Deduction & Induction

Ukranian Translation

In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches. Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) of our original theories. Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach (please note that it's "bottom up" and not bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the bartender says to customers when he's trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories. These two methods of reasoning have a very different "feel" to them when you're conducting research. Inductive reasoning, by its very

nature, is more open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. Even though a particular study may look like it's purely deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of some treatment on some outcome), most social research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project. In fact, it doesn't take a rocket scientist to see that we could assemble the two graphs above into a single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to observations and back up again to theories. Even in the most constrained experiment, the researchers may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new theories.

What Is a Variable? Answer: A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another. The independent variable is the variable that is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter. For example, in an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance, sleep deprivation would be the independent variable. The independent variable is the characteristic of a psychology experiment that is manipulated or changed. For example, in an experiment looking at the effects of studying on test scores, studying would be the independent variable. Researchers are trying to determine if changes to the independent variable (studying) result in significant changes to the dependent variable(the test results). The dependent variable is the variable that is measured by the experimenter. In our previous example, the scores on the test performance measure would be the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured in an experiment. For example, in a study on the effects of tutoring on test scores, the dependent variable would be the participants test scores. In a psychology experiment, researchers are looking at how changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable.

Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. These techniques are useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their attitudes without personal embarrassment. These techniques helps the respondents to project his own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the subject under study. Thus Projective Techniques play a important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.

Criteria of Good Research Problem

1. Interesting. An interesting research problem attracts the attention of the researcher and other people to conduct the research problem without incentive or research grant at all. Due to enthusiasm to conduct the researcher project even without incentive or research grant at all. Due to enthusiasm to conduct the research project, the researcher will use his personal money to finance the research project and will perform beyond official hours and is determined to work on it until its completion. 2. Innovative. For instance the study is Utilization and Commercialization of fish bone meal from Offal of Boneless Milkfish into luncheon Meat. This study is new, original, and unique from it is the 1st of its kind in the world that offal of boneless milkfish which only pollutes the environment when thrown are utilized into fish value added products, like luncheon meat. The product is salable and profitable, and contributes to the economic development of the country. 3. Cost effective. A good research problem should be economical and effective in solving the needs and problem of the society: it should also augment socioeconomic and health conditions of the people and many others. The Invest and Harvest s or gains money from research output. In

other words, a research output has return of investments (ROI). Moreso, it is nutritiously good for the health of the people. For example, the research output of milkfish luncheon meat is commercialized and is salable, profitable, economical, and with high turn of investments. Moreso, it contains protein and calcium. Protein is used to build and repair worn out tissues of the body, Calcium prevents osteoporosis (bone decay) and dental caries (tooth decay). 4. Relevant to the needs and problems of the people. Researches must keep in mind that they conduct research not for their personal aggrandizement but to solve the needs and problems of the people. A good research problem responds to the needs and problems of the people. An example of a research project to respond to the foregoing need and problem of the people is Utilization and Commercialization Of burger from offal to boneless milkfish and canned bones, dorsal fin, and flesh scrap as well as canned tuna wastes such as backbone, head, trail, rib bones, and flesh scrap are utilized into burger. Housewives, rural folks, fisher folks, out of school youths, jobless adults, and unemployed graduates should put up live hood projects on milkfish burger and tuna burger, thus, augment their income, alleviate poverty and improve the quality of life. Food security can also be attained. 5. Relevant to government thrusts. A research problem must respond to the government thrusts. For instance, governments thrust is on waste management or WAR WASTES. An investigator will conduct a study to fight against wastes. An example of a research problem on war wastes is utilization of fish wastes from goatfish tapa, canned sardines, and boneless siganid into sausage. By so doing fish has zero wastes. Another example on war wastes is Utilization of garbage into fertilizer. Hence, utilization of garbage into fertilizer respond to the government thrust. Likewise, TRASH TURNS TO CASH.

6. Measurable and time bound. A good research problem is measurable by using research instruments, apparatus or equipment, as well as statistical tools to arrive at scientific and meaningful results. A good research project can be completed within a time frame stated. The shorter can the completion of the project, the better.