methodologies which lend themselves more to the phenomenological paradigm (Table III) were reviewed with regard to their suitability for the Phase 3 research[1]. Coughlan and Coghlan (2002) describe action research as a generic term which covers many forms of action oriented research and which yields both action and research outcomes. Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 65) note that it is usual to conduct action research within a single organisation and that it is thus similar to the case-study approach in many of its procedures. They describe the case-study approach as an extensive examination of a single instance of a phenomenon of interest. Voss et al. (2002) note that case research has consistently been one of the most powerful research methods in operations management, particularly in the development of new theory. Both action research and the case approach generally focus on single organisations,

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and, while in-depth research on route decision makers in a single organisational context might yield interesting insights, it was felt that for the purposes of Phase 3 it would be more appropriate to study a range of decision makers across heterogeneous organisations. Both approaches were thus discounted for the Phase 3 research effort. Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 67) describe ethnography as a method which stems from anthropology and involves using socially acquired and shared knowledge to understand observed patterns of human activity. With this technique ,the main method of collecting data is participant observation. The technique has been applied in a wide variety of different contexts. Muecke (1994), for example, details the application of the technique to the eld of nursing, while Nandhakumar (1997) reported on his participant observation study of information systems development. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 203), however, noted that ethnography is perhaps the most hotly contested site in qualitative research today. Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 68) cite a variety of problems with the technique, not least being the question of whether it is possible to generalise from specic cases of participant observation. Again, the technique was considered not particularly suitable for the Phase 3 research effort. The methodology of grounded theory dates back to 1967 and the seminal work The Discovery of Grounded Theory, by Glaser and Strauss. Grounded theory (Bartlett and Payne, 1997; Strauss and Corbin, 1990) is a phenomenological methodology which was originally applied in the medical eld, but has become popular among sociologists and is becoming increasingly popular in business research. The technique uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon; in grounded theory, induction precedes deduction. The technique involves some ten processes which revolve around the joint collection, coding (i.e. labelling of data thus allowing the data to be separated, compiled and organised) and analysis of data, with the researcher alternating between inductive and deductive thought. Generally (though not always, because any source of textual data may be utilised), the starting point for the research is semistructured interviews or observations. The inductive/deductive approach and the constant reference to the data helps to ground the theory. According to Partington (2002, p. 136), fundamentally grounded theory is about being systematic with qualitative data (using the procedures developed by Glaser and Strauss) but now the term grounded theory has taken on a more generic meaning, tending to embrace all theory-building approaches which are based on the coding of qualitative data, with many researchers somewhat deviating from the rigour of the original Glaser and Strauss approach. Grounded theory would have been very suitable for the Phase 3 research, except for the fact that construct elicitation (detailed below) was selected instead. The main reason in this regard was that while the Phase 2 research was entirely deductive, it was felt that a predominantly inductive approach would be employed for Phase 3. Grounded theory mixes induction/deduction, while construct elicitation is fully inductive and was thus selected. Hermeneutics is a phenomenological methodology which, according to Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 71), was originally concerned with interpreting ancient scriptures and which essentially involves paying particular attention to the historical and social context surrounding an action when interpreting a text. They point out that the method has been applied to research in law where the reasons behind judgements or statutes are sought, but that the technique has not been widely applied in business research. It was felt that the technique would be of no signicant use in the context of the Phase 3

research effort[2]. The penultimate phenomenological methodology detailed in Table III is participative enquiry, which Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 72) describe as a research technique with people rather than on people and where the participants are involved as fully as possible in the research (for example in data gathering and analysis). In essence, then, the technique is somewhat related to the participant observation approach used in ethnography detailed above. Again it was felt that the technique would be of no signicant use in the context of the Phase 3 research effort. The nal methodology listed in Table III is construct elicitation, which has its roots in the seminal work, published in 1955, of George Kelly A Theory of Personality: the Psychology of Personal Constructs. The basis of Kellys technique was for the researcher to identify and gain a wider knowledge of what he termed the interviewees personal constructs[3]. Kelly (1955) denes constructs as the way in which some things are construed as being alike and yet different from others. Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 253) dene constructs as the qualities which an individual uses to describe and differentiate between the elements, and they describe elements as the objects of the interviewees perceptions. Kelly (1955) denes elements as the things or events which are abstracted by a construct. In the context of this research, the elements were the various ports and ferries which the decision maker could possibly use, while the constructs were the various qualities which the decision maker uses to describe and differentiate between these various ports and ferries in order to make their decision. Stewart and Stewart (1997) detail the application of the technique to the management eld and point out that, especially in the rst few decades after the publication of Kellys seminal work in 1955, it was conned to use within psychotherapy and related areas. Personal construct psychology was rst used in a business context in market research and then in the personnel area. Examples of applications of the technique include: Moynihan (1996), who used it to develop an inventory of personal constructs for information systems risk researchers; Hisrich and Jankowicz (1990), who used the technique for examining intuition in venture capital decisions; and Anderson (1990), who suggested use of the technique for employee selection. Central to construct elicitation is an approach known as laddering (Fransella, 1995; Stewart and Stewart, 1997), originally put forward by Hinkle in 1965 and described as a skill or an art form. Laddering effectively involves ensuring that the true nature of the construct emerges (this simply involves the interviewer asking why?). If someone says, for example, something is important, the interviewee should be asked why this is important and so on until the true nature of the construct is elicited. Indeed, an analogous technique is employed in some production systems to identify the root causes of faults in the Toyota Production System, for example, the approach is to ask why, ve times in order to determine the root causes of production faults (Christopher, 1999). Given the purpose of Phase 3 (which was in essence to clarify the validity of the, largely quantitative, Phase 2 results from a qualitative perspective) construct elicitation was deemed to be ideally suited. Added to this was the fact that other applications of the technique within a logistics context were not known and thus use of the technique was considered to be both challenging and novel. Findings The output from the Phase 2 research comprised: identication via factor analysis of three factors considered important in route choice decision-making (which were

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broadly labelled: a speed/risk/convenience factor; a cost and convenience factor; and a driver factor); a hierarchy of mean importances for 15 port/ferry choice factors (Table IV); and identication of salient factors (i.e. actual determinants of choice) using the Aaker and Day model (Table IV). The output of the ten interviews employing construct elicitation in Phase 3 also identied those factors considered important in port/ferry route choice (Table IV). As can be seen from the table, 12 of the 15 factors (including the salient factors) used in the Phase 2 research were also elicited during
Mean importance in Phase 2 research 4.578 4.408

Factor 1. Space available when needed on ferry 2. Sailing freq./convenient sailing times

Salient in Phase 2 research? Yes

Construct elicited in Phase 3? Yes Yes (frequency of ferry service; ferry arrival and departure times; parallel sailing timings reduce choice; convenient sailing times) Yes Yes (also: speed of ferry service) Yes (location of trafc origin; location of trafc destination) Yes (bulk discounts from ferry companies; cost of the ferry service) Yes (delays at ports; potential for delays on certain port access/egress routes; port protests) No Yes (ferry suitable for unacc. cargo; ferry suitable for haz. cargo) Yes (tacho restrictions; driving bans; if load overweight avoid routings over UK; Irish trucks delayed by UK police) No Yes (catering; staff attitudes; incentives; distractions from passengers) Yes No Yes (options to get units from UK ports to other UK ports; partner ferry services on the English Channel)

3. Risk of cancellation/delay 4. Port and ferry on fastest overall route 5. Proximity of ports to origin/destination 6. Cost of ferry service/discounts 7. Speed of getting to/through ports

4.340 4.160 4.083 4.000 3.959 Yes

8. Port/ferry on cheapest overall route 9. Ferry suitable for unacc. or special cargo 10. Delays due to driving bans, tacho, etc.

3.776 3.558 3.543

11. Availability of info on sailing options 12. Facilities for drivers 13. Opportunity for driver rest break 14. Preference of consignor/consignee 15. Intermodal/connecting transport links

3.314 3.250 3.118 2.413 2.093

Table IV. Comparison of choice factors elicited during the Phase 2 (quantitative) research and the Phase 3 (qualitative) research

construct elicitation in Phase 3. Three factors (#8, #11 and #14), ranked in the Phase 2 research, were not, however, elicited in Phase 3. Three issues are of note with regard to the absence of these factors from Phase 3. First, none of these three factors were identied as determinants of choice in the Phase 2 Aaker and Day analysis. Second, none of the factors were ranked as being of particular importance in Phase 2 (the most important of the three was only ranked eight). Third, the Phase 2 factors were chosen based on a review of the literature and subsequent piloting of a draft survey instrument. In contrast, the Phase 3 factors were actually elicited from the respondents. Based on these three issues then, it could, therefore, be argued that the absence of the three factors from the Phase 3 results is not a matter of particular concern. With regard to the Phase 3 research output, what is of particular interest is that: . four other factors, not specically used in Phase 2, were elicited in the Phase 3 construct elicitation and these are shown in Table V; and . an extra layer of richness concerning the exact nature of some of the individual factors also emerged (Table IV). For example, the literature review and questionnaire development for Phase 2 suggested inclusion in the questionnaire of a choice factor facilities for drivers. Construct elicitation revealed that some obvious (e.g. standard of onboard catering for drivers) and perhaps not so obvious issues (the potential for drivers travelling on ferries to be disturbed by announcements which are only intended for passengers and not truck drivers) exist within this factor. Conclusion This paper had two objectives: rst, starting at the level of research paradigms and perspectives, to summarise the (both philosophical and practical) case for combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies in logistics research and, second, to evidence the benets of such methodological triangulation, and the application of a qualitative methodology in particular (given the infrequent application of such methodologies in logistics research) via a real-world research application. The majority of logistics research is, rightly or wrongly, primarily populated by quantitative research viewed through a positivist lens. This is a reection of the (generally functionalist) paradigm, which many logistics researchers use to view the world, which, in turn, generally dictates certain choices of methodology (in the case of positivists, quantitative methodologies are generally preferred). Morgan and Smircich (1980) pointed out that an overemphasis on which methods are employed obscures the link between the assumptions a particular researcher holds and the overall research effort. They suggest that much of the debate and criticism over methodology involves researchers who are failing to communicate with one another because they hold varying basic assumptions about their subject. Hopefully, the discussion in this paper of research involving paradigms and perspectives, and the subsequent case for

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1. 2. 3. 4.

Ferry company marketing (sales reps visits, etc.) Depends on when the goods are due Dictated by the location of the hauliers depot/conguration of the hauliers network Security (security of units onboard from competitors and passengers; risk of hijacking)

Table V. Other factors elicited during the Phase 3 research

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research triangulation, will prompt researchers to consider their paradigmatic orientation and its impact on methodology selection and their research. Indeed, it is important to point out that qualitative research is generally associated with the phenomenological paradigm, and, as such, is not preferred by many positivists, it is, in fact, multiparadigmatic (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000, p. 6; Naslund, 2002, p. 324) and can thus be utilised in diverse research contexts. The three-phase research reported in this paper involved alternating between inductive, deductive and again inductive thought. There is nothing particularly new in this in that often researchers will implicitly (if even unknowingly!) attempt such a process, perhaps in some instances leaving the latter inductive phase to a follow-on research effort. The research reported here attempts to illustrate that such a process is wholly possible within a single research programme. Partington (2002, p. 155) points out that theorizing will always involve the iterative use of both processes, with the added ingredient of inspiration! Construct elicitation proved a useful and insightful qualitative methodology and complemented the quantitative methodologies employed elsewhere in the research. The extensive raft of qualitative methodologies which are generally available to researchers and their potential use to logistics researchers in particular was insightful during the course of this research. Researchers should thus be encouraged to explore such methodologies and examine their applicability to particular research questions; a word of caution is, however, important and that is that such methodologies can in themselves be quite complex. For example, many researchers do not adhere to Glaser and Strausss original and somewhat complex formulation for grounded theory, with Stern (1994) pointing to the erosion of grounded theory and also lamenting what she terms the menace of minus mentoring (learning the technique from a book). To conclude, one looks forward to see the (correct) application of more qualitative methodologies in logistics research; no doubt the discipline of logistics can only but be enriched by such a development.
Notes 1. A variety of techniques are available to analyse data generated by the various methodologies used in the phenomenological paradigm. Content analysis, for example, is one such technique and is described by Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 250) as a way of systematically converting text to numerical variables for quantitative data analysis. The technique does not merely involve arbitrarily counting key words; Berg (1995) points out that the criteria of selection used in any content analysis undertaking must be sufciently exhaustive to account for each variation of message content and must be rigidly and consistently applied so that other researchers would obtain similar results. Pisharodi (1991), for example, used a variant of content analysis (script-theoretic modelling) to analyse transport choice decisions. Hussey and Hussey (1997, pp. 257-9) detail a number of other techniques for the analysis of data generated by the various methodologies used in the phenomenological paradigm. One such other technique is the general analytical procedure. This is basically a common sense sequence of qualitative steps for data distillation and data display (in the form of networks, matrices, charts, graphs, etc.). 2. On a point of clarication, it is contended here that the term hermeneutic, which is used in an adjectival sense, as are other terms such as interpretivist, to describe the broad and generic phenomenological paradigm (Table II) should be distinguished from the phenomenological methodology of hermeneutics detailed here. The latter is, of course, effectively an interpretivist or hermeneutic technique.

3. It should be noted that Kelly went further than just a consideration of the elicitation of personal constructs. Drawing on his training in mathematics, Kelly designed a technique (the repertory grid technique) whereby the mathematical relationships between constructs could be obtained. References Anderson, N. (1990), Repertory grid technique in employee selection, Personnel Review, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 9-16. Bartlett, D. and Payne, S. (1997), Grounded theory: its basis, rationale and procedures, in McKenzie, G., Powell, J. and Usher, R. (Eds), Understanding Social Research: Perspectives on Methodology and Practice, Falmer Press, London. Berg, B. (1995), Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, Allyn & Bacon, London. Brooks, M.R. (2000), Performance evaluation of carriers by North American companies, Transport Reviews, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 205-18. Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. (1979), Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis, Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot. Capra, F. (2002), The Hidden Connections, Doubleday, New York, NY. Christopher, M. (1999), Gaining competitive advantage through superior logistics, Conference at the Irish Management Institute, 9 March, Dublin. Cohen, M. and Omery, A. (1994), Schools of phenomenology: implications for research, in Morse, J.M. (Ed.), Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods, Sage Publications, London. Coughlan, P. and Coghlan, D. (2002), Action research for operations management, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 220-40. Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (1994), Handbook of Qualitative Research, 1st ed., Sage Publications, London. Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (2000), Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, London. Dunn, S., Seaker, R., Stenger, A. and Young, R. (1993), An assessment of logistics research paradigms, Working Paper, No. 93-5, Center for Logistics Research, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (1991), Management Research: an Introduction, Sage Publications, London. Fransella, F. (1995), George Kelly, Sage Publications, London. Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (1991), Research Methods for Managers, Chapman Publishing, Liverpool. Gummesson, E. (2000), Qualitative Methods in Management Research, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, London. Hisrich, R. and Jankowicz, A. (1990), Intuition in venture capital decisions: an exploratory study using a new technique, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 49-63. Hussey, J. and Hussey, R. (1997), Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students, Macmillan Press, London. Kelly, G.A. (1955), A Theory of Personality: The Psychology of Personal Constructs, Norton and Company, New York, NY. Mangan, J. Gardner, B. and Lalwani, C. (1997), Modelling port ferry choice in RoRo freight transportation, International Journal of Transport Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, February, pp. 15-28.

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Mentzer, J. and Kahn, K. (1995), A framework of logistics research, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 231-50. Morgan, G. and Smircich, L. (1980), The case for qualitative research, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 491-500. Moynihan, T. (1996), An inventory of personal constructs for information systems risk researchers, Journal of Information Technology, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 359-71. Muecke, M. (1994), On the evaluation of ethnographies, in Morse, J.M. (Ed.), Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods, Sage Publications, London. Nandhakumar, J. (1997), Issues in participant observation: a study of the practice of information systems development, in McKenzie, G., Powell, J. and Usher, R. (Eds), Understanding Social Research: Perspectives on Methodology and Practice, Falmer Press, London. Naslund, D. (2002), Logistics needs qualitative research: especially action research, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 32 No. 5, pp. 321-38. , Partington, D. (Ed.) (2002), Grounded theory, Essential Skills for Management Research, Sage Publications, London. Pisharodi, R. (1991), The transport choice decision process: the potential, methodology and applications of script-theoretic modelling, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 21 No. 5. Ray, M. (1994), The richness of phenomenology: philosophic, theoretic, and methodologic concerns, in Morse, J.M. (Ed.), Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods, Sage Publications, London. Stern, P. (1994), Eroding grounded theory, in Morse, J.M. (Ed.), Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods, Sage Publications, London. Stewart, V. and Stewart, A. (1997), Business Applications of Repertory Grid, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research, Sage Publications, London. Svensson, G. (2001), The impact of outsourcing on inbound logistics ows, The International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 21-35. Ticehurst, G.W. and Veal, A.J. (2000), Business Research Methods, Longman/Pearson, Australia. Voss, C., Tsikriktsis, N. and Frohlich, M. (2002), Case research in operations management, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 195-219. Wittgenstein, L. (1961), Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, RKP, London. Further reading Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (n.d), The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Aldine Publishing, Chicago, IL. McKenzie, G. (1997), The age of reason or the age of innocence?, in McKenzie, G., Powell, J. and Usher, R. (Eds), Understanding Social Research: Perspectives on Methodology and Practice, Falmer Press, London.