ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: Central Nervous System a. Brain b. Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System - Lies outside the CNS consist of: a. Nerves o 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves b. Ganglia

The 2 subdivisions of Peripheral Nervous System: Sensory(afferent) Division o Conducts action potentials from the sensory receptors to CNS. Sensory Neurons o Neurons that transmit action potential from the periphery to CNS. Motor(efferent) Division o Conducts action potentials from the CNS to effector organs such as muscles and glands. Motor Neurons o Neurons transmit action potentials from the CNS toward periphery.

The Motor Division can be further subdivided into the: 1. Somatic Motor Nervous System Transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles. Voluntary 2. Autonomic Nervous System Transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands. Involuntary

2 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

a) Sympathetic Division Prepares a person for physical activity by increasing heart rate and blood pressure, by dilating respiratory passageways, and by stimulating perspiration. It also stimulates the release of glucose from the liver for energy. Referred to as fight-or-flight system. b) Parasympathetic Stimulates vegetative activities, such as digestion, defecation and urination. It slows the heart rate and respiration. It also causes the pupil to constrict and the lens to thicken.

Cells of the Nervous System

Neurons or Nerve Cells Basic units of the nervous system. Receives stimuli and transmit action potentials to other neurons or to effector organs. Neurons consist of 3 basic structures: Body Contains a single nucleus and is the source of information for protein synthesis. Dendrites Are short, often highly branching cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered from their bases at the neuron cell body to their tip. Function: it receives information from other neurons or from sensory receptors and transmit the information toward the neuron cell body. Axon (nerve fibers) It is a long cell process extending from the neuron cell body. It originates in the Axon hillock of the body cell that transmits signals from the cell body to various parts of the nervous system. They conduct action potentials away from the CNS. CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

CELL TYPE NEURON Multipolar

DESCRIPTION

FUNCTION

Several dendrites and one axon One dendrite and one axon

Most motor neurons and most CNS neurons Found in special sense organs such as the eye and the nose Most sensory neurons

Bipolar

Unipolar

A neuron with a single axon

Neuroglia Astrocytes

Star-shaped

Provide structural support; form a layer around blood vessels, contribute to bloodbrain barrier Line ventricles of brain, circulate cerebrospinal fluid; some form choroid plexus, which produce CSF Protects CNS from infection; become phagocytic in response to inflammation Cell processes form myelin sheaths around axons, or enclose unmyelinated axons in the CNS Form myelin sheaths around axons in the PNS

Ependymal Cells

Squamous epithelial-like

Microglia

Small mobile cells

Oligodendrocytes

Cell with processes that can surround several axons

Schwann Cells

Single cells surrounding axons

Myelinated Axons Have specialized sheaths, called myelin sheaths, wrapped around them.

Myelin is an excellent insulator, which prevents almost all electrical current flow through the cell membrane. Nodes of Ranvier

Synapse -

They are gaps in myelin sheath that can be seen about every millimeter between the oligodendrites segments or between individual Schwann cells.

The junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with another neuron or an effector organ such as a muscle or gland.

SPINAL CORD Extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the second lumbar vertebra. A cross section of the spinal cord reveals that the cord consists of a peripheral white matter portion and a central gray matter portion. White matter consists of myelinated axons. Gray matter mainly a collection of neuron cell bodies. SPINAL NERVES Arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots and ventral roots. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves because they contain axons of both sensory and somatic motor neurons. Some also contain parasympathetic or sympathetic axons. They are categorized by the region of the vertebral column for which they are emerged cervical (C), thoracic (T), lumbar (L), sacral (S), and coccygeal (Co). The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are therefore C1 C8, T1 T12, L1 L5, S1 S5, and Co. They are also organized into three plexuses: the cervical plexus, the brachial plexus, and the lumbosacral plexus. Cervical Plexus - originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4. Phrenic Nerve - is one of the most important branches of the cervical plexus which innervates the diaphragm. Brachial Plexus originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1. Five Major nerves emerge from the brachial plexus to supply the upper limb and shoulder. a. Axillary Nerve innervates two shoulder muscles and the skin over part of the shoulder.

b. Radial Nerve innervates all the muscles located in the posterior arm and forearm. It innervates the skin over the posterior surface of the arm, forearm, and hand. c. Musculocutaneous Nerve innervates the anterior muscles of the arm and the skin over the radial surface of the forearm. d. Ulnar Nerve innervates two anterior forearm muscles and most of the intrinsic hand muscles. e. Median Nerve innervates most of anterior forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand muscles. It also innervates the skin over the radial side of the hand. Lumbosacral Plexus originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4. Four major nerves exit the plexus to supply the lower limb. a. Obturator Nerve innervates the muscles of the medial thigh and the skin over the same region. b. Femoral Nerve innervates the anterior thigh muscles and the skin over the anterior thigh and medial side of the leg. c. Common Fibulae Nerve innervates the muscles of the lateral thigh and leg and some intrinsic foot muscles. It innervates the skin over the anterior and lateral leg and the dorsal surface of the foot. d. Sciatic Nerve innervates the posterior thigh muscles, anterior and posterior leg muscles and most foot muscles. It also innervates the posterior leg and sole of foot.

BRAIN
The major regions of the brain are the brainstem, the diencephalon, the cerebrum, and the cerebellum.

 Brainstem connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain. It consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain and contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions such as the control of the heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing. Medulla Oblongata is the most inferior portion of the brainstem and is continuous with the spinal cord. It extends to the level of the foramen magnum and the pons. It contains discrete nuclei with specific functions such as regulation of heart rate and blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance and coordination. Pons it is superior to the medulla oblongata that contains ascending and descending nerve tracts, as well as several nuclei. Midbrain it is the smallest region of the brainstem that contains nuclei involved in the coordination of eye movements and in the control of pupil diameter and lens shape. Reticular Formation plays an important regulatory functions in the brain. It is particularly involved in regulating cyclical motor functions such as respiration, walking and chewing. Reticular Activating System plays an important role in arousing and maintaining consciousness and in regulating the sleep-wake cycle. Damage to cells of reticular formation can result in coma. Cerebellum it means little brain. It is attached to the brainstem by several large connections called cerebellar perduncles. Diencephalon is the part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum. Its main components are the thalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus. Thalamus is by far, the largest part of the diencephalon. It consists of a cluster of nuclei and is shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, with two large, lateral parts connected in the center by a small interthalamic adhesion. It influences mood and registers an unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain. Epithalamus is a small area superior and posterior to the thalamus. It consists of a few small nuclei that are involved in the emotional and visceral response to odors, and the pineal body.

 Pineal Body is an endocrine gland that may influence the onset of puberty. It also play a role in controlling some long-term cycles that are influence by the light-dark cycles.
Hypothalamus - is the most inferior part of the diencephalon and contains

several small nuclei which are very important in homeostasis. It plays a central role in the control of body temperature, hunger and thirst. Sensations such as sexual pleasure, feeling relaxed and good after a meal, rage and fear are related to hypothalamic functions. Emotional responses, which seem to be inappropriate to the circumstances, such as nervous perspiration in response to stress or feeling hungry as a result of depression, also involve the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus plays a major role in controlling the secretion of
hormones to the pituitary gland.

Cerebrum - is the largest part of the brain that is divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal fissure. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into lobes named for the skull bones overlying them. o Frontal Lobe is important in the control of voluntary motor functions, motivations, aggression, mood, and olfactory (smell) reception. o Parietal Lobe is the principal center for the reception and conscious perception of most sensory information, such as touch, pain, temperature, balance, and taste. o Occipital Lobe functions in the reception and perception of visual input and is not distinctly separate from the other lobes. o Temporal Lobe is involved in olfactory and auditory sensations and plays an important role in memory.

CRANIAL NERVES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Origin Roof of Nasal Mucosa Retina Midbrain Midbrain Pons Pons Pons Pons Medulla Oblongata Medulla Oblongata Medulla Oblongata Medulla Oblongata

Number I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Name Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal Abducent Facial Vestibulocochlear Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accesory Hypoglossal

General Function Sensory Sensoey Motor Motor Sensory, Motor Motor Sensory, Motor Sensory Sensory, Motor Sensory, Motor Motor Motor

NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that facilitate the transmission of nerve impulses across the synapse. Some of the important neurotransmitters and their functions are discussed in this article. Acetylcholine - is the first neurotransmitter to be discovered in the year 1921. This neurotransmitter is responsible for stimulating muscles. It activates the motor neurons that control the skeletal muscles. It is also concerned with regulating the activities in certain areas of the brain, which are associated with attention, arousal, learning and memory. People with Alzheimer's disease are usually found to have a substantially low level of acetylcholine.

Dopamine - is the neurotransmitter that controls voluntary movements of the body and is associated with the reward mechanism of the brain. In other words, dopamine regulates the pleasurable emotions, and drugs like cocaine, heroin, nicotine, opium and even alcohol increase the level of this neurotransmitter, for which the user of such drugs feels good. Decreased level of dopamine is associated with Parkinson's disease, while the patients of schizophrenia are usually found to have excess dopamine in the frontal lobes of the brain. Serotonin - is an important inhibitory neurotransmitter, which has been found to have a significant effect on emotion, mood and anxiety. It is also involved in regulating sleep, wakefulness and eating. A significantly low serotonin level is found to be associated with conditions like depression, suicidal thoughts and obsessive compulsive disorder. Many antidepressant drugs work by affecting the level of this neurotransmitter. Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) - is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows down neuron activity in order to prevent their over excitation, which could lead to anxiety. GABA is a non-essential amino acid, that is produced by the body from glutamic acid. A low level of GABA can have an association with anxiety disorders. Alcohol and drugs like barbiturates can influence GABA receptors. Glutamate - is an excitatory neurotransmitter. It is the most commonly found neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Glutamate is mainly related with functions like learning and memory. An excess of glutamate is however toxic for the neurons. An excessive glutamate production may be related with the disease, known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig's disease. Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Epinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter, that is derived from norepinephrine. Epinephrine controls mental focus and attention. Norepinephrine is also an excitatory neurotransmitter and it regulates mood and both physical and mental arousal. Increased secretion of norepinephrine raises the heart rate and blood pressure. Endorphins - are the neurotransmitters that resemble the opioid compounds like opium, morphine and heroin in structure. Like opioids, endorphins can reduce pain, stress and promote calmness and serenity. These are the neurotransmitters that enable some animals to hibernate by slowing down metabolism, respiration and heart rate.