CHAPTER 4

Optimal Inflatable Space Towers*

Summary
In this chapter the author provides theory and computations for building inflatable space towers up to 100 km in height. These towers can be used for tourism, scientific observation of space, the Earth's surface, weather, and the top atmosphere; as well as for radio, TV, and communication transmissions. These towers can also be used to launch space ships and Earth satellites. These projects are not expensive and do not require rockets. They require thin strong films composed of artificial fibers and fabricated by current industry. They can be built using present technology. Towers can be used (for tourism, communication, etc.) during the construction process and provide self-financing for further construction. The tower design does not require work at high altitudes; all construction can be done at the Earth's surface. The transport system for a tower consists of a small engine (used only for friction compensation) located at the Earth's surface. The tower is separated into sections and has special protection mechanisms in case of damage. Problems involving security, control, repair, and stability of the proposed towers will be addressed in other publications. The author is prepared to discuss these and other problems with serious organizations desiring to research and develop these projects.

4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Brief hbstory
The idea of building a tower high above the Earth into the heavens is very old. 1,9 The writings of Moses, about 1450 BC, in Genesis, Chapter 11, refer to an early civilization

* Detail manuscript was published as article "Optimal Inflatable Space Towers with 3-100 km Height", by A.A. Bolonkin, Journal of British Interplanetary Society,Vol. 56, No. 3/4, pp. 87-97, 2003. 83

84 that in about 2100 BC tried to build a tower to heaven out of brick and tar. This construction was called the Tower of Babel, and was reported to be located in Babylon in ancient Mesopotamia. Later in Chapter 28, about 1900 BE, Jacob had a dream about a staircase or ladder built to heaven. This construction was called Jacob's Ladder. More contemporary writings on the subject date back to K.E. Tsiolkovski in his manuscript Speculation about Earth and Sky and on Vesta, published in 1895. 2 This idea inspired Sir Arthur Clarke to write his novel, The Fountains of Paradise, 3 about a space tower (elevator) located on a fictionalized Sri Lanka, which brought the concept to the attention of the entire world. Today, the world's tallest construction is a TV transmitting tower near Fargo, ND, USA. It stands 629m high and was build in 1963 for KTHI-TV. The Cable News Network (CNN) Tower in Toronto, ON, Canada is the world's tallest building. It is 553 m in height, was build from 1973 to 1975, and has the world's highest observation desk at 447 m. The tower structure is concrete up to the observation deck level. Above is a steel structure supporting radio, TV, and communication antennas. The total weight of the tower is 3,000,000 ton. The Ostankin Tower in Moscow is 540m in height and has an observation desk at 370m. The world's tallest office building is the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.The twin towers are 452 m in height.They are 10m taller than the Sears Tower in Chicago, IL, USA. Current materials make it possible even today to construct towers many kilometers in height. However, conventional towers are very expensive, costing tens of billions of dollars. When considering how high a tower can be built, it is important to remember that it can be built to any height if the base is large enough. Theoretically, you could build a tower to geosynchronous Earth's orbit ( G E O ) out of bubble gum, but the base would likely cover half the surface of the Earth. The proposed inflatable towers are cheaper by factors of hundreds. They can be built on the Earth's surface and their height can be increased as necessary. Their base is not large. The main innovations in this project are the application of helium, hydrogen, or warm air for filling inflatable structures at high altitude and the solution of a stability problem for tall (thin) inflatable columns, and utilization of new artificial materials. 4-7

4.1.2 The tower applications

The inflatable high towers (3-100 km) have numerous applications for government and commercial purposes:

1. 2. 3.

Entertainment and observation platform. Entertainment and observation desk for tourists: Tourists could see over a huge area, including the darkness of space and the curvature of the Earth's horizon. Drop tower: Tourists could experience several minutes of flee-fall time. The drop
tower could provide a facility for experiments.

85
Tall tower: A permanent observatory on a tall tower would be competitive with airborne and orbital platforms for Earth and space observations. Communication boost: A tower tens of kilometers in height near metropolitan areas could provide much higher signal strength than orbital satellites. Solar power receivers: Receivers located on tall towers for future space solar power systems would permit use of higher frequency, wireless, and power transmission systems (for example, lasers). Low Earth's orbit (LEO) communication satellite replacement: Approximately six to ten lO0-km tall towers could provide the coverage of a LEO satellite constellation with higher power, permanence, and easy upgrade capabilities.

Further methods proposed by the author for access to space are given in Ref. 8 and Ch. 5.

4.2 Description of innovation and problem

4.2.1 Tower structure

The simplest tourist tower includes (Fig. 4.1): inflatable column, top observation desk, elevator, expansions, and control stability. The tower is separated into sections by horizontal and vertical partitions (Fig. 4.2), and contains entry and exit airlines, and control devices.

8.

/7

Fig. 4.1. Inflatable tower of height 3km (10,000ft). Notations: (1) Inflatable column of radius 5 m; (2) observation desk; (3) load cable elevator; (4) passenger cabin; (5) expansion; (6) engine; (7) radio and TV antenna; (8) rollers of cable transport system; and (9) stability control.

4.2.2 Filling gas

The compressed air filling the inflatable tower provides the weight. Its density decreases at high altitude and it cannot support a top tower load. The author suggests filling the

86

/
13 11

,10

15 16 17

12 18

Fig. 4.2. Section of inflatable tower. Notations: (10) Horizontal film partitions; (11) light second film (internal cover); (12) air balls; (13) entrance line of compression air and pressure control; (14) exit line of air and control; (15) control laser beam; (16) sensors of laser beam location; (17) control cables and devices; and (18) section volume.

towers with a light gas (for example, helium, hydrogen, or warm air). The computations for changing pressure of air, helium, and hydrogen are presented in Fig. 4.3 (see equation (4.1)). If all the gases have the same pressure (1.1 atm) at Earth's surface, their columns have very different pressures at 100km altitude. Air has 0atm, hydrogen 0.4 atm, and helium 0.15 atm. A pressure of 0.4 atm means that every square meter of a tower top can support 4 ton of useful load. Helium can support only 1.5 ton. Unfortunately, hydrogen is dangerous as it can burn. The catastrophes involving dirigibles are sufficient illustration of this. Hydrogen can be used only above an altitude of 13-15 km, where the atmospheric pressure decreases by 10 times and the probability of hydrogen burning is small. The average temperature of the atmosphere in the interval from 0 to 100 km is about 240 K. If a tower is made from dark material, the temperature inside the tower will be higher than the temperature of the atmosphere at a given altitude in daytime, so that the tower support capability will be greater (equation (4.1)). The observation radius versus altitude is presented in Figs. 4.4-4.5 (equation (4.23)).

87

Tube and atmosphere pressure in atm [T = 240 K] 1.4 1.2 ....................................................................................................................................

E
13

""

13

13 t_ 13 (... Q. (/)

0.8

o 0.6

E
tl:i 13 .Q

= 0.4
0.2

50 Tower height [km]

100

150

Fig. 4.3.

Change in hydrogen, helium, and air pressure for intervals of 0-150 km of altitude.
Observation radius [km] versus altitude [km] 450 400 350 ~' 300 250 200

~50

100 50 0
0 5 Altitude [km] 10 15

Fig. 4.4. Observation radius for altitudes up to 15 km.

4.2.3 Tower material

The author has found only old (1973) information about textile fiber for inflatable structures. 4 This refers to DuPont textile Fiber B and Fiber P R D - 4 9 for tire cord. They

88

Observation radius [km] versus altitude [km] 1400

1200 t
~" 1 0 0 0

~5
t_ e0 -.~

800
600 400 200 0

ffl

50 Altitude [km]

100

150

Fig. 4.5. Observation radius for altitudes up to 150 km.

are 6 times as strong as steel (psi is 400,000 or 312 kg/mm 2) with a specific gravity of only 1.5. Minimum available yarn size (denier) is 200, tensile modulus is 8.8 x 106 (B) and 20 (PRD-49), and ultimate elongation (percent) is 4 (B) and 1.8 (PRD-49). The tower parameters vary depending on the strength of the textile material (film), specifically the ratio of the safe tensile stress o" to specific density y. Current industry widely produces artificial fibers that have tensile stress o- = 500-620 kg/mm 2 and density y = 1800 kg/m 3. Their ratio is K -- o-/y = 0.28-0.34. There are whiskers (in industry) and nanotubes (in scientific laboratories) with K = 1-2 (whisker) and K - 5-11 (nanotubes). Theory predicts fiber, whisker, and nanotubes could have K values 10 times greater. 5-7 The tower parameters have been computed for K = 0.05-0.3, with a recommended value of K = 0.1. The reader can estimate tower parameters for other strength ratios.

4.2.4 Tower safety

Many people think that inflatable construction is dangerous, on the basis that a small hole (damage) could deflate the tower. However that assumption is incorrect. The tower will have multiple vertical and horizontal sections, double walls (covers), and special devices (for example, air balls), which will temporarily seal a hole. If a tower section sustains major damage, the tower height is only decreased by one section. This modularity is similar to combat vehicles - bullets may damage its tires, but the vehicle continues to operate.

89 4.2.5 Tower stability Stability is provided by expansions (tensile elements). The verticality of the tower can be checked by laser beam and sensors monitoring beam location (Fig. 4.2). If a section deviates from vertical control cables, control devices, and pressure changes restore the tower position.

4.2.6 Tower construction The tower building will not have conventional construction problems such as lifting building material to high altitude. All sections are identifiable. New sections are put in at the bottom of the tower, the new section is inflated, and the entire tower is lifted. It is estimated that the building may be constructed in 2-3 months. A small tower (up to 3 km) can be located in a city.

4.2.7 Tower cost The inflatable tower does not require high cost building materials. The tower will be a 100 times cheaper than conventional solid towers 400-600 m tall.

4.3 Theory of inflatable towers (all equations are given in metric system)
Equations developed and used by author for estimations and computation are provided below.

4.3.1 The pressure o f any gas in a column versus altitude The given molecular weight,/x; temperature, T, of an atmospheric gas mixture; gravity, g, of planet; and atmospheric pressure, P, versus altitude, H, may be calculated using the equation: P = Poexp(-txgH/RT) or Pr = P/Po = e x p ( - a H ) , (4.1)

where Po is the pressure at the planet surface (for the Earth Po ~ 105 [N/m2]), R = 8314 is gas constant. For air:/x = 28.96, for hydrogen: ~ = 2, for helium:/~ = 4; a = p~g/RT.

4.3.2 Optimal cover thickness and tower radius Let us consider a small horizontal cross-section of tower element. Using the known formulas for mass and stress, we write: P ds = g dm, dm = 27rry6dH, s = "tr(R 2 r2),

R = r + dr,

ds = 2rrrdr. (4.2)

90

where m is the cover mass [kg]; y is the cover specific weight [kg/m3]; o- is the cover tensile stress IN/m2]; d is the sign of differential; s is the tower cross-section area which supports a tower cover [m2]; g = 9.81 [m/s 2] gravity; R, r is the radius of tower [m]; rr = 3.14; P is the surplus internal gas pressure over outside atmosphere pressure [N/m2]. Substituting the above formulas in the first equation, we get: p dr = gy6 dH. From equations for stress we find the cover thickness:
2rrRP d H = 2&r d H

(4.3)

or

6 = rrRP/o.

(4.4)

If we substitute equation (4.4) in equation (4.3) and integrate, we find:

R = R o exp(-rrgH/k)

or

Rr = R/R o = exp(-rrgH/k),

(4.5)

where R r is relative radius, Ro is base tower radius [m], and k = ~r/y.

4.3.3 Tower lift f o r c e F

F = PS,

S = SrS o,

Sr

qT'(RrRo)2/So,

S = So R2,

(4.6)

F = PSoR2,

(4.7)

where So = 7rR 2 is a cross-section tower area at H = 0, Sr = S/So is the relative crosssection of the tower area. If we substitute equations (4.1) and (4.5) in equation (4.7), we find:
F = PoSo e x p [ - ( a + 2rrg/k)H]
or

F r = F/PoS o = e x p [ - ( a + 2"n'g/k)H],

(4.8) where Fr is the relative force.

4.3.4 B a s e area f o r a given top load W [kg]

The required base area So (and radius Ro) for given top load W may be found from equation (4.8) if F = gW:
PoSo = g W / F r (Hma x)

and

R o = (So/rr)l/2.

(4.9)

91
4.3.5 M a s s o f c o v e r

From equation (4.2):

d m = 27tRy6 d H .

(4.10)

If we substitute equations (4.1), (4.4), and (4.5) in equation (4.10), we find:

d m = (21r/k)PoSo{exp[-(a + 2rr/k)H]}dH.

(4.11)

Integrate this relation from HI to H2, we get:

M = [2rrP1S1/k(a + 2rrg/k)][F r (H1) - F r (H 2)],

(4.12)

or relative mass (for H = 0) is:

M r = M/(PoSo) = [27r/k(a + 2 z r g / k ) ] ( 1 - Fr). 4.3.6 T h e thickness o f a tower cover

(4.13)

It may be found from equations (4.4), (4.5), and (4.1):

3 = (rr/yk)PoRo{eXp[-(a + rrg/k)H]}.

(4.14)

Relative thickness is:

~r -- ~lPoRo = ( ~ r l y k ) l e x p [ - ( a + ~rglk)H]}.

(4.15)

4.3. 7 M a x i m u m safety b e n d i n g m o m e n t

Maximum safety bending moment for example, from wind (see equations (4.5) and (4.8))
M b = FR = RoPoSoRrFr,

(4.16)

or relative bending moment is:

m b , r ---- M b / ( R o P o S o ) =

R r F r.

(4.17)

4.3.8 Gas m a s s M into tower

Let us write the gas mass as a small volume and integrate this expression for altitude and constant temperature:
dine, = p dV,

dV = zrR 2 dH,

p = P0Pr ,

(4.18)

92

where V is volume, p is gas density at altitude H, P0 is gas density at H = 0, R is toer radius at H. If we substitute Pr from (4.1), integrate, and substitute Fr from (4.8), we have:

Mg = [rrPlR2/(a + 2"n'g/k)][Fr(H1)- Fr(H2) ],

(4.19)

where lower index "1" means values for lower end and "2" means values for top end of the tower, Pl is gas density at altitude H1. Relative gas mass is: Mg,r = Mg/PlR2 = [,rr/(a + 2"n'g/k)][Fr(H1)- Fr(H2) ]. (4.20)

4.3.9 Base tower radius

We get from equation (4.8) for F = gW:

R 1 = (gW/TrP1Rr)l/2
where W is the top load [kg].

(4.21)

4.3.10 Tower mass

Tower mass M [kg] is: M - - "rrR2P1. (4.22)

4.3.11 Distance L o f Earth

Earth's distance view from a high tower is:

L ,,~ (2ReH + H2) ~

(4.23)

where Re = 6378 [km] is the Earth's radius. Results of computations are presented in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5.

4.4 Projects
4.4.1 Project I : A simple air tower o f 3 km height (base radius 5m, 15fi, and K = 0.1)
This inexpensive project provides experience in design and construction of a tall inflatable tower, and of its stability. The project also provides funds from tourism, radio, and TV. The inflatable tower has a height of 3 km (10,000 ft). Tourists will not need a special

93 suit or breathing device at this altitude. They can enjoy an Earth's panorama of a radius of up to 200 km. The bravest of them could experience 20 s of free-fall time followed by 2g overload.

4.4.1.1 Results of computations Assume the additional air pressure is 0.1 atm; air temperature is 288 K (15~ 60~ base radius of tower is 5 m; and K = 0.05-0.3. Take K - 0.1, computations of radius are presented in Fig. 4.6. If the tower cone is optimal, the tower top radius must be 4.55 m (Fig. 4.6). The maximum useful tower top lift is 46 ton (Fig. 4.7). The cover thickness is 0.087 mm at the base and 0.057 mm at the top (Fig. 4.8). The outer cover mass is only 11.5 ton (Fig. 4.9). If we add light internal partitions, the total cover weight will be about 16-18 ton (compared to 3 million ton for the 553 m tower in Toronto). Maximum safe bending moment versus altitude (as presented in Fig. 4.10) ranges from 390tonm (at the base) to 210 ton m at the tower top.

Tower radius [m] versus tower height for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, AP = 0.1 atm, T = 288 K 5.1 Air 13.3 4.9 4.8 E '-" 4.7
. m

.,--..2

~K = 0.2

K=0.1

"o
i,.,.

4.6
K = 0.0,$

i1) o !-

4.5
4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 0 0.5 1 1.5 Tower altitude [km] 2 2.5 3

Fig. 4.6. Tower radius versus tower height for the 3-km air tower. 4.4.1.2 Economic efficiency Assume the cost of the tower is $5 million, its lifetime is 10 years, annual maintenance $1 million, the number of tourists at the tower top is 200 (15 ton), time at the top is 0.5 h, and the tower is open 12 h/day. Then 4800 tourists will visit the tower per day, or 1.7 million/year. The unit cost of one tourist is (0.5 + 1)/1.7 = $1/person. If a ticket costs $9, the profit is 1.7 8 = $13.6 million/year. If a drop from the tower (in a special cabin, for a free-fall (weightlessness) time of 20 s, followed by a overload of 2 g) costs $5 and 20% of tourists take it, the additional profit will be $1.7 million.

94

Tower lift force [ton] versus tower height for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, P = 0.1 atm

80 75
70 65

s 60
O

......................................... !

O2 jo:, ............

"- 55
O

50 45 40 35

0.5

1.5 2 Tower altitude [km]

2.5

Fig. 4.7.

Tower lift force versus tower height for the 3-km air tower.

Tower cover thickness [mm] versus altitude for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.3, AP = 0.1 atm 0.18 0.16 0.14 E
! !

E
r r
0 c-

0.12 0.1 0.08

~"

0 0

0.06
0

0.04 0.02
~

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Altitude [km]

i 2

i 2.5

Fig. 4.8.

Tower cover thickness for the 3-km air tower.

95

Cover mass [ton] versus stress coefficient K for base radius 5 m, altitude 3 km, cover density = 1800 kg/m 3, temperature 288 K, AP = 0.1 atm, gas is air (/.~ = 28.96)

22
Air

20 18
,-.., 16 tO t~

14

E ~ 12
> 0

10

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.9.

Cover mass of the 3-km air tower versus stress coefficient.

Maximum safe bending moment [ton m] versus altitude and stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, P = 0.1 atm, base radius 5 m, AP = 0.1 atm 400
v ! w

Air

:,.-,

Eo
350

Eo3 0 0 E
.....................
c-

i .............

.....

.... .....................

250

9 200 ~

150

0.5

1. '5 Altitude [km]

2.5

Fig. 4.10.

M a x i m u m safe bending m o m e n t .

96

4. 4.2 Project 2: Helium tower 30 km (base radius is 5 m, 15 ft, and K = 0.1) 4.4.2.1 Results of computation
Let us take the additional pressure over atmospheric pressure as 0.1 atm. The change of air and helium pressure versus altitude are presented in Figs. 4.3 and 4.4. The change of radius versus altitude is presented in Fig. 4.11. For K = 0.1 the radius is 2 m at an altitude of 30 km. The useful lift force is presented in Figs. 4.12 and 4.15. For K -- 0.1 it is about 75 ton at an altitude of 30 km, thus it is a factor of 2 times greater than the 3-km air tower. It is not surprising, because the helium is lighter than air and it provides a lift force. The cover thickness is presented in Fig. 4.13. It changes from 0.08 mm (at the base) to 0.42 mm at an altitude of 9 km and decreases to 0.2 mm at 30 km. The outer cover mass is about 370ton (Fig. 4.14). Required helium mass is 190ton (Fig. 4.16).

Tower radius [m] versus tower height for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, A p = 0.1 atm, T - 288 K, gas is helium

4.5

~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

! .....................

,-~ 3.5 E
o_ "O

3 2.5

#-

2 1.5

....................

i .....................

i ....................

0.5

10

15 Tower altitude [km]

20

25

30

Fig. 4.11. Tower radius versus tower height for the 30-km helium tower.
The tourist capability of this tower is twice than that of the 3-km tower, but all tourists must stay in cabins.

4. 4.3 Project 3: Air-hydrogen tower 100 km (base radius of air part is 35 m and the hydrogen part has base radius 5 m)
This tower is in two parts. The lower part (0-15 km) is filled with air. The top part (15-100 km) is filled with hydrogen. It makes this tower safer, because the low atmospheric pressure at high altitude decreases the probability of fire. Both parts may be used for tourists.

97

Tower lift force [ton] versus tower height for base radius 5 m, stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, AP = 0.1 atm, T = 288 K, gas is helium 50O
. . . .

450 400 ~, 350 "~" 300

8 T= 250 r ...... ~ /
i 200

........ ~..................... ~.......... " ~ ~

................ " ~ K _

= 0 . I ~ ~

#- 15o
100 50 ..................... 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 ---30

Tower altitude [km]

Fig. 4.12. Tower lift force versus tower height for the 30-km helium tower.

Tower cover thickness [mm] versus altitude for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, AP = 0.1 atm, base radius 5 m, T = 240 K, gas is helium

0.7 0.6

Helium i T = 240K K = 0.05

i--n

E E 0.5
(/)

111111111111111111
i

K=0.1

(1)
o
r

= 0.4
K = 0.15 K = 0.2::
---N,

o rj

>~ 0.3

0.2

K ~ 0.3~
, T

0.1

K = 0.5

10

15 Altitude [km]

20

25

30

Fig. 4.13.

Tower cover thickness versus tower height for the 30-km helium tower.

98

Cover mass [ton] versus stress coefficient K for base radius 5 m, altitude 3 km, cover density = 1800 kg/m 3, temperature 240 K, AP = 0.1 atm, gas is helium (/z = 4) 400
,

I
i ,

!
Helium

:ii!iiiil;;ii"iiiiiii.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilliiiiiiiii . i i i i i i i i i i.i.i i i i i i i i i i i i iiiiiiii

,---, 300 cO

350

t~ 250 E
> 0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

| ................................

200

150

..............

.
100 0 0.1 0.2

i
0.5

0.3

0.4

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.14.

Cover mass versus stress coefficient for the 30-km helium tower.

Top tube lift forces[ton] versus stress coefficient K, for base radius 5 m, altitude 30 km, T = 240 K, cover density - 1800 kg/m 3, AP = 0.1 atm 350
! i
!

! !

300
,-, 250 t--" ,-. 200

~ .Q

150
loo

~-

50

iiiiiiii
! ! !

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.15.

Top lift force for the 30-km helium tower.

99

Helium mass into tube [ton] versus stress coefficient K, for base radius 5 m, altitude 30 km, T = 240 K, cover density - 1800 kg/m 3, AP = 0.1 atm 350
!

Helium

300
cO

.a 250
O .4.,., t'-

E
ffl

200

(5
150

100

....

!
i,

i
0.4

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.5

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.16. Helium mass for the 30-km tower.

4.4.3.1 Air part (0--15km)

The base radius is 25 m, the additional pressure is 0.1 atm, average temperature is 240 K, and the stress coefficient K = 0.1. Change of radius is presented in Fig. 4.17, the useful tower lift force in Fig. 4.21, the outer tower cover thickness is in Fig. 4.18, maximum safe bending m o m e n t is in Fig. 4.19, and the cover mass in Fig. 4.20. This tower can be used for tourism and as an astronomy observatory. For K = 0.1, the lower (0-15 km) part of the project requires 570 ton of outer cover (Fig. 4.20) and provides 90 ton of useful top lift force (Fig. 4.21).

4.4.3.2 Hydrogen part (15-100km)

This part has base radius 5 m, additional gas pressure 0.1 atm, and requires a stronger cover with K - 0.2. The results of computation are presented in the following figures: the change of air and hydrogen pressure versus altitude are in Fig. 4.3; the tower radius versus altitude is in Fig. 4.22; the tower lift force versus altitude is in Fig. 4.23; the tower thickness is in Fig. 4.24; the cover mass is in Fig. 4.25; the lift force is in Fig. 4.26; and hydrogen mass is in Fig. 4.27. The useful top tower load can be about 5 ton, maximum, for K = 0.2. The cover mass is 112 ton (Fig. 4.25) and the hydrogen lift force is 37 ton. The top tower will press on the lower part with a force of only (112 - 37) + 5 = 80 ton. The lower part can support 90 ton. Readers can easily calculate any variant by using the presented figures.

100

Tower radius [m] versus tower height for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.3, AP = 0.1 atm, T = 240 K 26 ;
.

Air

24

K=0.3
22 20 E
.I "O

L_ K.= 0.2 9

18 16

..! .....

#-

14 12 10

9 K = 0.05 .t

5 Tower altitude [km]

10

15

Fig. 4.17.

Air lower part of 100-km tower. Tower radius versus altitude.

Tower cover thickness [mm] versus altitude for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, AP = 0.1 atm, base radius 25 m, T = 240 K, gas is air

0.9
Air

0.8
,.~ 0.7 E

E
t-

K = 0.05

0.6

-~ 0.5
,i t-

0.4
O

K=0.1

~ 0.3 0.2
0.1 0 0 K = 0.3 ~ K = 0! 5 Altitude [km] . 2 10 15

Fig. 4.18.

Air lower part of 100-km tower. Tower cover thickness versus altitude.

101

Maximum safe bending moment [ton m] versus altitude and stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, P = 0.1 atm, base radius 25 m, AP = 0.1 atm, T = 240 K, gas is air x 104 Air ~' 4.5
r

4
rE O

3.5

E -~ r

3
K = 0.3
. . . . . . .

"~ 2.5
,m m

E
~

1.5 1
0.5 i K - 0.05 ~ 0 5 Altitude [km] i 10 15

E E
x

Fig. 4.19.

Air lower part of 100-km tower. Maximum safe bending moment.

Cover mass [ton] versus stress coefficient K for base radius 25 m, altitude 15 km, cover density = 1800 kg/m 3, temperature 240 K, AP = 0.1 atm, gas is air (/x = 28.96) 1000 900 800
tO
i. ! ! | | |

Air

700 600 500 400 300 200

. ,, | ,, |

tl:l

E o O

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.20.

Air lower part of 100-km tower. Cover mass.

102

Top tube lift forces [ton] versus stress coefficient K, for base radius 25 m, altitude 15 km, T = 240 K, cover density = 1800 kg/m 3, A p = 0.1 atm, gas is air

180

'

Air

16o ....................... ,....................... ,....................... ,................... ~ i ~ . _

140
(.......................

~ ................................................................. ...................... ~ .~ ~ ~

. ~. ...................... ...................... ~

~ 120
0

~ 100 ~. Q 80 60 40
20

......................

i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.........................

......................

9 i
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 i 0.2 i 0.3 , 0.35

0.25

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.21. Air lower part of 100-km tower. Top lift force.

Tower radius [m] versus tower height for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, A p = 0.1 atm, T = 240 K, gas is hydrogen

5
9 ... : .: 9 . ~.

4.5r .......... x
4 3.5

\ ~ ~

................ t ................. i ................. i ................. ~................. t.................

~ 2.5

~51 1
0.5 0

K= ~

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Tower altitude [km]

Fig. 4.22.

Hydrogen top part of 100-km tower. Tower radius versus altitude.

103

Tower lift force [ton] versus tower height for base radius 5 m, stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, AP = 0.1 atm, T = 240 K, gas is hydrogen 120

.......

.......

~= ~176 N X \ N ' ~ ............................................ ! ~

~
40
20

F......

.............. i'................. i................. i.................

.................................. ! i.................

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Tower altitude [km]

Fig. 4.23. Hydrogen top part of 100-km tower. Tower lift force versus altitude.

Tower cover thickness [mm] versus altitude for stress coefficient K = 0.05, 0.1,0.15, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 AP = 0.1 atm, base radius 5 m, T = 240 K, gas is hydrogen 0.2
" ! ! ' ! '" 9 ' I

9 0.16
E
,___,

Hydrogen

0.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~.................i..................~ .................i ..................~ .................~" ................~.................

:o.o;

E
e" O

0.14

a) 0 . 1 2 .......... ~ ~ .
0.1

............,..................i.................! ................. .................! .................i................. i

i.................~.................~.................i..................i.................

N
!__

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.08 0.06
0.04
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i ................. 4 ................. 4 ................. ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | .................

0.02 0

........

,,I

,I

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Altitude [km]
Fig. 4.24. Hydrogen top part of 100-km tower. Tower cover thickness.

104

Cover mass [ton] versus stress coefficient K for base radius 5 m, altitude 100 km, cover density = 1800 kg/m 3, temperature 240 K, z~P = 0.1 atm, gas is hydrogen (/x = 2) 130 Hydrogen 120

................................ i................................ ,~ 110 ............................... ~,................................~............................. ~tO o)

E
0

100 ............................... ~................................~,............................. ,.'................................. i................................

90

80

70

i
!

i
0.2 0.3 Cover stress coefficient K

i
0.4 0.5

0.1

Fig. 4.25.

Hydrogen

top part of 100-km tower. Cover mass.

Top tube lift forces [ton] versus stress coefficient K, for base radius 5 m, altitude 100 km, T = 240 K, cover density = 1800 kg/m 3, AP = 0.1 atm, gas is hydrogen (/z = 2)
30

Hydrogen
25

o
I1)

20

.~_ 15
.Q

~ 10

e~

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.26. Hydrogen t o p p a r t o f 1 0 0 - k m t o w e r . T o w e r t o p lift f o r c e .

105

Hydrogen mass into tube [ton] versus stress coefficient/4, for base radius 5 m, altitude 100 km, T = 240 K, cover density = 1800 kg/m 3, AP = 0.1 atm

70 60
r

2
..Q O

5O

......................... i........................... i.......................... i........................... i.....................

E 40 E
m

30
t ............
20

10

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Cover stress coefficient K

Fig. 4.27. Hydrogen top part of 100-km tower. Required hydrogen mass. The proposed projects use the optimal change of radius, but designers must find the optimal combination of the air and gas parts.

4.5 C o n c l u s i o n The presented theory and computation show that an inexpensive tall tower can be designed and constructed, and can be useful for industry, government, and science. The author has developed the innovation, estimation, and computations for the above mentioned problems. Even though these projects may seem impossible using current technology, the author is prepared to discuss the details with serious organizations that want to develop these projects.

References

1. D.V. Smitherman Jr., "Space Elevators", NASA/CP-2000-210429, US National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC, 2000. 2. K.E. Tsiolkovski, "Speculations about Earth and Sky and on Vesta", Moscow, Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1959; Grezi o zemle i nebe (in Russian), Academy of Sciences, USSR, Moscow, 1999, p. 35. 3. A.C. Clarke, Fountains of Paradise, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, 1978.

106 4. J.T. Harris, Advanced Material and Assembly Methods for Inflatable Structures, AIAA, Paper No. 73-448,1973. 5. ES. Galasso, Advanced Fibers and Composite, Gordon and Branch Science Publisher, New York, 1989.

6. Carbon and High Performance Fibers, Directory, 6th edition, Chapman & Hall, London, New York, 1995.
7. M.S. Dresselhous, Carbon Nanotubes, Springer, London, New York, 2001. 8. A.A. Bolonkin, "Optimal Inflatable Space Towers with 3-100km Height", Journal of British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 56, 2003, pp. 87-97. 9. G.A. Landis and C. Cafarelli, "The Tsiolkovski Tower Re-examined", Journal of British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 32,1999, pp. 176-180.