European Business Review

Emerald Article: Macromarketing, controversy and economic development: Just before and now during the global meltdown Stanley J. Shapiro, Clifford J. Shultz II

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To cite this document: Stanley J. Shapiro, Clifford J. Shultz II, (2009),"Macromarketing, controversy and economic development: Just before and now during the global meltdown", European Business Review, Vol. 21 Iss: 4 pp. 313 - 325 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09555340910970427 Downloaded on: 17-05-2012 References: This document contains references to 35 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com This document has been downloaded 1531 times.

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Macromarketing, controversy and economic development

Just before and now during the global meltdown
Stanley J. Shapiro
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada, and

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Received February 2009 Revised March 2009, April 2009 Accepted April 2009

Clifford J. Shultz II
W.P. Carey School of Business and Morrison School of Managemnet and Agribusiness, Arizona State University, Mesa, Arizona, USA
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to familiarize readers with the nature and scope of the current global economic crisis, its implications for economic development, and what macromarketing can contribute both to better understanding and solutions. Design/methodology/approach The paper is a controversies-based examination, including a selective, multi-disciplinary literature review and personal observation with a focus on the past, the present and the likely future of economic development. Findings The paper reports on global trends in economic development, shares prognoses, and suggests the importance of macromarketing perspectives and practices to advance individual and societal well being. Originality/value This paper provides a fresh, multi-disciplinary perspective on controversies ` vis-a-vis economic development, while reecting on past perspectives and new directions for individual and societal well being. The prospects for economic development in light of the global economic crisis and macromarketing orientations are discussed in considerable detail. Some personal views on the likely future of development are also offered. Keywords Macro marketing, Economic development, Recession, Globalization Paper type Research paper

This paper is being written in March of 2009, a time at which the global economy may well be facing challenges as serious as those of the great pre-World War II depression. What has occurred in the last six months has raised any number of issues, none more important than the current meltdowns likely impact on the least fortunate third of the worlds population. About two billion people are living on less than $2 per day. How will these people fare both during and after the current crisis? Has the progress made over the last quarter century in reducing global poverty come to an end? Will millions living in Asia, millions whose economic fortunes have improved so much in recent years, now nd that their gains were short lived? The above are obviously crucially important questions. But before looking forward, it seems essential that we look back, not that far back but to a time just before the current collapse. What was then being written regarding the policies and practices that would facilitate societal development and reduce global poverty? In mid-September of 2008, the collapse of two major investment banks triggered a further, major decline in an already faltering global economy. As chance would have it, just a few weeks earlier

European Business Review Vol. 21 No. 4, 2009 pp. 313-325 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0955-534X DOI 10.1108/09555340910970427

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the authors of this paper, along with Mark Tadajewski of the University of Leicester, had completed their review from a macromarketing perspective of the current literature on economic development. That review had put particular emphasis on issues of global poverty and of equity, both within and between nations. The aforementioned literature review had been conducted as part of an editorial effort to select 80 previously published items for inclusion in a forthcoming Sage major work entitled Macromarketing. The editors were thus operating within the framework that Sage Publishing had established for all such works: . These collections were to assemble the seminal works in a particular discipline. . The articles chosen for inclusion also should have proved themselves through previous publication and peer review to be integral to the study of the subject area addressed by the major work. . These reference works are not readers but rather intended to present a nuanced and in-depth reading of key issues or concepts. . The aim is to save the researcher time and resources by collecting leading articles from across the eld and across a range of (as often as possible) inaccessible or diverse sources. The editors were delighted that Sage UK considered macromarketing to merit its own major work. (This was not entirely unexpected, however, given that Sage USA was the publisher of the Journal of Macromarketing.) They then set out to work within both the above guidelines and the recognized parameters of macromarketing, often interpreted as a sub-discipline of academic marketing, primarily concerned with how well marketing served as societys provisioning technology[1]. But how could the major macromarketing concerns the performance of markets, the efciency and effectiveness of marketing systems, transactional externalities, societal impacts on marketing, marketing ethics, distributive justice, quality-of-life, globalization, marketing and development, sustainability (Shultz, 2007a) best be explored? What eventually emerged from this editorial effort was a four volume tome on macromarketing (Shapiro et al., 2009a, c) that had a developing world focus and placed particular emphasis on marketing systems, on distributive justice and on economic development; all three of these subjects having been central concerns of macromarketing from that sub-disciplines very beginning (Shapiro, 2006). For example, one nds in the collections unit on marketing systems a discussion of how a change in marketing institutions has altered the way urban dwellers in West and Southern Africa are being provisioned (Porter et al., 2007). In another article in the same unit (Ghosh, 2008), it is argued that, because of obviously faulty marketing mechanisms, the poorer residents of most developing nations are not well served by their health care systems. Similarly, one nds in the collections unit on market externalities (how third parties are effected, for good or ill, by market transactions) an article exploring how global food systems are changing local cultural practices (Witkowski, 2008). Another externality issue explored involves the growing use of bio-fuels as a substitute for fossil fuels, an action that has reduced harmful carbon omissions while increasing the price the global poor pay for food (Clancy, 2008). But, of course, impacts can run in both directions. Though marketing can signicantly impact society, the opposite also holds true. Nowhere is this made clearer than in an article by Shultz et al. (2005), who examine

and discuss how food marketing systems were impacted by war in the Balkans that lasted over so much of the 1990s. Distributive justice and quality-of-life are also discussed from a global perspective. One nds, for example, both a review (Martens, 2005) of the UNs 2005 Human Development Report and a short but poignant lament by Belk (2006) for those left behind by globalism. The rst of two articles by Hill et al. (2007) explores Rawlsian analysis and its relevance when examining consumer quality-of-life across 175 nations. The second (Hill and Dhanda, 2003) focuses more specically on both the extent of and the unfortunate consequences associated with the existing digital divide between nations. Other global fairness issues explored in the collection deal with what would constitute a fair share of the pain or an equal sacrice as the nations of the world collectively attempt to deal with global issues such as sustainable consumption (United Nations Development Programme, 1998) and climate change (Aston and Wang, 2003).These discussions are followed by the nal article in the four volume set (Shultz and Holbrook, 1999), a paper that explores creative ways of dealing with these and other problems of the Global Commons. For present purposes, however, emphasis must be placed on economic development. What is it? What does it involve? What has been accomplished? What works? What does not? Unfortunately, these are easier questions to ask than to answer. Some degree of consensus has been reached as regards what constitutes development. That not only economic but also social measures (education, literacy, health, the status of women, etc.) must be used in efforts to assess developmental progress is now generally recognized (World Bank, 1999; Stewart and Deneulin, 2002). However, this is one of the few areas of agreement where development is concerned. The other appears to be that there is otherwise no generally received wisdom in the area. Although they could only select a relatively few articles on economic development for the collection, the editors uncovered a wealth of material on a wide range of development-related issues. Students of development were also found to have been expressing very different, and often directly conicting, opinions as to what policies and practices would facilitate development and which might do more harm than good. How could this material best be considered from a macromarketing perspective? After a number of false starts, the editors decided to adopt a controversies in development approach, one that focused on the existing differences of opinion in four important areas. Though interrelated in any number of ways, these controversial issues could still be discussed separately. Moreover, when discussing them, it seemed only appropriate that the intellectual conict currently existing, as regards both actual past impact and best future practice, should be the central concern. A similar controversies-based approach had earlier been employed in the exploration of macromarketing issues, some related to economic development but others did not. For example, what should, and what should not, be done to meet the demand for human body organs; advertisings impact on society; how best to deal with the challenge of obesity; the price that should be charged for AIDS drugs in the developing world; what, if any thing, should be done about the Wal-Mart effect; and is sustainable consumption an achievable objective? (Shapiro, 2008). Each of the four controversies in development is discussed, in turn, below with those discussions being drawn from the Introduction to the Sage major work (Shapiro et al., 2009b). Each discussion is followed by a listing of the material chosen to

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provide a full range of views on that topic. The selected articles were drawn, of course, from a much larger universe of high-quality material on the same subject. Any editorial selection process takes place within the context of guidelines employed by the editors. In this case, those guidelines reected not only the aforementioned emphasis on controversy but also a decision to focus on articles highlighting policy issues rather than rigorous methodological explorations of developmental impacts. More generally, and reecting the fact that the Sage set was intended for an audience interested in macromarketing, each selection also had to be one that could be understood by graduate students from disciplines other than economics. Finally, there was an absolute limit on the amount of space that could be devoted to any one topic. This European Business Review contribution, however, has both a different focus and a different purpose than that four volumes set. For that reason, some articles that were short listed for inclusion in the collection, but did not make the nal cut, have been added below to the proposed list of relevant readings on the four controversies being examined. Controversies in development, 1: benets from freer trade? The Doha round The rst issue explored is whether developing countries have indeed beneted from free trade and whether they would benet even more from even freer trade. Would it be better for them if some forms of trade were freer but others still remained protected by both tariff and non-tariff batteries? Should liberalizing initiatives require that all parties adopt the same rules and regulations regarding environmental protection and the rights of workers? And what should be the relationship between free trade, the protection of intellectual property rights and the availability of life saving drugs in the developing world? The ongoing, and so far unsuccessful, efforts to reach international agreement on a further set of Doha Round trade liberalization policies provided a focus for this discussion: . Sutherland, P. (2007), Challenges to the multilateral trading system, World Economics, Vol. 8, pp. 1-14. . Akyuz, Y., Milberg, W. and Wade, R. (2006), Developing countries and the collapse of the Doha round, Challenge, November/December, pp. 6-19. . Tokarick, S. (2008), Dispelling some misconceptions about agricultural trade liberalization, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 22, pp. 199-216. . Lawrence, R.Z. (2007), A true development round? A review of Joseph E. Stiglitz and Andrew Charltons, Fair Trade for all: How Trade can Promote Development, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. XLV, pp. 1001-10. Controversies in development, 2: the role of international development assistance What about international development assistance? What can foreign aid contribute when it comes to helping the worlds poorer nations achieve the UNs Millennium Development Goals? Under what conditions will First World investments in development generate a substantial Third World return on that investment? When will such assistance accomplish very little other than enrich, both legally and illegally, the already afuent and/or the governing elites in developing countries? These are the central issues explored in this unit. Very different and directly conicting views are

again presented so that readers might obtain an appreciation of the wide range of opinions that exist on these issues: . Birdsall, N., Rodrik, D. and Subramanian, A. (2005), How to help poor countries, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 84, pp. 136-52. . Rodrik, D. (2006), Goodbye Washington consensus, hello Washington confusion? A review of the World Banks economic growth in the 1990s learning from a decade of reform, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. XLIV, pp. 973-87. . Martens, J. (2005), Report of the UN Millennium Project Investing in Development, FES Brieng Paper, February, pp. 1-8. . Roy, R. and Heuty, A. (2005), Investing in development: the millennium development goals and sustainable capital accumulation, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 58, pp. 161-75. . Banerjee, A. V. (2006), Making aid work, Boston Review, July/August, pp. 1-13. . Easterly, W. (2008), Was development assistance a mistake?, AEA Papers and Proceedings, Vol. 97, pp. 328-32. . Farrington, J. and Clarke, J. (2006), Growth, poverty reduction and development assistance in Asia: options and prospects, Development Policy Review, Vol. 24, pp. 13-28. Controversies in development, 3: economic growth & reduced poverty As is reected in the subtitle chosen for the collection, both poverty and equity were major editorial concerns. It therefore seemed essential that the impact of economic development efforts on both poverty reduction and income inequality be explored. This is done in the articles found below. How much direct developmental emphasis should be placed on poverty reduction? Is such a direct emphasis the best way to alleviate poverty? What if a substantial increase in the percentage of those living above the relevant national poverty line does occur? Would it really matter, then, if at the same time income inequality also markedly increased in that same country? Once again, a wide range of opinions, some directly conicting, are to be found in the readings included in this unit: . Besley, T. and Burgess, R. (2003), Halving global poverty, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 17, pp. 3-22. . Kanbur, R. (2005), Growth, inequality and poverty: some hard questions, Journal of International Affairs, Spring, pp. 223-32. . Sumner, A. and Tiwari, M. (2005), Poverty and economic policy: what happens when researchers disagree?, Journal of International Development, Vol. 17, pp. 791-801. . Harrison, A. and McMillan, M. (2007), On the links between globalization and poverty, Journal of Economic Inequality, Vol. 5, pp. 123-34. . Bardhan, P. (2006), Globalization and rural poverty, World Development, Vol. 34 No. 8, pp. 1393-404. . Nissanke, M. and Thorbecke, E. (2006), Channels and policy debate in the globalization-inequality-poverty nexus, World Development, Vol. 34 No. 8, pp. 1338-60.

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Controversies in development, 4: challenges in globalization The nal controversy discussed revolves around the complex issue of globalization. This topic will have already received considerable attention in the three preceding controversies units. Neither free trade nor poverty reduction could have been discussed without some reference to globalization. However, there exists, as well, a considerable literature that focuses more directly, using the vocabulary of macromarketing, on both the positive and negative externalities associated with globalization. Put more bluntly, the controversy rages over whether the minuses that some have associated with globalization outweigh the pluses that others see. If they do, or even if they do not, what should be done to increase globalizations contribution to the reduction of global poverty? The articles chosen for this unit, admittedly but a few of many that explore the impact of globalization, collectively provide a useful overview of a very complex subject: . Witkowski, T.H. (2005), Antiglobal challenges to marketing in developing countries: exploring the ideological divide, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 24, pp. 7-23. . Garrett, G. (2004), Globalizations missing middle, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, pp. 84-96. . Broad, R. and Cavanagh, J. (2006), The hijacking of the development debate: how Friedman and Sachs got it wrong, World Policy Journal, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 21-30. . Grewal, D.S. (2006), Is globalization working?, Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 20, pp. 247-59. . Koechlin, T. (2006), Stiglitz and his discontent, Review of Political Economy, Vol. 18, pp. 253-64. . Cavanagh, J. et al. (2002), Report summary: a better world is possible: alternatives to economic globalization, International Forum on Globalization, Spring, 1-23. . Trebilcock, M.J. (2005), Critiquing the critics of economic globalization, Journal of International Law and International Relations, Vol. 1, pp. 213-36. With but one exception (Witkowski, 2005), the material presented above as most relevant to the discussion of the various controversies associated with economic development is not drawn from the literature of macromarketing. This might seem strange to those unfamiliar with macromarketing but it was what the editors expected. That macromarketing scholars must also consider what other disciplines could and, in many cases, already have contributed to the study of areas of concern they share with macromarketing has long been recognized. The editors of the collection believed that macromarketing should be generally considered as a sub-discipline that provides academic marketings perspective on a wide range of societal concerns. However, these same issues the performance of markets and marketing systems, ethics and distributive justice, quality-of-life, economic development, globalization and sustainability also are simultaneously being studied by, among others, economists, sociologists, psychologists, and philosophers. Thus, a major effort to include material providing very different disciplinary perspectives on key macromarketing concerns denitely seemed in order.

The above notwithstanding, marketings own contribution to economic development was also explored by the editors and the most pertinent of that material was then included in the collection. One nds, for example, a broad ranging review of the literature on macromarketing and economic development (Klein and Nason, 2001), a more limited review of social marketing and its relation to economic development (Dholakia and Dholakia, 2001) and a discussion by Kotler et al. (2006) of the challenge of global poverty and of the many different approaches to alleviating this problem. A more direct conict is also explored, the one between two of the leading proponents (Prahalad and Hart, 2002) of B-o-P marketing with the B originally standing for Bottom but now for the more politically correct Base and the other by an outspoken critic (Karnani, 2007) of this same approach. Economic development now more than ever an important area of ignorance The material in the forthcoming Sage major work on Macromarketing most relevant to issues of societal development, equity and poverty has now been identied. In light of what has happened over the last six months, the closing paragraph of the Editors Introduction to that Sage set seems even more relevant than it did at the time of writing:
The editors believe that global poverty is itself a kind of commons issue, one with obvious fair share implications. There have to be more effective ways of using both global resources and human initiative to provide all of the worlds population with an improved and sustainable quality-of-life. It now becomes macromarketings task, in concert with the other social sciences, to provide policy makers with the guidelines that should be followed in working toward this objective. Unfortunately, the various policy sciences, including macromarketing, have so far failed to provide such generally accepted guidelines. Consequently, the editors must reluctantly conclude that, in retrospect, what they have compiled is a core collection which demonstrates the nature and extent of our societys global problems and indicates, as well, where (but, unfortunately, not what) corrective action is urgently and immediately required. Providing that still missing clearer focus on what should be done remains the social science challenge of our time (Shapiro et al., 2009a).

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Obviously, then, no received wisdom existed just prior to the current economic meltdown as to what mix of policies and practices would best facilitate economic development. There was general agreement at the time as to the nature of the most serious problems but no consensus as to what should be done about these problems. And now we are confronted with an economic crisis that is certain to have a harmful effect, both immediately and for years to come, on global well being and, more particularly, on the quality-of-life of the worlds least fortunate third. No one knows at this time, however, what that impact will be. Eventually, of course, some future set of editors will undertake the task of selecting, from a ood of academic literature on the subject, an appropriate collection of meltdown articles. These will be the article that, at least in the opinion of those editors, best explore the root and contributing causes of our current crisis, the extent and impact of that crisis and last, but certainly not least, the effectiveness of the various stimulus plans and regulatory responses rapidly fashioned to deal with the resulting wide range of problems. We can also anticipate these editors being required to choose, from a ood of literature representing a full range of clashing ideological

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mind sets, a limited number of articles that contrast what was done with what should have been done, both nationally and internationally. The authors believe that it is impossible to predict the current meltdowns impact on economic development and global poverty. Nevertheless, we do expect the following to occur: . Political realities being what they are, the unprecedented decit spending now taking place throughout the developed world would suggest that less international development assistance will be provided. This will be less both in absolute terms and as a percentage of the gross domestic product of the worlds wealthier nations. On the other hand, some emerging economies China and Vietnam, for example whose rapid growth has largely resulted from export development, now are and for the foreseeable future will be responding to the meltdown by investing in domestic projects, which could have similar effects to aid in stimulating development and reducing poverty. . The Doha Round negotiations, we also anticipate, either will be put on hold or carry on in an even more desultory fashion. Free traders will focus their efforts on resisting the introduction of increasingly protectionist policies, policies others will be advocating as the most appropriate response to the crisis. However, it is not protectionism but rather an unprecedented collapse in consumer demand that largely has been the cause of the current (March, 2009) and once all but inconceivable decline in global trade. . One can also expect that the progress made over the last few decades in reducing global poverty may be adversely affected. Rather, but hopefully only temporarily, both the number and the percentage of those living below the global poverty line likely will increase. We are, of course, not the only ones making such a prediction. Several international organizations already have argued that this will be the case. . There will be growing recognition of the fact that, in the increasingly interdependent world created by the forces of globalization, a problem anywhere in the system becomes a problem everywhere. As far as macromarketing is concerned, we can anticipate that subsequent research on the performance of marketing systems will reect a growing realization that both labor and nancial markets, as well as those for goods and services, will require attention. . We also anticipate a movement, one lasting for at least a decade and perhaps longer, toward the re-regulation of markets of most every sort. There remain those who, even under current conditions, will still argue that the role of free markets should remain paramount and that government restrictions on such markets, and even more so, direct government interventions in them, should be few and very far between. These are the people who, the eminent theologian Cox (1999) has argued, are appropriately viewed as believers in the market as God. But such true believers notwithstanding, we expect the prevailing view will be one that, for some time at least, supports a greater degree of regulation. . Finally, from crises spring opportunities. At the time of this writing, the global nancial crisis and its ripple effects on just about every institution and person will force new policies and inspire the advent of new technologies. These developments may offer solutions to some of the worlds most pressing challenges,

including energy, food production, trade, banking, housing, climate change and sustainability, war/peace, citizen-empowerment, community and brotherhood, among others. Macromarketing and macromarketing scholars are uniquely well positioned to be the vanguard of positive change. Armed with an appreciation of history, system dynamics, and distributive justice; understanding the power of markets and marketing to be catalysts for socio-economic development; and ultimately focused on research and practice to effect societal well being and individual quality of life, Macromarketers bring to bear much needed perspectives and tools (Shultz, 2009). Looking further backward and further ahead: the macromarketing century Some 45 years ago, one of the authors of this paper contributed to a published collection of essays entitled Science in Marketing a chapter entitled Comparative marketing and economic development (Shapiro, 1965). The following quotation spells out the nature and scope of what was found in that paper:
Certain controversial topics on which economists and students of marketing have disagreed among themselves are explored. Also, attention is called to important, heretofore neglected issues in comparative marketing and economic development. More specically, the limitations and inconsistencies of the available literature as it deals with the following topics are explored:
. . . . . . .

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the appropriate frame of reference for the comparison of national marketing systems; the applicability in other countries of American marketing techniques; the possible existence of stages of marketing development; the role of the market economy and of market structure in economic development; the desirability of stimulating consumer wants in underdeveloped countries; the wisdom of efforts to reform the marketing systems of underdeveloped countries; and the contribution that marketing can make to economic development.

These issues must be resolved before the study of comparative marketing systems can make the greatest possible contribution to the economic development of emerging nations and the substantive content of marketing science (Shapiro, 1965, p. 399). Looking backward almost half a century, it is interesting to note, rst of all, what the author had identied as the then most relevant marketing and development literature. Much of this literature long ago fell off the academic radar screen. In some cases this is understandable, but in other cases unfortunate since some of the items then cited are still intellectually relevant. Druckers (1958) article on Marketing and economic development is even today occasionally identied as a seminal piece. The same, however, does not hold true for two other contributions, including Fredericks (1960) provocative discussion of the alleged deciencies both of market institutions and of market-oriented economic theory and Bartels (1963) proposed guidelines for the study of comparative marketing systems. The validity of the Bartels approach to the study of comparative marketing systems was subsequently challenged (Barksdale and Anderson, 1982; El-Ansary and Liebrenz, 1982). However, a number of the elements that were identied by Bartels as essential components of comparative marketing

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studies, including both the performance of markets and how well marketing operates as a social process, are issues that have long been and still remain central concerns of macromarketing. It is also interesting to note the topics that have fallen out of academic favor. One now nds, for example, very little interest either in the most appropriate framework for studies of comparative marketing or in the existence, or lack thereof, of stages of economic development. Also, three of the topics that now account for a very large share of the economic development literature, globalization, free trade and international development assistance, received, a half century ago, far less attention. In contrast, the roles that the market economy, market structures and marketing systems actually play in facilitating economic development all continue to be subjects as aggressively debated today as they were at that time. But what will we see a half a century from now? Although one might attempt, and the current authors did just that, to predict the impact of the current meltdown on economic development, making a reliable 50 year forecast seems neither possible nor even desirable. However, we do expect that the relative roles of the market and the state in economic development still will be a controversial topic, circa 2050. Just as was the case in the middle of the twentieth century, some still will be arguing, as has already been argued for so long, that government should restrict itself to facilitating private efforts. In response, others will continue to maintain that the magnitude of the challenge of overcoming global poverty makes reliance on the vagaries of the free market both unwise and inappropriate. The contribution made to economic development by marketing as then being practiced, both domestically and globally, also seems almost certain to remain, circa 2050, an area of scholarly interest. Fortunately, we are unlikely to have to wait that long for a better understanding of that topic. Members of the Macromarketing Society, of the Institute for the Studies of Markets and Development, and, to a lesser degree, of the International Management Development Association, have for some time been the special interest groups most interested in marketings relationship to development. However, two more recent initiatives within academic marketing, the systematic study of subsistence markets and the currently emerging Transformative Consumer Research (TCR) movement should also lead to an improved understanding of two crucially important issues. How well, or poorly, do markets, marketing systems and marketing practices currently serve those who live below or at the global poverty line and, in light of what was learned, what should be done to improve the lot of the worlds less-fortunate citizens? Is the establishment of the subsistence markets and TCR groups a precursor to renewed interest by marketing scholars in economic development in particular and, more generally, in other long time concerns of macromarketing? Can we expect the academic component of the American Marketing Association, and the memberships of the Academy of Marketing Science, the European Marketing Academy, and the Australia New Zealand Academy of Marketing, as well as emergent scholarly groups from Africa, Asia and Latin America to make a major move in this direction? That remains to be determined, but, hopefully, it will prove to be the case. The time has come, indeed, it is long past, for the focus of academic marketing to be on marketing matters that really matter. It is now time for marketings academic community to constructively engage in an effort to solve the myriad global challenges that currently confront us (Shultz, 2007b).

Note 1. While the current organization of the marketing academy tends to position macromarketing as a sub-discipline, a thorough and thoughtful analysis of marketings history and contributions to civilization would lead most scholars and practitioners to conclude that the marketing narrative has been largely macro- rather than micro-oriented, for millennia (Shultz, 2007b). References Aston, J. and Wang, X. (2003), Equity and climate: principle and practice, Beyond Kyoto: Advancing the International Effort Against Climate Change, Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, VA, available at: www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/ Beyond_Kyoto_Equity_pdf Barksdale, H.C. and Anderson, L.M. (1982), Comparative marketing: a program for the future, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 2, pp. 57-62. Bartels, R. (1963), Conclusion and outline for comparative marketing analysis, in Bartels, R. ( Ed.), Comparative Marketing: Wholesaling in Fifteen Countries, Irwin, Homewood, IL, pp. 283-308. Belk, R. (2006), Out of sight and out of our minds: what of those left behind in globalism?, in Sheth, J.N. and Sisodia, R. (Eds), Does Marketing Need Reform?, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY, pp. 209-16. Clancy, J.S. (2008), Are biofuels pro-poor? Assessing the evidence, The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 20, pp. 416-31. Cox, H. (1999), The market as god: living in the new dispensation, Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 283, pp. 18-23. Dholakia, R.R. and Dholakia, N. (2001), Social marketing and development, in Bloom, P. and Gundlach, G. (Eds), Handbook of Marketing and Society, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 486-505. Drucker, P. (1958), Marketing and economic development, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 22, pp. 252-9. El-Ansary, A.I. and Liebrenz, M. (1982), A multistage approach to comparative marketing analysis, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 2, pp. 59-65. Frederick, W.C. (1960), The market as a factor in economic growth, The Southwestern Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 41, pp. 63-71. Ghosh, R.N. (2008), Rich doctors and poor patients: market failure and health care systems in developing countries, Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 38, pp. 259-76. Hill, R.P. and Dhanda, K.K. (2003), Technological achievement and human development, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 25, pp. 1020-34. Hill, R.P., Felice, W.F. and Ainscough, T. (2007), International human rights and consumer quality of life: an ethical perspective, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 27, pp. 370-9. Karnani, A. (2007), The mirage of marketing to the bottom of the pyramid: how the private sector can alleviate poverty, California Management Review, Vol. 29, pp. 90-111. Klein, T. and Nason, R.W. (2001), Marketing and development: macromarketing perspectives, in Bloom, P. and Gundlach, G. (Eds), Handbook of Marketing and Society, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 263-97. Kotler, P., Roberto, N. and Leisner, T. (2006), Alleviating poverty: a macro-micro marketing perspective, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 26, pp. 233-8.

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Martens, J. (2005), A compendium on inequality: the human development report 2005, FES Brieng Paper, October, pp. 1-8, available at: http://library.fes.de/pdf-les/iez/global/ 64666.pdf Porter, G., Lyon, F. and Potts, D. (2007), Market institutions and urban food supply in West and Southern Africa: a review, Progress in Development Studies, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 115-34. Prahalad, C.K. and Hart, S.L. (2002), The fortune at the bottom of the pyramid, Strategy Business, Vol. 26, pp. 1-14. Shapiro, S.J. (1965), Comparative marketing and economic development, in Schwartz, G. (Ed.), Science in Marketing, Wiley, New York, NY, pp. 398-423. Shapiro, S.J. (2006), Macromarketing: origins, development, current status and possible future direction, European Business Review, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 307-21. Shapiro, S.J. (2008), An open source, controversies-based macromarketing chapter: an initial step toward a free online marketing course?, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 28, pp. 426-8. Shapiro, S.J., Shultz, C.J. II and Tadajewski, M. (2009a), Introduction, in Shapiro, S.J., Tadajewski, M. and Shultz, C.J. II (Eds), Macromarketing Volumes I-IV, Sage, London. Shapiro, S.J., Tadajewski, M. and Shultz, C.J. II (2009b), Interpreting macromarketing: the construction of a major macromarketing research collection, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 29 No. 3 (in press). Shapiro, S.J., Tadajewski, M. and Shultz, C.J. II (Eds) (2009c), Macromarketing Volumes I-IV, Sage, London. Shultz, C.J. II (2007a), Macromarketing, in Gundlach, G., Block, L. and Wilkie, W. (Eds), Explorations in Marketing and Society, Southwestern, Cincinnati, OH, pp. 766-84. Shultz, C.J. II (2007b), Marketing as constructive engagement, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 293-301. Shultz, C.J. II (2009), Examining the interactions among markets, marketing, and society, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 3-4. Shultz, C.J. II and Holbrook, M.B. (1999), Marketing and the tragedy of the commons: a synthesis, commentary, and analysis for action, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 18, pp. 218-29. Shultz, C.J. II, Burkink, T., Grbac, B. and Renko, N. (2005), When policies and marketing systems explode: an assessment of food marketing in the war-ravaged Balkans and implications for recovery, sustainable peace, and prosperity, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 24, pp. 24-37. Stewart, F. and Deneulin, S. (2002), Amartya Sens contribution to development thinking, Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol. 37, pp. 61-70. United Nations Development Programme (1998), Consumption in a global village-unequal and unbalanced, UN Human Development Report 1998, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp. 46-65. Witkowski, T.H. (2005), Antiglobal challenges to marketing in developing countries: exploring the ideological divide, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 24, pp. 7-23. Witkowski, T.H. (2008), Global food marketing systems and local cultural change in the developing world, in Kilbourne, W.E. and Mittelstaedt, J.D. (Eds), Macromarketing: Systems, Causes and Consequences, Papers of the 33rd Annual Macromarketing Conference, Clemson, SC, pp. 263-78. World Bank (1999), New directions in development thinking, World Development Report 1999/2000 Entering the 21st Century, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp. 13-28.

About the authors Stanley J. Shapiro is a Professor Emeritus and a former Dean of Business at Simon Fraser University. He is a long time (since 1978) member of the Macromarketing Seminar Series and served as the second Editor for the Journal of Macromarketing. Stanley J. Shapiro is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: sshapiro@sfu.ca Clifford J. Shultz II is a Professor and Marley Foundation Chair at the Arizona State University, W.P. Carey School of Business and Morrison School of Management and Agribusiness. He currently serves as an editor for the Journal of Macromarketing, and President of the International Society of Markets and Development.

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