Group 4 - Bio - Composite

Life cycle assessment of fossil and bio based materials for 3D shell applications
Material eco-profiles and example with a blow moulded clear rigid packaging
Course number: Assignment carried out by: Group number:
1N1800
Martin Johansson
4
Stockholm, 2005-06-17
Martin Johansson
Life cycle assessment of fossil and bio based materials for 3D shell applications Material eco-profiles and example with a blow moulded clear rigid packaging
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Table of contents
Page 1 2 3 Summary..................................................................................................... 3 Introduction ................................................................................................ 6 Goal and scope .......................................................................................... 7 3.1 Goal of the study ................................................................................. 7 3.2 Functional unit ..................................................................................... 8 3.3 System boundaries.............................................................................. 8 3.4 Assumptions and limitations ................................................................ 9 3.5 Impact categories and impact assessment method............................. 9 4 Life cycle inventory analysis .................................................................. 11 4.1 Process flowchart .............................................................................. 11 4.2 Data ................................................................................................... 14
4.2.1 4.2.2 LCI of materials from cradle to gate........................................................................ 14 LCA of moulded clear rigid packaging .................................................................... 22
Life cycle interpretation........................................................................... 27 5.1 Results............................................................................................... 27

5.1.1 5.1.2 LCI of all materials from cradle to gate ................................................................... 27 LCA of blow moulded clear rigid packaging ........................................................... 34
5.2 Conclusions and recommendations................................................... 37 6 References................................................................................................ 39
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Summary
The study is part of the NFNM-project where the overall vision is: A wet process for the production of a new cellulose reinforced biocomposite material with improved dimensional and mechanical properties intended for the use in 3D applications such as shells or double curvature panels. The aim of the study is to supply data to a material database as guidelines for eco-design of new applications of biocomposites. The accounting study is performed to compare the environmental performance of the different materials. As the overall aims of the NFNM-project is to replace fossil material with bio based materials, the parameter fossil CO2 and resource use will be studied more in detail. The comparative study is performed to illustrate the use of the eco-profiles in decision making for material choices. The following materials have been studied: Bio based material from wooden fibre Unbleached Kraft pulp Bleached sulphite pulp CTMP Cardboard Deinked pulp (post consumer recycled fibres) Polymers from fossil resources PE (polyethene) PP (polypropylene) PET (polyetheneterflatate) Metals Steel Polymers from bio based resources PLA (polylactic acid) The materials are invented from cradle to gate of the facility where the materials are produced. For all material except de-inked pulp (DIP) and Polylactic acid (PLA) available data in SimaPro databases were used. Mainly data from the Ecoinvent database has been used were relevant. Infrastructure for production is not included in the study. Furthermore a comparative study of PLA and PET in a theoretical application is performed. In this study the application is studied from cradle to gate including the disposal. The use face is not studied. In the comparing study of the blow moulded clear rigid packaging, data has been collected from cradle to grave, excluding the use face. The ecoprofiles for the materials studied in relative size are shown in the figure on next page.
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Figure:
Comparison of ecoprofiles of materials studied, Method CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2
Results for the life cycle of the packaging is presented in the table below.
Impact category abiotic depletion global warming (GWP100) ozone layer depletion (ODP) human toxicity fresh water aquatic ecotox. marine aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity photochemical oxidation acidification eutrophication Unit kg Sb eq kg CO2 eq kg CFC-11 eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg C2H2 kg SO2 eq kg PO4--- eq PET 6,89E-09 3,59 1,25E-07 1,89 1,7 2280 0,0184 0,00059 0,0141 0,00363 PLA, landfill scenario 0,00205 4,82 4,73E-07 1,56 0,459 2400 0,0121 0,000859 0,0277 0,00567 PLA, composting scenario 0,00205 4,82 4,74E-07 1,75 0,54 2670 0,0122 0,000861 0,0277 0,00658
Table:
Comparison of life cycle for rigid packaging, Methode CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2
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In the NFNM-project PLA is to be used as the matrix when designing biocomposites with wooden pulps. This means that the resulting biocomposite will be a mixture of PLA and pulp. A calculation of the environmental impact of theoretical material made from this mixture were made in this study. Two compositions, made of 25% pulp and 50% pulp respectively, were studied. The theoretical biocomposites shows a lower environmental impact than PLA and PET on most categories in both the CML and eco-indicator methods. The exception being land use (in eco-indicator) as forestry requires large land areas. The result also indicates that the more pulp mixed into the PLA, the lower environmental impact. The results of this study can be used in the continuation of the NFNM-project. For many of the materials studied in this reports, generic data of good quality can be found in available databases, mainly the Ecoinvent database. The study shows that PLA only can be considered an environmental alternative to fossil base plastics if a large part of bio based fuels are used in the production of PLA and its intermediates. By combining this with better use of corn residues and energy savings in the production processes PLA could be a more competitive material. The suggested biocomposites mixing PLA with pulps from wooden fibre shows promising environmental performance. More information of a suggested production process for this material will be derived from the continuation project. Hopefully this information will confirm the relative low environmental impact of the biocomposites indicated in this study.
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Introduction
The study is part of the NFNM-project where the overall vision is: A wet process for the production of a new cellulose reinforced biocomposite material with improved dimensional and mechanical properties intended for the use in 3D applications such as shells or double curvature panels A sub-project involves eco-design and sustainability aspects. The objectives are to illustrate and increase the contribution of the developed new material to a sustainable development and the use of renewable materials. In the sub-project eco profile of different kind of materials will be described. This will be done based on existing databases for e.g. metals and plastics. When it comes to forest based fibre materials we will use previous compiled data at STFI-Packforsk and try to find generic data on the actual types of different pulps. The so far identified forest based fibre materials (pulps) that will be studied are the following: Unbleached kraft pulp Bleached sulphite pulp Grease proof pulp CTMP Deinked pulp (post consumer recycled fibres) Some materials, which have to be studied to describe existing, comparing systems and identified future systems are the following: Steel PLA (polylactic acid) PE (polyethene) PP (polypropylene) The results will be used as guidelines for eco-design of new applications of biocomposites.
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Goal and scope
3.1 Goal of the study

In this study different materials that can be used in 3D shell applications are studies: Bio based material from wooden fibre Unbleached Kraft pulp Bleached sulphite pulp CTMP Cardboard Deinked pulp (post consumer recycled fibres) Polymers from fossil resources PE (polyethene) PP (polypropylene) PET (polyetheneterflatate) Metals Steel Polymers from bio based resources PLA (polylactic acid) For all materials LCI are performed from cradle to gate. This can be considered as accounting LCA. The resulting LCI-profiles are to be used in a data base as guidelines for eco-design of new applications of biocomposites. Furthermore a comparative study of PLA and PET in a theoretical application is performed. In this study the application is studied from cradle to gate including the disposal. The use face is not studied. PLA with corn as raw materials will be studied. A theoretical product were PLA is mixed with pulp are also studied. The accounting study is performed to compare the environmental performance of the different materials. As the overall aims of the NFNM-project is to replace fossil material with bio based materials, the parameter fossil CO2 and resource use will be studied more in detail. The comparative study is performed to illustrate the use of the eco-profiles in decision making for material choices. The intended audience of this report is the project group of the NFNM project.
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3.2 Functional unit

In the accounting LCA of the final use of the material is not known. Thus mass of material will be used as functional unit. Functional unit = 1 kg of studied material. In the comparing study an blow moulded clear rigid packaging is studied. The choosen packaging is a single-serve container for products with five- to 10-day shelf life. Functional unit = 1 p of studied packaging.
3.3 System boundaries

The materials are invented from cradle to gate of the facility where the materials are produced. For all material except de-inked pulp (DIP) and Polylactic acid (PLA) available data in SimaPro databases were used. Mainly data from the Ecoinvent database has been used were relevant. Infrastructure for production is not included in the study. In the comparing study of the blow moulded clear rigid packaging, data has been collected from cradle to grave, excluding the use face. It is assumed that the environmental burden of the two different packaging are equal in the use face. The project is mainly a study for a Swedish case , but as many of the materials studied are not produced in Sweden, Europe is used as a geographical boundary. System extension has been used to avoid allocation. Many of the datasets for the materials in SimaPro includes system expansion due to the use of recycled material as raw material. For DIP the recycled newspapers has been used as raw material. These are assumed to have the composition corresponding to the European newsprint production in 2002. Newsprint made of 100% virgin fibre has been included by system expansion as avoided material. In the comparing study of the blow moulded clear rigid packaging, the packaging is partly recycled. Here production of the same virgin material has been used as avoided product. When the packaging has been incinerated for energy recovery, natural gas is assumed to be the avoided fuel. Cut-off (due to data gaps) For production of the intermediates when producing PLA from corn, dextrose and lactic acid, only data for energy use and water consumption were available. The energy data although include the energy use, from cradle, to produce process chemicals in these process. For the waste scenario landfill only data on emissions on heavy metals were available.
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3.4 Assumptions and limitations

For all material except de-inked pulp (DIP) and Poly lactic acid (PLA) available data in SimaPro databases were used. For all scenarios but production ad harvesting of corn, data from the ecoinvnet data base has been used. The assumptions and limitations made in the datasets also goes for this study. For Production of PLA from corn only data on energy use and water consumption has been available for production of the intermediates, dextrose and lactic acid. There are thus data gaps concerning other impacts concerning these production steps. The energy data although include the energy use, from cradle to gate, for production of process chemicals in these process. Considering the seeding, grooving and harvesting of corn, data from the Ecoinvent database has been used, thus covering all impact categories. PET and PLA has been assumed to need the same mass of material for the blow moulded clear rigid packaging studied (Laversuch 2002). Assumptions and limitations are described in detail for each dataset used in chapter 4.2.
3.5 Impact categories and impact assessment method

In this study the method CML 2 baseline 2000 V2.1 / West Europe, 1995 has been used to calculate the environmental impact. The method covers the following impact categories: Abiotic depletion Global warming (GWP 100) Ozone layer depletion Human toxicity Ecotoxicity; fresh water aquatic, marine aquatic and terrestrial Photochemical oxidation Acidification Eutrophication The main focus of this study is the use of fossil resources versus the use of bio based resources. Thus global warming and energy resources are two important impact categories. Though other impacts has also been taken in to account. As data from the Ecoinvent dabase on wood contains assimilation of CO2 and the data used on maize does not include this some changes has been made in the To analyse the energy surplus and use of fossil fuels more in detail Eco-indicator 99 (H) V2.1 / Europe EI 99 H/H has also been used in some calculations in the comparing of the rigid packaging. Here three impact categories has been of special interest: Climate change Land use Minerals Fossil fuels
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The reason for the focus on fossil fuels is partly due to the fact that only data on energy use and water consumption were available for production of the intermediates, dextrose and lactic acid, when producing PLA from corn. As data from the Ecoinvent database on wood used in this study contains assimilation of CO2 and the data used on maize does not include this some, changes has been made in the climate change impact categories in both methods used. The changes consists of setting the GWP values for biogenic CO2 (originally 01) and CO2 in air (originally -1) to zero. Thus the two biological raw materials are treated equally. No normalisation nor weighting methods has been used.
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Life cycle inventory analysis
4.1 Process flowchart

Figure 1 below shows the flowchart and boundaries to nature used in the material analyses.
Metals and mineral
Solar energy
Uranium Water
Hydro energy Fossil resources (oil and gas) Bio based resources
Prod. of process chemicals
Energy production
Extraction of fossil fuels
Forestry
Extraction of minerals and metals
Corn growing and harvesting Emissions
Petrochemical production Pulp production Monomer production Steel ingot production
Dextrose production*
Lactic acid production*
Polymer production
Cardboard production
Steel rolling
PLA production*
PET, PP, PET
Cardboard
Steel
PLA
DIP, CTMP Pulps
Figure 1: Schematic flowchart for the materials analysed. *Only data on energy use and water consumption for production of the intermediates, dextrose and lactic acid, when producing PLA from corn. The energy data include the energy use, from cradle, to produce process chemicals in these process
.
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Solar energy Bio based resources Hydro energy Fossil resources (oil and gas) Metals and mineral Water Uranium
Energy production
Corn growing and harvesting
Municipal waste as avoided product
Petrochemical production
Monomer production
Energy recovery
Emissions
Material recycling PET production PLA production* Landfill
Blow moulding
Blow moulding
Waste handling
Use of PLA packaging Use of PET packaging
Figure 2 below shows the flowchart and boundaries to nature used in the analyse of the moulded clear rigid packaging .
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Solar energy Bio based resources Hydro energy Fossil resources (oil and gas) Metals and mineral Water Uranium
Energy production
Corn growing and harvesting
Municipal waste as avoided product
Petrochemical production
Monomer production
Energy recovery
Emissions
Material recycling PET production PLA production* Landfill
Blow moulding
Blow moulding
Waste handling
Use of PLA packaging Use of PET packaging
Figure 2: Schematic flowchart for the clear rigid packaging analysed. *Only data on energy use and water consumption for production of the intermediates, dextrose and lactic acid, when producing PLA from corn. The energy data include the energy use, from cradle, to produce process chemicals in these process
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4.2 Data
The Ecoinvent database (EMPA., 2004) ver 1.01 adapted for SimaPro has been used when data available.
4.2.1 LCI of materials from cradle to gate
Bleached sulphite pulp Data source used: Sulphite pulp, bleached, at plant/RER, U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: This module includes the production of bleached sulphite pulp - including transports to the pulp mill, wood handling, chemical pulping and bleaching, drying process, energy production on-site, recovery cycles of chemicals and internal waste water treatment Geography: Data from a small European producer and from the Finnish database used as European average data Technology: Mix of modern Ca-bisulphite and Mg-sulphite bleaching technology. Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Production volume: Total European market sulphite pulp production in 2000: 1101 kt Allocation rules System description Ecoinvent CTMP Data source used: Chemi-thermomechanical pulp, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: This module includes the production of bleached chemithermomechanical pulp (CTMP) - including transports to the pulp mill, wood handling, mechanical pulping and bleaching, drying process, energy production onsite and internal waste water treatment. Geography: Data from Swedish EPA and from a norwegian producer as European average data. Technology: Modern average technology. Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Production volume: Total European market mechanical pulp production in 2000: 901 kt
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DIP Data source used: STFI-Packforsk data from production in Sweden, 1991, original reference. Baumann et.al. 1993, REFORSK FoU 79, Miljmssiga skillnader mellan tervinining/teranvndning och frbrnning/deponering. The data set in SimPro is presented in appendix 1. Description of data used (from SimaPro): Products o Pulp from recycled fibres, DIP t90, SE, U 1000kg Materials/fuels o Kaolin, at plant/RER U 8kg (CaCO3 in original reference) o Hydrogen peroxide, 50% in H2O, at plant/RER U 8kg o Sodium dithionite, anhydrous, at plant/RER U 13kg ("Deinking chemical" in original reference) o Sodium hydroxide, 50% in H2O, production mix, at plant/RER U 10 kg o Epoxy resin insulator (SiO2), at plant/RER U 15kg (SiO2) o Paper, newsprint, DIP containing, at plant/RER U 1203 kg (Waste) Electricity/heat o Heat, hardwood chips from industry, at furnace 1000kW/CH U 650 MJ (Bark in original reference) o Electricity, high voltage, production SE, at grid/SE U 390 kWh o Heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace low-NOx >100kW/RER U 490 MJ (Originally coal used. Not applicable for modern data.) Emissions to air Emissions to water o BOD5, Biological Oxygen Demand 0,73 kg (BOD7 in original reference) o COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand 3,84 kg o Nitrogen 0,198 kg o Phosphorus 0,0054 kg o Suspended solids, unspecified 0,42 kg Emissions to soil Final waste flows o Wood ashes 10,1 kg (Emission to ground in original reference) Assumptions: As the data are for Swedish production, electricity data for Sweden has been used.. In original data coal has been used as energy carrier for fossil fuel. Present day coal is not used in this application. The coal has thus been replaced by fossil fuel. Part from H2O2 sodium dithionite are assumed to be used as bleaching chemical. No data for CaCO3 available in SimaPros databases. This has been replaced with another common filler, kaolin. Wood ashes, which were considered emission to ground in original reference, are classed as waste as waste management procedures has been changed compared to the time of the original data. Allocation procedures No allocation used.
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Data gaps No data on emissions to air. Corrugated board Data source used: Corrugated board, mixed fibre, single wall, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: This module includes the production of corrugated board out of the corrugated base papers. The following steps are included: energy production, corrugated board production itself, waste water treatment. Geography: Estimation based on average data from European producers, collecte from FEFCO Technology: Average of present used technology Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined HDPE Data source used: Polyethylene, HDPE, granulate, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: Aggregated data for all processes from raw material extraction until delivery at plant Remark: Data are from the Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry (APME). Not included are the values reported for: recyclable wastes, amount of air / N2 / O2 consumed, unspecified metal emission to air and to water, mercaptan emission to air, unspecified CFC/HCFC emission to air. The amount of "sulphur (bonded)" is assumed to be included into the amount of raw oil. CAS number: 009002-88-4 Geography: 10 European production sites (A,B,F,P,NL,S,UK) Technology: polymerization out of ethylene under normal pressure and temperature Time period: time to which data refer Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Percent representativeness: 32.2 Production volume: 1.32 Mt (1992)
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PET Data source used: Polyethylene terephthalate, granulate, amorphous, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: Average data for the production of amorphous PET out of ethylene glycol and PTA. The data include material and energy input, waste as well as air and water emissions. Missing sum parameters to water (DOC, TOC), transport and infrastructure are estimated. Remark: Data are based on the average unit process from the Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry CAS number: 025038-59-9 Geography: Data from several European production sites Technology: PET production out of PTA and ethylene gylcol Time period: date of publication Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Production volume: 569 kt (2000) PLA Data source used: Literature reference: Vink E., Rbago K., Glassner D. and Gruber P. (2003), Applications of life cycle assessment to NatureWorks polylactide (PLA) production, Polymer Degradation and Stability 80 (2003) 403419 Data from Sima Pro, Ecoinvent data base for Corn production and energy. Description of data used: The reference presents data on gross energy requirement and water use for production of PLA form corn. Data is divided into three steps: Growing and harvesting of corn, including gross energy use for operating supplies Production of dextrose from corn, including gross energy use for operating supplies. Based on site specific data for one corn wet mill I USA 2001. Production of lactic acid from dextrose, including gross energy use for operating supplies. Based on site specific data for one lactic acid plant in USA 2001. Production of PLA from lactic acid, including gross energy use for operating supplies. Based on detailed design plans for a Lactide PLA plant that was started up November 2001 in USA. Assumptions: In the report energy data for natural gas and electric energy has been used (Vink et al 2003). It is not specified the ratio of the different energy carriers used. The assumption has been made that 50% of the energy is from electricity and 50% from natural gas. According to Vink et al 1,74 kg corn is needed to produce, 1 kg PLA.
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According to Gerngross T. (1999), Can biotechnology move us toward a sustainable society? Nature Biotechnology v.17, n.6, Jun99, 1,52 kg corn are needed to produce 1 kg glucose. It is assumed that the same mass ratio can be used for production of dextrose. According to the same reference 0,95 kg PLA can be produced from 1 kg lactic acid. By combining these data it is assumed that 1,09 kg dextrose are needed to produce 1 kg lactic acid. In Vink et al 2003 consumption of water is only presented in total use per kg PLA. Based on this total figure it is assumed that the intermediate processes consumes an equal amount of water.
Calculations Production of dextrose from corn: Data given: 1,52 kg corn/kg dext 1,74 kg corn/kg PLA 9,4 MJ/kg PLA in dextrose production step 30 kg water/ kg PLA 1,74/1,52 = 1,146 kg dextrose/kg PLA Energy use: 9,4/1,149 = 8,20 MJ/kg dextrose
Assumed 50% natural gas and 50 % electricity 8,20*0,5 = 4,10 MJ natural gas/kg dextrose 8,20*0,5/3,6 = 1,14 kWh electricity/kg dextrose Water use: 30*0,5/1,149 = 13 kg water/ kg dextrose Production of lactic acid from dextrose: Data given: 1,09 kg dextrose/kg lactic acid rose 0,95 kg PLA/kg lactic acid 26,3 MJ/kg PLA in lactic acid production step 30 kg water/ kg PLA Energy use: 26,3 *0,95 = 25,0 MJ/kg lactic acid Assumed 50% natural gas and 50 % electricity 25,0*0,5 = 12,5 MJ natural gas/kg lactic acid 25,0*0,5/3,6 = 3,47 kWh electricity/kg lactic acid Water use: 30*0,5*0,95 = 14,2 kg water/ kg lactic acid Production of PLA from lactic acid: 23,2 MJ/kg PLA in PLA production step Energy use: 26,3 *0,95 = 25,0 MJ/kg lactic acid
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Assumed 50% natural gas and 50 % electricity 13,2*0,5 = 6,60 MJ natural gas/kg lactic acid 13,2*0,5/3,6 = 1,83 kWh electricity/kg lactic acid Water use: assumed to be 0. Description of data used for Corn: Corn: Data source used: Corn data from the data base BUVWAL 250 (ETH, 1996) Description of data used ( from SimaPro) Production and harvest of corn for starch production. Data are derived from Schaer (1993). Description of data used corn-dextrose-lactic acid-PLA: The reference presents data on gross energy requirement and water use for production of PLA form corn. Data is divided into three steps: Growing and harvesting of corn, including gross energy use for operating supplies Production of dextrose from corn, including gross energy use for operating supplies. Based on site specific data for one corn wet mill I USA 2001. Production of lactic acid from dextrose, including gross energy use for operating supplies. Based on site specific data for one lactic acid plant in USA 2001. Production of PLA from lactic acid, including gross energy use for operating supplies. Based on detailed design plans for a Lactide PLA plant that was started up November 2001 in USA. Dextrose: Products o Dextrose from corn 1kg Resources o Water, cooling, surface 2,5 kg o Water, fresh 15 m3 Materials/fuels o Corn 1,52 kg Electricity/heat o Electricity, medium voltage, production UCTE, at grid/UCTE U 1,1 kWh o Heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace >100kW/RER U 4,1 MJ Final waste flows o Residues 0,52 kg Corn residues Lactic acid: Products o Lactic acid from dextrose 1kg Resources o Water, cooling, surface 2,5 kg
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o Water, fresh 15 m3 Materials/fuels o Dextrose from corn 1,09 kg Electricity/heat o Electricity, medium voltage, production UCTE, at grid/UCTE U 3,4 kWh o Heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace >100kW/RER U 12,5 MJ Final waste flows o Residues 0,09 kg undefined
PLA: Products o PLA 1kg Materials/fuels o Lactic acid from dextrose 1,05 kg Electricity/heat o Electricity, medium voltage, production UCTE, at grid/UCTE U 1,8 kWh o Heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace >100kW/RER U 6,6 MJ Final waste flows o Residues 0,05 kg undefined Data gaps No data on emissions to water, air and ground from the production chain dextrose lactic acid PLA. No information of process chemicals other than energy use from cardle to gate. PP Data source used: Polypropylene, granulate, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: Aggregated data for all processes from raw material extraction until delivery at plant Remark: Data are from the Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry (APME). Not included are the values reported for: recyclable wastes, amount of air / N2 / O2 consumed, unspecified metal emission to air and to water, mercaptan emission to air, unspecified CFC/HCFC emission to air. The amount of "sulphur (bonded)" is assumed to be included into the amount of raw oil. CAS number: 009003-07-0 Geography: 15 European production sites (A,B,SF,P,NL,N,UK) Technology: polymerization out of propylene Time period: time to which data refer Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined
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Percent representativeness: 24.3 Production volume: 1.58 Mt (1992)
Steel Data source used: Steel, low-alloyed, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: Mix of differently produced steels and hot rolling Remark: represents Average of World and European production mix. This is assumed to correspond to the consumption mix in Europe Geography: Data relate to plants in the EU Technology: technology mix Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Production volume: unknown Unbleached sulphate pulp Data source used: Sulphate pulp, unbleached, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: This module includes the production of unbleached sulphate pulp - including transports to the pulp mill, wood handling, chemical pulping and drying, energy production on-site, recovery cycles of chemicals and internal waste water treatment. Geography: Data from a Swiss study (based on scandinavian conditions) and from the Swedish EPA used as European average data. Technology: Modern average technology. Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Production volume: Total European market sulphate pulp production in 2000: 9297 kt
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4.2.2
LCA of moulded clear rigid packaging
PET production Se chapter 4.2.1 PLA production Se chapter 4.2.1 Blow molding Data source used: Blow moulding/RER U: from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: This process contains the auxiliaries and energy demand for the mentioned conversion process of plastics. The converted amount of plastics is NOT included into the dataset. Remark: 1 kg of this process equals 0.997 kg of blow moulded plastics (e.g. bottles). Geography: information from different European and Swiss converting companies Technology: present technologies Time period: time to which data refer Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Production volume: unknown Assumptions: PET and PLA can have the same downguaging for this application (Leaversuch 2002). Thus it is assumed that the same mass is used in the product regardless the kind of plastics. This means that 1 kg of plastics has been used in each product. Waste management Assumptions: For both PET and PLA the following waste management scenario has been used 30% Landfill 30% Material recycling 40% Energy recovery This assumption is based on the recycling rates regulated in European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste. This directive was recently changed by Directive 2004/12/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 amending Directive 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste.
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Data source used: Disposal, plastics, mixture, 15.3% water, to sanitary landfill/CH U from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: Waste-specific short-term emissions to air via landfill gas incineration and landfill leachate. Burdens from treatment of short-term leachate (0-100a) in wastewater treatment plant (including WWTP sludge disposal in municipal incinerator). Long-term emissions from landfill to groundwater (after base lining failure). Remark: Inventoried waste contains 100% Mixed various plastics; . Share of carbon in waste that is biogenic 0%. Overall degradability of waste during 100 years: 1%. Geography: Technology encountered in Switzerland in 2000. Landfill includes base seal, leachate collection system, treatment of leachate in municipal wastewater treatment plant. Technology: Swiss municipal sanitary landfill for biogenic or untreated municipal waste ('reactive organic landfill'). Landfill gas and leachate collection system. Recultivation and monitoring for 150 years after closure. Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Assumptions: Based on landfill of paper as PLA is a bio based easily degradable material. Data source used: Disposal, packaging paper, 13.7% water, to sanitary landfill/CH U from Ecoinvent database Description of data used(from SimaPro): Included processes: Waste-specific short-term emissions to air via landfill gas incineration and landfill leachate. Burdens from treatment of short-term leachate (0-100a) in wastewater treatment plant (including WWTP sludge disposal in municipal incinerator). Long-term emissions from landfill to groundwater (after base lining failure). Remark: Inventoried waste contains 100% packaging paper; . Share of carbon in waste that is biogenic 100%. Overall degradability of waste during 100 years: 27%. Geography: Technology encountered in Switzerland in 2000. Landfill includes base seal, leachate collection system, treatment of leachate in municipal wastewater treatment plant. Technology: Swiss municipal sanitary landfill for biogenic or untreated municipal waste ('reactive organic landfill'). Landfill gas and leachate collection system. Recultivation and monitoring for 150 years after closure. Energy values: Undefined
Landfill -PET
Landfill -PLA
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Assumptions: Avoided product: Polyethylene terephthalate, granulate, amorphous, at plant/RER U: from Ecoinvent database ( Se chapter 4.2.1) Data source used: Recycling PET U from Ecoinvent database Description of data used(from SimaPro): Unit process Included is the energy consumption for the mechanical recycling of PET. This record links to ecoinvent processes. This record has been created by PRe Consultants thus this record has not been reviewed by ecoinvent
Material recycling -PET
Assumptions: Avoided product: PLA ( Se chapter 4.2.1) The same energy use when recycling PLA as for PET has assumed. Thus data for recycling of PET has been used. Data source used: Recycling PET U from Ecoinvent database vere recyling of Pet has been changed to recycling of PLA. Description of data used(from SimaPro): Unit process Included is the energy consumption for the mechanical recycling of PET. This record links to ecoinvent processes. This record has been created by PRe Consultants thus this record has not been reviewed by ecoinvent
Material recycling -PLA
Assumptions: Avoided product: Energy from municipal waste In chosen dataset the energy produced is as follows: 2/3 Heat from waste, at municipal incineration plant/CH U 1/3 electricity from waste, at municipal incineration plant/CH U Data source used: Disposal, polyethylene terephtalate, 0.2% water, to municipal incineration/CH U from Ecoinvent database
Energy recovery-PET
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Description of data used(from SimaPro): Included processes: waste-specific air and water emissions from incineration, auxiliary material consumption for flue gas cleaning. Short-term emissions to river water and long-term emissions to ground water from slag compartment (from bottom slag) and residual material landfill (from solidified fly ashes and scrubber slugde). Process energy demands for MSWI. Remark: Inventoried waste contains 100% PET; . Share of carbon in waste that is biogenic 0%. Share of iron in waste that is metallic/recyclable 0%. Net energy produced in MSWI: 2.46MJ/kg waste electric energy and 5.03MJ/kg waste thermal energy Allocation of energy production: Natural gas One kg of this waste produces 0.0106 kg of slag and 0.003547 kg of residues, which are landfilled. Additional solidification with 0.001419 kg of cement. Geography: Specific to the technology mix encountered in Switzerland in 2000. Well applicable to modern incineration practices in Europe, North America or Japan. Technology: average Swiss MSWI plants in 2000 with electrostatic precipitator for fly ash (ESP), wet flue gas scrubber and 29.4% SNCR , 32.2% SCR-high dust , 24.6% SCR-low dust -DeNOx facilities and 13.8% without Denox (by burnt waste, according to Swiss average). Share of waste incinerated in plants with magnetic scrap separation from slag : 50%. Gross electric efficiency technology mix 12.997% and Gross thermal efficiency technology mix 25.57% Time period: Waste composition as given in literature reference, theoretical data or other source. Transfer coefficients for modern Swiss MSWI. Emission speciation based on early 90ies data. Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined Assumptions: Avoided product: Energy from municipal waste In chosen dataset the energy produced is as follows: 2/3 Heat from waste, at municipal incineration plant/CH U 1/3 electricity from waste, at municipal incineration plant/CH U As PLA is biobased data for combustion of waste paper has been used. Data has been changed so that the combustion energy of PLA is generated. PLA has a heat value 0,7 times the heat value of PET. (Refers) Data source used: Disposal, PLA, to municipal incineration/CH U -avoided product with has been made by changing the input to PLA and heat value according to PLA in the original ecoinvent dataset Disposal, paper, 11.2% water, to municipal incineration.
Energy recovery-PLA
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Description of data used (from SimaPro): Included processes: waste-specific air and water emissions from incineration, auxiliary material consumption for flue gas cleaning. Short-term emissions to river water and long-term emissions to ground water from slag compartment (from bottom slag) and residual material landfill (from solidified fly ashes and scrubber sludge). Process energy demands for MSWI. Remark: Inventoried waste contains 100% average paper; . Share of carbon in waste that is biogenic 100%. Share of iron in waste that is metallic/recyclable 0%. Net energy produced in MSWI: 1.68MJ/kg waste electric energy and 3.52MJ/kg waste thermal energy Allocation of energy production: Natural gas One kg of this waste produces 0.07875 kg of slag and 0.01249 kg of residues, which are landfilled. Additional solidification with 0.004996 kg of cement. Geography: Specific to the technology mix encountered in Switzerland in 2000. Well applicable to modern incineration practices in Europe, North America or Japan. Technology: average Swiss MSWI plants in 2000 with electrostatic precipitator for fly ash (ESP), wet flue gas scrubber and 29.4% SNCR , 32.2% SCR-high dust , 24.6% SCR-low dust -DeNOx facilities and 13.8% without Denox (by burnt waste, according to Swiss average). Share of waste incinerated in plants with magnetic scrap separation from slag : 50%. Gross electric efficiency technology mix 12.997% and Gross thermal efficiency technology mix 25.57% Time period: Waste composition as given in literature reference, theoretical data or other source. Transfer coefficients for modern Swiss MSWI. Emission speciation based on early 90ies data. Version: 1.01 Energy values: Undefined
Composting-PLA
For PLA a alternative scenario were the packaging is composted also has been considered. Her the 30% to landfill for the PLA packaging instead goes to composting. Data source used: Composting from Ecoinvent database Description of data used (from SimaPro): Separated from waste stream to be partly recycled. Data gaps Bio based CO2 emissions from compost not included. Only data on realising of heavy metals.
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Life cycle interpretation
5.1 Results
In this chapter the ecoprofiles of the materials studied and the result of the assessment of the life cycle for the studied packaging are presented. The results for the material ecoprofiles are not analysed in detail in this report. This is partly due to the fact that most of the data are taken directly from the ecoinvent data as unit processes. The main reason though is that the data are to be used further to study different applications of the material, and the analyse will be done in this context later in the NFNM project. The main focus of this study is the comparing analyse of the blow moulded clear rigid packaging.
5.1.1 LCI of all materials from cradle to gate
The calculated impacts for the materials for the impact category methods in CML2 baseline 2002 are shown in Table 1. The ecoprofiles for the materials studied in relative size are shown in and Figure 3.
Figure 3:
Comparison of ecoprofiles of materials studied, Method CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2
28 (40) Impact category Bleached sulphite pulp ADP [kg Sb eq] GWP100 [kg CO2 eq] ODP [kg CFC-11 eq] human toxicity [kg 1,4-DB eq] fresh water aquatic ecotox. [kg 1,4-DB eq] marine aquatic ecotoxicity [kg 1,4-DB eq] terrestrial ecotoxicity [kg 1,4-DB eq] photochemical oxidation [kg C2H2] Acidification [kg SO2 eq] Eutrophication kg PO4-- eq 0,00284 Corugated CTMP board DIP HDPE PET PLA PP Steel Unbleach. sulphate pulp 0,00101
0,000924
0,00092
0,000983
0,00136
0,00323
0,00725
0,0013
0,00166
0,0107
0,00301
0,00462
0,0089
0,0214
0,0114
0,0305
0,0203
0,00786
0,00412
0,000407
0,000135
0,000178 0,000428 0,000681 0,000507 0,000877
0,00064
0,000856
0,000151
0,00811
0,00676
0,00605
0,00965
0,0099
0,0181
0,00919
0,011
0,0323
0,00322
246
260
480
658
109
627
2110
71,2
2050
187
0,124
0,204
0,226
0,251
0,0212
0,186
0,367
0,0143
1,73
0,0475
0,516
0,411
0,387
0,635
0,0784
1,08
1,3
0,0679
15,4
0,262
4,71E-08
8,6E-08
4,84E-08 8,46E-08 1,48E-10 1,14E-07 6,08E-07 1,24E-10 7,85E-08
4,07E-08
0,483
0,883
0,778
1,29
1,75
2,31
5,16
1,85
1,29
0,351
1,48E-10
1,12E-10
5,39E-09 2,11E-08 1,17E-07 7,26E-09
0,00293
2,09E-08 7,09E-10
1,01E-10
Table 1:
Ecoprofiles of materials studied, Method CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2
The results show that PLA is relative high in most impact categories. The results for PLA also deviates greatly from the other materials from bio based resources, pulps and corrugated board. This is partly as PLA is based on corn and the other biobased materials are produced of wooden fibre. It should also be noted that there are uncertainties and data gaps in the PLA, especially when it comes to composition of energy used in the production stages. Results for the four impact categories studied form the method Ecoindicator are presented in Table 2.
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Impact category Bleached sulphite pulp Climate change 2,12E-07 [DALY] Land use 1,08 [PDF*m2yr] Minerals 0,0159 [MJ surplus] Fossil fuels 0,733 [D MJ surplus]
Corugated CTMP board 8,73E-08 0,137 0,0186 1,59
DIP
HDPE
PET
PLA
PP
Steel
Unbleach. sulphate pulp
8,66E-08 1,46E-07 0,11 0,0152 0,768 0,279 0,0443 1,6
1,52E-08 0,000157 0,0208 9,91
1,63E-07 2,32E-07 0,0156 0,0618 9,3 0,0237 0,0106 7,28
1,2E-08 0,000196 0,00161 9,86
2,12E-06 4,67E-08 0,0532 0,954 1,38 0,985 0,00918 0,624
Table 2:
Ecoprofiles of materials studied, Method Ecoindicator 99 no biogenic CO2
Also according to these impact categories, PLA shows a high environmental impact. Notice that PLA has a use of fossil fuels that is almost as high as for the plastics made from fossil resources. Once again this is a result of the high energy use in the production stages, and greatly influenced by the fuels used. 50% UCPE electricity mix and 50% natural gas means a high dependence on fossil fuels. The assumption made in the calculations thus have a great influence on the results concerning PLA. The impact category global warming has been analysed for the materials to identify significant life cycle stages. This has been done using the graphical presentation in SimaPro. In Figures 4-6 below this is shown for PET, PLA and unbleached sulphate pulp. These three materials has been chosen as they represents each material category; based on fossil fuels, new material and based on wooden fibre. For PET most impact arise in the processing of the fossil raw material into final polymer. This is similar for the other fossil based plastics studied in the product. Use of energy in different process steps also adds up to a significant part of the total GWP. As has been discussed previously, the production of PLA has a relative high energy consumption. The larger part is in the production of the monomer, lactic acid, from dextrose. It can be noticed that the residues from the corn production could be used for energy recovery. This has not been taken into account in this analyse.
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Figure 4:
Sankey diagram showing processes contributing to GWP [kg CO2 eq] for PET. 10% Cut off.
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Figure 5:
Sankey diagram showing processes contributing to GWP [kg CO2 eq] for PLA. 10% Cut off.
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Figure 6:
Sankey diagram showing processes contributing to GWP [kg CO2 eq] for Unbleached Sulphite Pulp. 10% Cut off.
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The unbleached sulphite pulp has the lowest value on global warming of the material studied. The GWP is mainly due to the use of electric energy in the pulp production process. The low value can be explained by the use of wood residues for production of energy, that is used internally in the production, thus lowering the need for fossil based energy. This pattern is similar for all wooden based material. The effect is lover for the mechanical pulps, CTMP and DIP, as more of the fibres ends up in the mechanical pulps compared to the chemical pulps, meaning less fibres to be used for energy recovery.
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5.1.2
LCA of blow moulded clear rigid packaging
Results for the life cycle of the packaging is presented in Table 3 and 4 and Figure 7.
Impact category abiotic depletion global warming (GWP100) ozone layer depletion (ODP) human toxicity fresh water aquatic ecotox. marine aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity photochemical oxidation acidification eutrophication Unit kg Sb eq kg CO2 eq kg CFC-11 eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq kg C2H2 kg SO2 eq kg PO4--- eq PET 6,89E-09 3,59 1,25E-07 1,89 1,7 2280 0,0184 0,00059 0,0141 0,00363 PLA, landfill scenario 0,00205 4,82 4,73E-07 1,56 0,459 2400 0,0121 0,000859 0,0277 0,00567 PLA, composting scenario 0,00205 4,82 4,74E-07 1,75 0,54 2670 0,0122 0,000861 0,0277 0,00658
Table 3:
Comparison of life cycle for rigid packaging, Method CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2
Figure 7:
Comparison of life cycle for rigid packaging Methode CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2
35 (40) Impact category Unit Climate change Land use Minerals Fossil fuels PLA, PLA, composting landfill scenario scenario DALY 5,03E-07 3,43E-07 3,88E-07 PDF*m2yr 0,11 0,116 0,116 MJ surplus 0,0535 0,0231 0,0233 MJ surplus 7,59 6,22 6,23 PET
Table 4:
Comparison of life cycle for rigid packaging, Method Ecoindicator 99 no biogenic CO2
As for the single materials the PET packaging shows a lower impact on most categories studied in the CML method. In the ecoindicator the results is vice versa. The energy recovery especially credits the PLA packaging on GWP as the avoided energy is partly from fossil fuel. The landfill and composting scenarios have the same impact. The small differences shown are due to methane emissions in the landfill scenario. Here it can be noted that there is only a 100 year perspective on the emissions arising from land filling in the CML method. This means that the easily degradable PLA packaging, in the calculations assumed having the same characteristics as paper in land filling, releases most of its carbon as methane during this time span , whereas the inert PET is more or less unaffected. If a longer time perspective had been used the emissions from the land filling of PET, that will arise in the future, would rise the GWP impact of the PET packaging life cycle. This example also shows that the ratio of the different waste management methods in the waste scenario have an important influence on the results. The rates chosen in this study are a bit conservative when it comes to land filling and energy recovery. It can be argued if material recycling of PLA is relevant. The pure PLA could possibly be reused, but if we consider PLa as part of a composite material, material recycling is virtually impossible. The probibalde waste scenario for such a material is incineration for energy recovery. As been discussed in chapter 5.1.1 the choices made on energy sources in the PLA production has a great influence on the overall result. This is especially significant when it comes to GWP, but does also effects other impact categories greatly. The results indicates that if PLA is to be an environmentally adapted alternative to packaging from fossil resources, the energy sources used in the production stage has to be bio based to a greater extent. The environmental impacts which arises mainly from farming of corn, acidification, eutrophication and ecotoxicity are according to this study lower than for the PET packaging. When comparing the results for the ecotoxicity categories for the packagings and the materials used, it can bee seen that PET as material has lower impact than PLA, but in the life cycle for the packaging PET has a higher impact. This indicates that he waste management methods for PET has a higher ecotoxicity than the waste management methods for PLA. As the PLA waste management methods in the calculations are mainly assumptions based on other materials, this finding is highly uncertain.
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In the NFNM-project PLA is to be used as the matrix when designing biocomposites with wooden pulps. This means that the resulting biocomposite will be a mixture of PLA and pulp. A calculation of the environmental impact of theoretical material made from this mixture were made in this study. Two compositions, made of 50% pulp and 75% pulp respectively, were studied. In these calculation Unbleached Sulphite pulp has been the pulp chosen. The actual process to mix the two material has not been covered in the calculations as no data on this process were available at the time of the study. The results on the mixed biocomposites compared to PET an pure PLA are shown in figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8:
Comparison of PET and biocomposite materials. Method CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2
The theoretical biocomposites shows a lower environmental impact than PLA and PET on most categories in both the CML and eco-indicator methods. The exception being land use (in eco-indicator) as forestry requires large land areas. The result also indicates that the more pulp mixed into the PLA, the better lower environmental impact. The biocomposite thus combine the physical properties of a plastic material and the relative low environmental impact of the pulp.
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Figure 9:
Comparison of PET and biocomposite materials. Method Ecoindicator 99 no biogenic CO2
5.2 Conclusions and recommendations

The results of this study can be used in the continuation of the NFNM-project. For many of the materials studied in this reports, generic data of good quality can be found in available databases, mainly the Ecoinvent database. For the new material studied, PLA, the result was bit surprising as the bio based polymer gives a higher impact on the major part of the impact categories studied. This was even the case for the impact in main focus of this study, GWP. When studying the packaging life cycle, the PLA gave a slightly better result as the avoided fossil fuel due to waste energy recovery influence the results on GWP. A major finding of this study is that the assumptions made in the PLA case influences the results greatly. Efforts has to be taken in the continuation of the NFNM-project to collect better environmental data on PLA. The study shows that PLA only can be considered an environmental alternative to fossil base plastics if a large part of bio based fuels are used in the production of PLA and its intermediates. By combining this with better use of corn residues and energy savings in the production processes PLA could be a more competitive material. The suggested biocomposites mixing PLA with pulps from wooden fibre shows promising environmental performance. This is mainly due to the usage of wooden pulp. The
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biocomposite combine the physical properties of a plastic material and the relative low environmental impact of the pulp. More information of a suggested production process for this material will be derived from the continuation project. Hopefully this information will confirm the relative low environmental impact of the biocomposites indicated in this study.
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References
Gerngross T. (1999), Can biotechnology move us toward a sustainable society? Nature Biotechnology v.17, n.6, Jun99 Vink E., Rbago K., Glassner D. and Gruber P. (2003), Applications of life cycle assessment to NatureWorks polylactide (PLA) production, Polymer Degradation and Stability 80 (2003) 403419 STFI-Packforsk, DIP data from production in Sweden, 1991; Original reference. Baumann et.al., (1993) Miljmssiga skillnader mellan tervinining/teranvndning och frbrnning/deponering, REFORSK FoU 79, Leaversuch R. (2002). Renewable PLA polymer gets green light for packaging uses. Plastics technology online article, www.plasticstechnology.com (accessed 050513) EU directive; European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste. changed by Directive 2004/12/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 amending Directive 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste. SimaPro databases EMPA. (2004) Ecoinvent database, version 1.01. As implemented in SimaPro 6. ETH. (1996) BUWAL 250 database. As implemented in SimaPro 6. Software Pr Consultants (2002) SimaPro 6.0, Amersfoort, The Netherlands.
APPENDIX 1: Data documentation for DIP process

SimaPro 6.0 Process Category type Process identifier Type Name Time period Geography Technology Representativeness Multiple output allocation Substitution allocation Cut off rules Capital goods Boundary with nature Infrastructure Date Record Generator Literature references Collection method Data treatment Verification Comment Material FMS.EDUX11378300010 Unit process DIP, Pulp form recycled fibre Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified No 2005-05-14 Martin Johansson Data from STFI database Process Date: 2005-06-17 Time: 13:25:02
Allocation rules System description
Included processes: Data from production in Sweden, 1991, original reference. Baumann et.al. 1993, REFORSK FoU 79, Miljmssiga skillnader mellan tervinining/teranvndning och frbrnning/deponering Remark: Data changed to represent a state of the art process in the late 90s. some processes has been cahnged Assumptions: o As the data are for Swedish production, electricity data for Sweden has been used.. o In original data coal has been used as energy carrier for fossil fuel. Present day coal is not used in this application. The coal has thus been replaced by fossil fuel. o Part from H2O2 sodium dithionite are assumed to be used as bleaching chemical. o No data for CaCO3 available in SimaPros databases. This has been replaced with another common filler, kaolin. o Wood ashes, which were considered emission to ground in original reference, are classed as waste as waste management procedures has been changed compared to the time of the original data. Allocation rules: No allocation used. Geography: Data from Swedish Technology: Modern average technology. Time period:1990-200 No allocation used. System expantion for substituted newsprint production from virgin fibre
Products Pulp from recycled fibres, DIP t90, SE, U Avoided products Resources Materials/fuels Kaolin, at plant/RER U Hydrogen peroxide, 50% in H2O, at plant/RER U Sodium dithionite, anhydrous, at plant/RER U Sodium hydroxide, 50% in H2O, production mix, at plant/RER U Epoxy resin insulator (SiO2), at plant/RER U Paper, newsprint, DIP containing, at plant/RER U Electricity/heat Heat, hardwood chips from industry, at furnace 1000kW/CH U Electricity, high voltage, production SE, at grid/SE U Heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace low-NOx >100kW/RER U Emissions to air Emissions to water BOD5, Biological Oxygen Demand COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand Nitrogen Phosphorus Suspended solids, unspecified Emissions to soil
1000 kg
100 %
not defined Paper+ Board\Pulp
8 8 13 10 15 1203
kg kg kg kg kg kg
CaCO3 in original reference "Deinking chemical" in original reference SiO2 Waste
650 MJ 390 kWh 490 MJ
Bark in original reference Originally coal used. Not applicable for modern data.
0,73 3,84 0,198 0,0054 0,42
kg kg kg kg kg
BOD7 in original reference

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Life cycle assessment of fossil and bio based materials for 3D shell applications

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Life cycle interpretation........................................................................... 27 5.1 Results............................................................................................... 27

5.2 Conclusions and recommendations................................................... 37 6 References................................................................................................ 39

Goal and scope

3.1 Goal of the study

3.2 Functional unit

3.3 System boundaries

3.4 Assumptions and limitations

3.5 Impact categories and impact assessment method

Life cycle inventory analysis

4.1 Process flowchart

Metals and mineral

Prod. of process chemicals

Extraction of fossil fuels

Extraction of minerals and metals

Corn growing and harvesting Emissions

Petrochemical production Pulp production Monomer production Steel ingot production

Lactic acid production*

PET, PP, PET

DIP, CTMP Pulps

Prod. of process chemicals

Extraction of fossil fuels

Corn growing and harvesting

Municipal waste as avoided product

Lactic acid production*

Material recycling PET production PLA production* Landfill

Use of PLA packaging Use of PET packaging

Prod. of process chemicals

Extraction of fossil fuels

Corn growing and harvesting

Municipal waste as avoided product

Lactic acid production*

Material recycling PET production PLA production* Landfill

Use of PLA packaging Use of PET packaging

Percent representativeness: 24.3 Production volume: 1.58 Mt (1992)

LCA of moulded clear rigid packaging

Material recycling -PET

Material recycling -PLA

Life cycle interpretation

0,000178 0,000428 0,000681 0,000507 0,000877

4,84E-08 8,46E-08 1,48E-10 1,14E-07 6,08E-07 1,24E-10 7,85E-08

5,39E-09 2,11E-08 1,17E-07 7,26E-09

Ecoprofiles of materials studied, Method CML2 baseline 2000 no biogenic CO2

Corugated CTMP board 8,73E-08 0,137 0,0186 1,59

Unbleach. sulphate pulp

8,66E-08 1,46E-07 0,11 0,0152 0,768 0,279 0,0443 1,6

1,52E-08 0,000157 0,0208 9,91

1,63E-07 2,32E-07 0,0156 0,0618 9,3 0,0237 0,0106 7,28

1,2E-08 0,000196 0,00161 9,86

2,12E-06 4,67E-08 0,0532 0,954 1,38 0,985 0,00918 0,624

Ecoprofiles of materials studied, Method Ecoindicator 99 no biogenic CO2

LCA of blow moulded clear rigid packaging

Comparison of PET and biocomposite materials. Method Ecoindicator 99 no biogenic CO2

5.2 Conclusions and recommendations

APPENDIX 1: Data documentation for DIP process

Allocation rules System description

not defined Paper+ Board\Pulp

CaCO3 in original reference "Deinking chemical" in original reference SiO2 Waste

650 MJ 390 kWh 490 MJ

0,73 3,84 0,198 0,0054 0,42

BOD7 in original reference