2PAV20110039

53 CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DO CONCRETO - CBC2011 1
Concrete pavements in Europe:

design, construction and special applications

Lambert Houben

Delft University of Technology, Section Road and Railway Engineering,
P.O. Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, the Netherlands, email: l.j.m.houben@tudelft.nl

Abstract
Although the majority of the European countries are united in the European Union (EU) neither a standard
European Design Method for Concrete Pavements nor a European Code of Practice for concrete pavements
does exist. Each country in fact has its own design method and most of these methods are mainly based on
experience. Construction practice is however more or less the same throughout the continent.
Based on the investigation of the European Long-Life Pavement Group (ELLPAG) in 10 EU-countries, first
different aspects of the design of concrete pavements are addressed. These aspects are the nature of the
various design methods (empirical vs. analytical), the traffic loadings, the concrete grade, the substructure
and a comparison of the required concrete pavement thickness in various countries for a specific design
case. Then, as an example of a mainly empirical design method, the German catalogue with standard jointed
plain concrete pavement structures is addressed. Next, as an example of a mainly analytical design method,
the Dutch design method for both jointed plain and continuously reinforced concrete pavements is explained.
The construction of a concrete pavement requires a number of activities which are subsequently briefly
described. These activities are the production of the concrete mix, the transport of the concrete mix to the
works site, the actual construction of the pavement with a slipformpaver or another type of equipment,
creating the texture of the pavement surface, protecting the pavement surface, creating the joints and
opening of the pavement to traffic. Furthermore, as an example of a complex and large scale project, the
recent rehabilitation of the very heavily loaded Ring Road in the city of Antwerp, Belgium is described. Also
some new fields of application are briefly discussed, which are roundabouts, widening of asphalt pavements,
and safety barriers.
Finally an interesting recent development in the Netherlands is briefly addressed, which is a precast concrete
pavement, with or without a porous concrete wearing course. This system is suited both for weak subsoils,
subject to settlements, and for settlement-free subsoils.

Keywords: Europe, design, construction, jointed plain concrete pavements, continuously reinforced concrete
pavements, precast concrete pavements, special applications


1 Introduction
Europe covers 44 countries, 27 of them being united in the European Union (EU). A whole
series of EN-standards (EN = European Norms) is available for concrete materials,
pavement surface characteristics, dowel bars and tie bars, and joint filling materials.
However, neither a standard European Design Method for Concrete Pavements nor a
European Code of Practice for Concrete Pavements does exist. Each country in fact has
its own design method and most of these methods are mainly based on experience.
Construction practice is more or less the same throughout the continent.
In this paper first a European overview of several design aspects for concrete pavements
is given. Next, as examples the design methods used in 2 European countries are
explained in more detail, and these are the mainly empirical German design method for
jointed plain concrete pavements and the mainly analytical Dutch design method for both
jointed plain and continuously reinforced concrete pavements.
Then the modern construction techniques for concrete pavements are summarized. As an
example of a complex and large scale project, the rehabilitation of the very heavily loaded
Ring Road in the city of Antwerp, Belgium is described. Furthermore, new applications
such as roundabouts, the widening of asphalt motorway pavements through extra lanes
with a concrete pavement in Germany, and concrete safety barriers are briefly addressed.
Finally an interesting recent development in the Netherlands will be briefly explained,
which is a precast concrete pavement structure, whether or not with a two-layer porous
concrete wearing course.

2 Design of concrete pavements
2.1. Overview of design aspects
2.1.1. Introduction
In 2000 the European Long-Life Pavement Group (ELLPAG) was formed under the
auspices of FEHRL (Forum of European National Highway Research Laboratories) to
report the current state of knowledge on long-life pavements in Europe. Ten EU countries
participated in ELLPAG. The third phase of the project reviewed long-life concrete
pavements (HASSAN ET AL, 2006; FEHRL, 2007). The review included design and
construction practices of jointed and continuously reinforced concrete pavements,
techniques for assessment and upgrading, maintenance and rehabilitation, and economic
assessment. Here only the design aspects will be considered, the construction aspects are
addressed in 3.1, and the other issues are not discussed in this paper.

By definition of ELLPAG a long-life pavement is a well designed and constructed
pavement where the structural elements last indefinitely, provided that the designed
maximum individual load is not exceeded and that appropriate and timely surface
maintenance is carried out. Concrete pavements comprise a concrete layer as the main
structural element, laid onto bound or unbound (sub-)base layer(s). In some countries a
thin asphalt layer is used as a surfacing layer (e.g. Porous Asphalt Concrete on motorways
in the Netherlands) or as an intermediate layer between the concrete and the (sub-)base

(e.g. on heavily loaded roads in Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands). The most common
types of concrete pavements used in Europe include:
- Jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCP) are most widely applied in Europe. A JPCP
does not have any reinforcement at all. By means of longitudinal and transverse
contraction joints the concrete pavement is divided into slabs with horizontal
dimensions usually not exceeding 5 m. More or less square slabs are applied, i.e. the
ratio of length and width is limited to about 1.3. Dowel bars are applied in the
transverse joints for better load transfer across the joints and for better longitudinal
evenness at long term. Tie bars are applied in the longitudinal joints to limit the joint
width. The joints are mostly sealed, although for minor roads for reasons of costs
sealing is not always done.
- Continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP) where a small amount of
longitudinal reinforcement (around 0.7%) is applied to control the crack pattern, i.e. the
crack width and the crack spacing. The reinforcement is located (about) mid-depth
within the concrete layer. A CRCP does not contain any transverse joint, longitudinal
contraction and/or construction joints are however present. In general, compared to
JPCP, the CRCP investment costs are higher and the maintenance costs are lower. In
practice the application of CRCP is limited to heavily loaded pavements.

The amount of concrete pavements on the main road network varies for the individual
European countries. A relatively large share of concrete pavements, considering the length
of the total national network, is found in Austria and Belgium with 36% and 35%,
respectively, followed by Germany with 25%. France, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain,
Switzerland and the United Kingdom have values less than 10%. The limited use of
concrete pavements in Europe is mainly associated with the relatively high investment
costs compared to other types of pavement (asphalt pavements and small element
pavements). However, a long-life concrete pavement with an improved long-term
performance, thus less maintenance, can significantly lower the whole life costs.

2.1.2. Design methods
European design methods for concrete pavements rely heavily on empirical data from the
observed performance of experimental and in service roads taken at a number of full-scale
sites, and from the determination of deflections and stresses in the pavement,
supplemented by results from laboratory tests on specimens taken from the pavement.
The interpretation of data has lead to the development of analytically-generated design
methods, which are based on realistic traffic predictions and the characterization of
parameters contributing to the structural performance of the pavement. These include the
type of pavement, the material and structural properties of the pavement layers and the
combined effects of traffic and temperature loading.

There are a variety of approaches to concrete pavement design currently used in the
European countries. For example, the United Kingdom has developed a set of concrete
thickness curves for different base types, concrete strengths and for different cumulative
traffic loadings. The Netherlands (see 2.3) and France have developed analytical design

tools for the calculation of the concrete pavement thickness in relation to the concrete
fatigue strength and, for CRCP, the amount of steel reinforcement and the crack width and
crack spacing. Other countries, e.g. Germany (see 2.2) specify a range of concrete
thicknesses in relation to the traffic loading.

2.1.3. Traffic loading
The traffic parameters in the various national road guidelines relating to the design of
concrete pavements are maximum axle load, standard design axle load, the design period
and the maximum cumulative traffic loading. The maximum axle load for the different
countries ranges between 105 and 130 kN, with the highest value being specified in
Belgium, France and Spain. The range of standard axle load used to calculate the
cumulative traffic loading is from 80 to 130 kN, with the highest value for France and the
lowest for the United Kingdom. The Netherlands adopt a different approach by designing
to an axle load spectrum (see 2.3). The majority of the European countries design
concrete roads for a 30 to 40 years life.

A comparison of the design criteria in the national road guidelines shows that most
countries design on a cumulative number of standard axles, although the equivalent
standard axle load (ESAL) varies between countries. Design criteria in million standard
axles (msa) with maximum national values of 80 and 400 msa are used in Austria and the
United Kingdom, respectively.
Belgium uses other design criteria such as an annual average daily traffic (AADT) flow.
The Netherlands uses the total number of truck axles together with the axle load frequency
distribution in the concrete fatigue analysis.
Despite the similarity of traffic loading specification in many countries, it is not easy to
make a direct comparison between them because of the variations of the ESAL and the
maximum traffic loading within the design period of the pavements.

2.1.4. Concrete grade
Concrete is mainly classified by its strength properties as compressive strength, flexural
tensile strength or indirect (splitting) tensile strength. A summary of the concrete design
values for the different countries is given in table 1. The majority of the countries use
compressive and/or flexural tensile strength values, only France uses the indirect tensile
strength. For the various countries the design compressive strength varies from 25 to 62.5
MPa (the latter value used in Belgium after 90 days) and the design flexural tensile
strength varies from 3.5 to 6 MPa.

2.1.5. Substructure
The substructure of a concrete pavement consists of the subgrade, the sub-base (capping
layer) and/or the base.

In concrete pavements the traffic induced stresses are spread over a large area of the
subgrade due to the high bending stiffness of the concrete layer. Therefore, variation in the


Table 1. Design concrete strength values in various European countries.

Country Age of testing
(days)
Concrete Strength (MPa)
compressive flexural tensile indirect (splitting) tensile
Austria 28 35 / 40 5.5 -
Belgium 90 62.5 - -
Czech Republic 28 25 / 35 3.5 4.5 -
France 28 - - 2.7
Germany 28 30 / 37 - -
The
Netherlands
28 35 / 45 - -
Poland 28 - 4 - 6 -
Spain 28 - 3.5 4.5 -
Switzerland 28 30 5.5 -
United Kingdom 28 - 4.5 - 6 -

subgrade stiffness and strength has only little influence upon the structural capacity of the
pavement. When the subgrade comprises very low strength material it is often necessary
to improve the bearing capacity to allow construction of the upper layers. This can be
achieved by applying an unbound granular layer, in the form of a sub-base, or by in-situ
stabilization of the subgrade. In Austria and Germany the minimum subgrade static elastic
modulus, determined by the static plate load test, is 35 MPa and 45 MPa, respectively,
and in Switzerland a static elastic modulus of 22.5 MPa to 45 MPa is required. In Spain,
for the heaviest traffic the subgrade must be stabilized with cement. A sub-base is applied
in 2 countries being the Netherlands, where a sand sub-base with a thickness of at least
0.5 m is applied, and the United Kingdom where a granular sub-base (CBR-value at least
15%) is required when the CBR-value of the subgrade is less than 5%. In France, the
subgrade dynamic elastic modulus must be more than 120 MPa when heavy traffic is to be
carried.

The base is the platform upon which the concrete layer is constructed. The United
Kingdom specifies a hydraulically bound material only for use in concrete pavements, to
ensure a durable, stiff and strong base to resist erosion from the ingress of surface water
through joints and cracks. In France, the base is also a lean concrete except when heavy
traffic is to be carried. However, owing to frequent erosion problems, the trend in France,
Belgium and the Netherlands is to use a 50 to 90 mm thick asphalt concrete interlayer
between a CRCP and the base.
Countries that allow a variety of base materials are Austria, Belgium, Germany, Poland
and Switzerland. Belgium specifies a 200 mm lean concrete base on the most heavily
trafficked roads, with 200 mm granular base as an option for less heavily trafficked roads.
In Spain the situation is similar but with 150 mm lean concrete base on the most heavily
trafficked roads and 200 to 400 mm granular base on less heavily trafficked roads. Austria,
Germany, Poland and Switzerland specify either cement-bound or granular bases, with
appropriate adjustments to the overlying concrete thickness. In the Netherlands either a

150 mm lean concrete base or a 250 mm granular base is usually applied, where the
granular base material is mainly mix granulate (recycled demolition waste, mixture of 50%
to 80% (by mass) crushed concrete and crushed masonry).

2.1.6. Concrete thickness
In concrete pavement design the major design output is the thickness of the concrete
layer. Figure 1 shows a comparison of the thickness designs for JPCP, based on the
following prescribed set of parameters:
- Traffic of 5000 commercial vehicles per day on the design traffic lane
- Concrete with compressive strength 32 MPa, flexural tensile strength 4 MPa, indirect
tensile strength 2.7 MPa
- Base modulus amounts 100 MPa

Figure 1. JPCP design thickness for different European countries.

Figure 1 shows that the JPCP design thickness ranges between 220 mm and 310 mm,
with Switzerland having the thinnest concrete slab and the United Kingdom having the
thickest slab, however the United Kingdom no longer constructs JPCP. In France, the
Netherlands and Spain the use of concrete pavements for heavily trafficked roads is
limited to CRCP. With the exception of these 3 countries, the JPCP design thickness
varies between 220 mm and 280 mm.

The same design parameters were also used to derive the CRCP thickness. The results
for the 5 countries using such designs show that the CRCP thickness ranges between 200
mm in Belgium and France and 250 mm in the Netherlands, Spain and the United
Kingdom.

2.1.7. European Standards
With respect to concrete pavements, in the European Union standards (EN = European
Norms) are available for (JOFR, 2006):
- materials for concrete pavements
- functional requirements and test methods for concrete pavements

- dowel and tie bars
- joint fillers and sealants

Concerning materials for concrete pavements, i.e. the concrete mix and its constituents
(aggregates, cement, additions, water, admixtures), the standard EN 13877-1 Concrete
pavements Part 1: Materials is valid. This standard is in agreement with the general
standards on concrete, i.e. EN 12620 Aggregates for concrete and EN 206-1 Concrete
Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity.

The standards on the functional requirements and test methods, the dowel and tie bars,
and the joint fillers and sealants have been developed by Working Group WG3 of the
Technical Committee TC227 in the period between 1991 and 2006.
The standards related to the functional requirements, and the test methods thereof, for
concrete pavements deal with the strength, thickness, density, freeze-thaw resistance and
resistance to wear by studded tires of the concrete as well as with the bond between 2
layers.

In the Appendix an overview of the relevant EN standards is given. An in-depth discussion
of these 33 standards is outside the scope of this paper.

2.2. Example of mainly empirical design method: Germany
In Germany there is a large scale experience with concrete pavements over a period
longer than 100 years. Besides of that, especially in the seventies and eighties quite some
numerical analyses, especially into the effects of temperature gradients on the design and
performance of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements, have been done at the Technical
University of Munich (EISENMANN ET AL, 2003).

Mainly based on experience, guidelines for the design of asphalt pavements, small
element pavements and Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP) are published and
revised on a regular basis since 1925. The most recent guidelines, the so-called RStO 01
(FGSV, 2001), have been published in 2001 and the standardized concrete pavements in
those guidelines are briefly discussed here.
RStO 01 contains standard JPCP structures as a function of the traffic loading and the
type of base material (figure 2).

The first row in figure 2 indicates the road class, ranging from class SV (most heavily
loaded roads, such as motorways) down to class VI (very lightly loaded rural roads and
residential streets).
The second row in figure 2 gives the traffic loading during the desired pavement life on the
design traffic lane, expressed as the cumulative number of equivalent 100 kN (10 ton)
standard axle loads (in millions).
The third row in figure 2 gives the required total thickness (in cm) of non frost susceptible
materials, which include concrete pavement, cement bound bases, asphalt bases and
granular (sub-)bases. The total thickness varies depending on the road class and the


Figure 2. Standard JPCP structures in the German Guidelines RStO 01.

location of the pavement within the country (in the north of Germany there is a relatively
mild sea climate while in the east and south there is a colder land climate).
The first column in figure 2 refers to the type of base applied below the concrete
pavement:
- 1 indicates a cement-bound base; 1.1 is lean concrete that should have an average
compressive strength of at least 12 MPa; 1.2 and 1.3 are lower quality cement-bound
granular materials, that should be applied in greater thickness; in contrast to the earlier
Guidelines, in RStO 01 a plastic sheet is applied between the concrete pavement and
the cement-bound base to prevent reflective cracking from the base into the pavement
- 2 indicates an asphalt base
- 3 indicates a granular base


The numbers around the standard JPCP structures are explained for the most upper left
structure.
The numbers at the right sight of the structure (27, 15 and 42) are the thicknesses (in cm)
of the concrete pavement, the base, and the concrete pavement plus the base,
respectively.
The numbers below the structure are the minimum thicknesses (in cm) of the non frost
susceptible sub-base, to fulfill the requirement given in the third row of figure 2.
The numbers at the left sight of the structure (45 and 120) are the required minimum value
of the deformation modulus E
v2
at the indicated level within the structure. This E
v2
is an
equivalent modulus for all the underlying layers. A general requirement is that at the top of
the subgrade E
v2
should have a value of at least 45 MPa.
E
v2
is determined by means of a so-called static plate loading test, in which a stiff circular
steel plate is slowly loaded to a specified level and then unloaded, and this load cycle is
repeated a number of times. E
v2
is then calculated by means of the equation (based on
Burmisters theory):

2
1.5* *
v
p a
E
y
= (MPa) (Equation 1)

where:
E
v2
= deformation modulus (MPa)
p = applied maximum stress (MPa)
a = radius of circular plate (= 150 mm)
y = measured rebound (elastic) deformation (mm) during unloading at the 2
nd
load
cycle

During construction of the pavement structure E
v2
is actually measured. If the required
value is not present, the contractor should take such measures (stabilization, extra
compaction, etc.) that the required E
v2
-value is met. Only then the contractor is allowed to
construct the next pavement layer (this procedure is also followed in Austria and
Switzerland).

On motorways usually slabs are applied with a length of 5 m and a width of around 4 m,
taking into account the lane width and the location of the markings. It is tried to realize
more or less square slabs. The length of the slabs should be smaller than 25 times the
thickness of the slabs, and should never exceed 7.5 m, to limit the temperature gradient
stresses. The limited slab length also limits the joint width variations due to temperature
changes and increases the lifetime of the joint filling material.
Non-profiled steel dowel bars (diameter 25 mm, length 500 mm), with a plastic coating to
prevent corrosion and bond to the concrete, are applied at transverse contraction joints at
mid-depth of the concrete pavement at a spacing of 250 mm for better load transfer.
Profiled steel tie bars (diameter 20 mm, length 800 mm), 3 bars per 5 m slab length, with a
plastic coating at the central part, are applied at longitudinal contraction joints at of
the concrete depth to limit the width of the longitudinal joint.


2.3. Example of mainly analytical design method: the Netherlands

2.3.1. Introduction

The current Dutch method for the structural design of jointed plain concrete pavements
(JPCP) and continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP), subjected to normal
road traffic, is available as a software package called VENCON2.0 that was released early
2005 by CROW (CROW, 2005; HOUBEN ET AL, 2006; HOUBEN ET AL, 2007).
The structural design of JPCP is based on a fatigue strength analysis, performed for
various potentially critical locations on the pavement, i.e. the free longitudinal edge, the
longitudinal joint(s) and the transverse joint in the centre of the wheel tracks. The analysis
includes the traffic load stresses (calculated by means of a Westergaard-equation, taking
into account the load transfer in the joint or at the edge) and the temperature gradient
stresses (calculated by means of a modified Eisenmann theory).
For the determination of the thickness of CRCP the pavement is considered as a JPCP,
however with modified horizontal slab dimensions (because of the presence of transverse
cracks instead of joints) and a greater load transfer over the relatively small transverse
cracks. Having found the concrete thickness, the required longitudinal reinforcement (to
control the crack widths) is then determined.

Figure 3. Flow chart of the structural design of jointed plain/reinforced concrete pavements according to the
Dutch VENCON2.0 design method.

Figure 3 gives a scheme of the input and calculation procedure of the VENCON2.0 design
method. The items 8 to 10 are not discussed here, reference is made to (HOUBEN ET AL,
2007). The items 1 to 7 mentioned in figure 3 are subsequently discussed in the
1. TRAFFIC LOADINGS:
Axle loads
Directional factor
Design traffic lane
Traffic at joints
2. CLIMATE:
Temperature
gradients

3. SUBSTRUCTURE:
Modulus of substructure
reaction

5. TRAFFIC LOAD
STRESSES:
Load transfer at joints
Westergaard equation
6. TEMPERATURE
GRADIENT STRESSES:
Eisenmann/Dutch method

7. THICKNESS PLAIN/REIN-
FORCED PAVEMENT:
Miner fatigue analysis

9. REINFORCEMENT OF
REINFORCED PAVEMENTS:
Shrinkage and temperature
Tension bar model
Crack width criterion
8. ADDITIONAL CHECKS
PLAIN PAVEMENTS:
Robustness (NEN 6720)
Traffic-ability at opening
10. ADDITIONAL CHECKS
REINFORCED PAVEMENT:
Robustness (NEN 6720)
Traffic-ability at opening
Parameter studies
4. CONCRETE:
Strength
Parameters
Elastic modulus

paragraphs 2.3.2 to 2.3.8. Some calculation results of the VENCON2.0 design method for
JPCP are given in paragraph 2.3.9.

2.3.2. Traffic loadings
The traffic loading is calculated as the total number of axles per axle load group (> 20 kN)
on the design traffic lane during the desired life of the concrete pavement. In the
calculation is included:
- the division of the heavy vehicles per direction; for roads having one carriageway the
directional factor depends on the width of the carriageway, for roads having two
carriageways the directional factor is taken as 0.5;
- in the case that there is more than 1 traffic lane per direction: the percentage of the
heavy vehicles on the most heavily loaded lane (the design traffic lane); this
percentage varies from 100% (1 lane per direction) till 80% (4 lanes per direction);
- the average number of axles per heavy vehicle (table 2).
In the case that no real axle load data is available, for a certain type of road the default
axle (wheel) load frequency distribution, given in table 2, can be used. These frequency
distributions are based on axle load measurements on a great number of provincial roads
in the Netherlands in the years 2000 and 2001. In the design method all the truck axles are
taken into account. Note that the highest axle load group in table 2 is 200-220 kN!
Table 2 makes clear that also in the Netherlands there are quite some overloaded axles
and these really should be taken into account when designing a concrete pavement.

Table 2. Default axle load frequency distributions for different types of roads.

Axle
load
group
(kN)
Average
wheel
load P
(kN)
Axle load frequency distribution (%) for different types of road
heavily
loaded
motorway
normally
loaded
motorway
heavily
loaded
provincial road
normally
loaded
provincial road
municipal
main road
rural
road
public
transport
bus lane
20-40 15 20.16 14.84 26.62 24.84 8.67 49.38 -
40-60 25 30.56 29.54 32.22 32.45 40.71 25.97 -
60-80 35 26.06 30.22 18.92 21.36 25.97 13.66 -
80-100 45 12.54 13.49 9.46 11.12 13.66 8.05 -
100-120 55 6.51 7.91 6.50 6.48 8.05 2.18 100
120-140 65 2.71 3.31 4.29 2.70 2.18 0.38 -
140-160 75 1.00 0.59 1.64 0.83 0.38 0.38 -
160-180 85 0.31 0.09 0.26 0.19 0.38 0.00 -
180-200 95 0.12 0.01 0.06 0.03 0.00 0.00 -
200-220 105 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 -
Av. nr. of axles
per heavy vehicle
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.1 2.5

Different types of tire are included in the VENCON2.0 design method:
- single tires, that are mounted at front axles of heavy vehicles;
- dual tires, that are mounted at driven axles, and sometimes at trailer axles;
- wide base tires, that are mostly mounted at trailer axles;
- extra wide wide base tires, that in future will be allowed for driven axles.

Every tire contact area is assumed to be rectangular. In the Westergaard equation for
calculation of the traffic load stresses, however, a circular contact area is used. The
equivalent radius a of the circular contact area of the tire is calculated by:

* 0.0028* 51 a b P = + (mm) (Equation 2)

where:
b = parameter dependent on the type of tire (table 3)
P = average wheel load (N) of the axle load group

Some default tire type frequency distributions are included in the design method (table 3).

Table 3. Value of parameter b (equation 2) for different types of tire.

Type of tire Width of rectan-
gular contact
area(s) (mm)
Value of para-
meter b of
equation 2
Frequency distribution (%)
roads public transport
bus lanes
Single tire 200 9.2 39 50
Dual tire 200-100-200 12.4 38 50
Wide base tire 300 8.7 23 0
Extra wide wide base tire 400 9.1 0 0

2.3.3. Climate
With respect to the climate especially the temperature gradients in the concrete pavement
are important. In the years 2000 and 2001 the temperature gradient has continuously been
measured on a stretch of the newly build motorway A12 near Utrecht in the centre of the
Netherlands. The continuously reinforced concrete pavement has a thickness of 250 mm
and the measurements were done before the porous asphalt wearing course was
constructed. Based on these measurements it was decided to include the default
temperature gradient frequency distribution shown in table 4 in the current design method.

Table 4. Default temperature gradient frequency distribution.

Temperature gradient class
(C/mm)
Average temperature gradient T
(C/mm)
Frequency distribution
(%)
0.000 0.005 0.0025 59
0.005 0.015 0.01 22
0.015 0.025 0.02 7.5
0.025 0.035 0.03 5.5
0.035 0.045 0.04 4.5
0.045 0.055 0.05 1.0
0.055 0.065 0.06 0.5

2.3.4. Substructure
The rate of support of the pavement by the substructure is an important parameter in the
structural design of concrete pavements. The substructure includes all the layers beneath
the concrete pavement, so the base, the sub-base and the subgrade. The rate of support
is represented by the modulus of substructure reaction k at the top of the base.
Starting point for the calculation of the k-value is the modulus of subgrade reaction k
o
at
the top of the subgrade. Among other things table 5 shows the k
o
-values that are used in
VENCON2.0.

Table 5. Modulus of subgrade reaction k
o
of Dutch subgrades.

Subgrade Cone resis-
tance q
c
(N/mm
2
)
CBR-value
(%)
Dynamic modulus of
elasticity E
sg
(N/mm
2
)
Modulus of subgrade
reaction k
o
(N/mm
3
)
Peat 0.1 - 0.3 1 - 2 25 0.016
Clay 0.2 - 2.5 3 - 8 40 0.023
Loam 1.0 - 3.0 5 - 10 75 0.036
Sand 3.0 - 25.0 8 - 18 100 0.045
Gravel-sand 10.0 - 30.0 15 - 40 150 0.061

To obtain the modulus of substructure reaction k at the top of the base, equation 3 has to
be applied for each layer (first the sub-base, then the base):

3 5
4
1 2 4
2.7145*10 *( * * )
C C
k C C e C e
= + + (N/mm
3
) (Equation 3)

where:
C
1
= 30 + 3360*k
o

C
2
= 0.3778*(h
b
43.2)
C
3
= 0.5654*ln(k
o
) + 0.4139*ln(E
b
)
C
4
= -283
C
5
= 0.5654*ln(k
o
)
k
o
= modulus of subgrade/substructure reaction at top of underlying layer (N/mm
3
)
h
b
= thickness of layer under consideration (mm)
E
b
= dynamic modulus of elasticity of layer under consideration (N/mm
2
)
k = modulus of substructure reaction at top of layer under consideration (N/mm
3
)

The boundary conditions for equation 3 are:
1. h
b
150 mm (bound material) and h
b
200 mm (unbound material)
2. every layer has an E
b
-value that is greater than the E
b
-value of the underlying layer
3. log k 0.73688*log(E
b
) 2.82055
4. k 0.16 N/mm
3

The second boundary condition implies that in the case of the application of a very light-
weight fill of Expanded Polystyrene Foam, EPS (that has a dynamic modulus of elasticity
of not more than E
b
= 6 to 10 N/mm
2
, depending on its volume weight), this layer has to be
considered as the subgrade in the calculation of the modulus of substructure reaction k.


2.3.5. Concrete
Various concrete grades are applied in the top layer of concrete pavements (table 6). In
the old Dutch Standard NEN 6720 (1995), valid until July 1, 2004, the concrete grade was
denoted as a B-value where the value represented the characteristic (95% probability of
exceeding) cube compressive strength after 28 days for loading of short duration
1
(f
ck
in
N/mm
2
). In the new Standard NEN-EN 206-1 (NEN, 2001), or the Dutch application
Standard NEN 8005 that is valid since July 1, 2004, the concrete grade is denoted as C-
values where the last value represents the characteristic (95% probability of exceeding)
cube compressive strength after 28 days for loading of short duration while the first value
represents the characteristic cylinder compressive strength at the same conditions (table
6).

Table 6. Concrete grades used in road construction in the Netherlands.

Concrete grade Characteristic (95% probability of exceeding) cube compressive
strength after 28 days for loading of short duration, f
ck
(N/mm
2
) B-value C-values
B35
B45
C28/35
C35/45
35
45

Generally on heavily loaded jointed plain concrete pavements, such as motorways and
airport platforms, the concrete grade C35/45 is used. On lightly loaded jointed plain
concrete pavements (bicycle tracks, rural roads, etc.) mostly concrete grade C28/35 and
sometimes C35/45 is applied. In continuously reinforced concrete pavements mostly the
concrete grade C28/35 is applied and sometimes the concrete grade C35/45.

According to both the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 (CEB, 1993) and the Eurocode 2
(EUROCODE, 2002) the mean cube compressive strength after 28 days for loading of
short duration (f
cm
) is:

' ' 8
cm ck
f f = + (N/mm
2
) (Equation 4)

For the structural design of concrete pavements not primarily the compressive strength but
the flexural tensile strength is important. In accordance with the Eurocode 2, in the
VENCON2.0 design method the mean flexural tensile strength (f
brm
) after 28 days for
loading of short duration is defined as a function of the thickness h (in mm) of the concrete
slab:

1600
1.3*[ ]*[1.05 0.05*( ' 8)]/1.2
1000
brm ck
h
f f
= + + (N/mm
2
) (Equation 5)

1
loading of short duration: loading during a few minutes
loading of long duration: static loading during 10
3
to 10
6
hours, or
dynamic loading with about 2.10
6
load cycles


The mean flexural tensile strength (f
brm
) is used in the fatigue analysis (see paragraph
2.3.8).

Except the strength also the stiffness (i.e. Youngs modulus of elasticity) of concrete is
important for the structural design of concrete pavements. The Youngs modulus of
elasticity of concrete depends to some extent on its strength. According to NEN 6720
(NEN, 1995) the Youngs modulus of elasticity E
c
can be calculated with the equation:

22250 250* '
c ck
E f = + (N/mm
2
) with 15 f
ck
65 (Equation 6)

For the two concrete grades applied in concrete pavement engineering, table 7 gives
some strength and stiffness values. Besides some other properties are given, such as the
Poissons ratio (that plays a role in the calculation of traffic load stresses, see paragraph
2.3.6) and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion (that plays a role in the calculation of
temperature gradient stresses, see paragraph 2.3.7).

Table 7. Mechanical properties of (Dutch) concrete grades for concrete pavement structures.

Property Concrete grade
C28/35
(B35)
C35/45
(B45)
Characteristic* cube compressive strength after 28 days for
loading of short duration, f
ck
(N/mm
2
)
35 45
Mean cube compressive strength after 28 days for loading of
short duration, f
cm
(N/mm
2
)
43 53
Mean tensile strength after 28 days for loading of short duration,
f
bt
(N/mm
2
)
3.47 4.01
Mean flexural tensile strength after 28 days for loading of short
duration, f
brm
(N/mm
2
): concrete thickness h = 180 mm
h = 210 mm
h = 240 mm
h = 270 mm

4.92
4.82
4.71
4.61

5.69
5.57
5.45
5.33
Youngs modulus of elasticity, E
c
(N/mm
2
) 31000 33500
Density (kg/m
3
) 2300 - 2400
Poissons ratio 0.15 0.20
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion (C
-1
) 110
-5
1.210
-5

* 95% probability of exceeding

2.3.6. Traffic load stresses
The tensile flexural stress due to a wheel load P at the bottom of the concrete slab along a
free edge, along a longitudinal joint, along a transverse joint (jointed plain concrete
pavements) and along a transverse crack (continuously reinforced concrete pavement) is

calculated by means of the new Westergaard equation for a circular tire contact area
(IOANNIDES ET AL, 1987):

( )
( )
( )
3
2 4
3 1 4 1
1.84 1.18 1 2
3 100 3 2
cal c
P
P E h a
l n
h k a l
u u
o u u
t u
+ | |
= + + + +
` |
+
\ . )
(Equation 7)

where:
o
P
= flexural tensile stress (N/mm)
P
cal
= wheel load (N), taking into account the load transfer (equation 8)
a = equivalent radius (mm) of circular contact area (equation 2 and table 3)
E
c
= Youngs modulus of elasticity (N/mm) of concrete (equation 6 and table 7)
u = Poissons ratio of concrete (usually taken as 0.15)
h = thickness (mm) of concrete slab
k = modulus of substructure reaction (N/mm
3
) (Equation 3)
l =
3
4
2
*
12*(1 )*
c
E h
k u
= radius (mm) of relative stiffness of concrete slab

The load transfer W at edges/joints/cracks is incorporated in the design of concrete
pavement structures by means of a reduction of the actual wheel load P to the wheel load
P
cal
(to be used in the Westergaard equation) according to:

( ) 1 0.5* /100 * 1 *
200
cal
W
P W P P
| |
= =
|
\ .
(Equation 8)

The contribution of the base to the load transfer W has been determined by means of the
model for a slab on a Pasternak-foundation (VAN CAUWELAERT, 2003).
In the VENCON2.0 design method the following values for the load transfer W are
included:
- free edge of jointed plain or continuously reinforced concrete pavement (at the outside
of the carriageway):
- W = 20% in the case that a unbound base is applied;
- W = 35% in the case that a bound base is applied;
- longitudinal joints in jointed plain or reinforced concrete pavements:
- W = 20% and 35% respectively at non-profiled construction joints without tie bars
in jointed plain concrete pavements on a unbound and a bound base respectively;
- W = 50% and 60% respectively at non-profiled construction joints with tie bars and
dowel bars respectively in jointed plain concrete pavements;
- W = 50% at non-profiled construction joints with transverse reinforcement in
continuously reinforced concrete pavements;
- W = 35% at contraction joints without any load transfer devices in jointed plain and
continuously reinforced concrete pavements;
- W = 70% and 80% respectively at contraction joints with tie bars and dowel bars
respectively in jointed plain concrete pavements;

- W = 70% at contraction joints with transverse reinforcement in continuously
reinforced concrete pavements;
- transverse joints/cracks in jointed plain or continuously reinforced concrete
pavements:
- W = 90% at cracks in continuously reinforced concrete pavement;
- W = 20% and 35% respectively at non-profiled construction joints without dowel
bars in jointed plain concrete pavements on a unbound and a bound base
respectively;
- W = 60% at construction joints with dowel bars in jointed plain concrete
pavements;
- W = 80% at contraction joints with dowel bars in jointed plain concrete pavements;
- W according to equation 9 at contraction joints without dowel bars in jointed plain
concrete pavements:

2 2
[5*log( . ) 0.0025* 25]*log 20*log( * ) 0.01* 180 W k l L Neq k l L = + + (Equation 9)

In equation 9 is:
W = joint efficiency (%) at the end of the pavement life
L = length (mm) of concrete slab
k = modulus of substructure reaction (N/mm
3
)
l = radius (mm) of relative stiffness of concrete slab
N
eq
= total number of equivalent 50 kN standard wheel loads in the centre of the wheel
track during the pavement life, calculated with a 4
th
power, i.e. the load
equivalency factor l
eq
= (P/50)
4
with wheel load P in kN

2.3.7. Temperature gradient stresses
In VENCON2.0 the stresses due to positive temperature gradients are only calculated
along the edges of the concrete slab (as, from a structural point of view, the weakest point
of the pavement always is somewhere at an edge and never in the interior of the concrete
slab). Starting point for the calculation of the temperature gradient stresses is a beam (of
unit width) along an edge of the concrete slab (LEEWIS, 1992).
In the case of a small positive temperature gradient AT the maximum upward
displacement due to curling of the beam is smaller than the downward displacement due
to the compression of the substructure (characterized by the modulus of substructure
reaction k) because of the deadweight of the beam. In this case the beam remains fully
supported over the whole length. The flexural tensile stress
T
at the bottom of the
concrete slab along the edge, joint or crack is then equal to (figure 4 left):

*
* *
2
c T
h T
E o o
A
= (Equation 10)

where:
T
= flexural tensile stress (N/mm
2
) at the bottom of the concrete slab due to a small

positive temperature gradient T (C/mm)
h = thickness (mm) of the concrete slab
= coefficient of linear thermal expansion of concrete (usually taken as 1.10
-5
C
-1
)
E
c
= Youngs modulus of elasticity (N/mm) of concrete (equation 6 and table 7)

Figure 4. Effect of small (left) and great (right) positive temperature gradient on the behavior of a concrete
pavement.

In the case of a great positive temperature gradient AT the maximum upward displacement
due to curling of the beam is greater than the downward displacement due to the
compression of the substructure because of the deadweight of the beam. In this case the
beam is only supported over a certain length C at either end. The flexural tensile stress
T
at the bottom of the concrete slab along the edge, joint or crack (assuming a volume
weight of the concrete of 24 kN/m
3
) is then equal to (figure 4 right):

longitudinal edge:
5 ' 2
1.8*10 * /
T
L h o

= (Equation 11a)

transverse edge:
5 ' 2
1.8*10 * /
T
W h o

= (Equation 11b)

The slab span in the longitudinal direction (L) and in the transverse direction (W) is equal
to:

'
2
*
3
L L C = (Equation 12a)

'
2
*
3
W W C = (Equation 12b)
where:
L = length (mm) of the concrete slab
W = width (mm) of the concrete slab
C = supporting length (mm), which is equal to (4):

4.5*
*
h
C
k T
=
A
if C << L (Equation 13)

The actually occurring flexural tensile stress at the bottom of the concrete slab due to a
temperature gradient T at a free edge, joint or crack is the smallest value resulting from
the equations 10 and 11a (free edge or longitudinal joint) or the smallest value resulting
from the equations 10 and 11b (transverse joint or crack).

2.3.8. Slab thickness of JPCP and CRCP
In the case of a JPCP on a 2-lane road the fatigue strength analysis is carried out for the
following locations of the design concrete slab:
- the wheel load just along the free edge of the slab;
- the wheel load just along the longitudinal joint between the traffic lanes;
- the wheel load just before the transverse joint.
In the case of a multi-lane road (e.g. a motorway) the strength analysis is also done for:
- the wheel load just along every longitudinal joint between the traffic lanes;
- the wheel load just along the longitudinal joint between the entry or exit lane and the
adjacent lane.

In the case of a CRCP the strength analysis is done for two locations of the design
concrete slab:
- the wheel load just before a transverse crack;
- the wheel load just along a longitudinal joint.

Both for JPCP and CRCP the flexural tensile stress (o
Pi
) at the bottom of the concrete slab
due to the wheel load (P
i
) in each of the mentioned locations is calculated by means of the
Westergaard equation (equation 7), taking into account the appropriate load transfer (joint
efficiency W, equations 8 and 9) in the respective joints/cracks.

Both for JPCP and CRCP the flexural tensile stress (o
Ti
) at the bottom of the concrete slab
due to a positive temperature gradient (T
i
) in each of the mentioned locations is
calculated by means of the equations 10 to 13.
In the case of JPCP the horizontal slab dimensions (length L, width W) are predefined.
In the case of CRCP the width W of the slab is predefined (distance between free edge
and adjacent longitudinal joint or distance between two adjacent longitudinal joints), the
length L of the slab is arbitrarily taken as 1.35*W, with L 4.5 m.

Both for JPCP and CRCP the structural design is based on a fatigue analysis for all the
mentioned locations of the pavement. The following fatigue relationship is used (CROW,
1999):

max
max
min
12.903*(0.995 / )
log 0.5 / 0.833
1.000 0.7525* /
i
i
brm
brm
i
brm
f
N with f
f
o
o
o
= s s
(Equation 14)


where:
N
i
= allowable number of repetitions of wheel load P
i
i.e. the traffic load stress o
Pi
till
failure when a temperature gradient stress o
Ti
is present
o
mini
= minimum occurring flexural tensile stress (= o
Ti
)
o
maxi
= maximum occurring flexural tensile stress (= o
Pi
+ o
Ti
)
f
brm
= mean flexural tensile strength (N/mm
2
) after 28 days for loading of short duration
(equation 5)

The design criterion (i.e. cracking occurs), applied on every of the above-mentioned
locations of the JPCP or CRCP, is the cumulative fatigue damage rule of Palmgren-Miner:

1.0
i
i
i
n
N
=

(Equation 15)

where:
n
i
= occurring number of repetitions of wheel load P
i
, i.e. the traffic load stress o
Pi
,
during the pavement life combined with a temperature gradient stress o
Ti
due to
the temperature gradient T
i

N
i
= allowable number of repetitions of wheel load P
i
, i.e. the traffic load stress o
Pi
, till
failure combined with a temperature gradient stress o
Ti
due to the temperature
gradient T
i

Lateral wander within a traffic lane is taken into account when analyzing a transverse joint
or crack, with 50% to 100% of the traffic loads driving in the centre of the wheel track.
When analyzing a longitudinal free edge or longitudinal joint the number of traffic loads just
along the edge or joint is limited to 1% to 3% (free edge) or 5% to 10% (every longitudinal
joint) of the occurring total number of traffic loads on the carriageway (so not the design
traffic lane).

2.3.9. Design examples for JPCP
In this paragraph, for a JPCP design results obtained by means of the program
VENCON2.0 for a specific case will be presented. The case concerns a 7.5 m wide 2-lane
provincial road.

Because the width of the pavement is more than 4.5 to 5 m a longitudinal contraction joint
is required in the road axis to prevent uncontrolled (wild) longitudinal cracking. Tie bars
are applied in the longitudinal joint, resulting in the load transfer W = 70% (see paragraph
2.3.6).

The following JPCP structure is taken into account:
- plain concrete slabs, width 3.75 m (equal to the lane width) and length 4.5 m (to limit
the ratio of length and width of the slabs); the transverse contraction joints are

provided with dowel bars, which means that the load transfer W = 80% (see paragraph
2.3.6);
- 250 mm thick cement-bound base (E = 6000 MPa), that is not bonded to the concrete
slabs (safe assumption); the bound base results in a load tranfer at the free edge of
the pavement W = 35% (see paragraph 2.3.6);
- 500 mm sand sub-base (E = 100 MPa);
- subgrade with E = 100 MPa which equals a modulus of subgrade reaction k
o
= 0.045
N/mm
3
.
The modulus of substructure reaction (k-value of subgrade, sub-base plus base) is equal
to the maximum value k = 0.16 N/mm
3
(see paragraph 2.3.4, equation 3).

The default temperature gradient frequency distribution of VENCON2.0 is applied (table 4).

With respect to the traffic loading, it is assumed that heavy vehicles are driving on the road
on 300 days per year. The heavy traffic is equally divided over the 2 traffic lanes. The
traffic growth is 3% per year. On average a heavy vehicle has 3 axles. The default
frequency distribution of the types of tire of VENCON2.0 is used (see table 3, one but last
column).
It is assumed that 50% of the heavy vehicles on a traffic lane drive exactly in the centre of
the wheel track. It is furthermore assumed that 2% of the heavy vehicles on the road drive
exactly along the edge of the pavement and that 10% of the heavy vehicles on the road
drive exactly along the longitudinal joint.

In the calculations the following parameters are varied:
- the concrete grade: C28/35 or C35/45 (see paragraph 2.3.5);
- the axle load frequency distribution on the provincial road: heavily loaded provincial
road (table 2, 5
th
column) or normally loaded provincial road (table 2, 6
th
column);
- the number of heavy vehicles per day on a traffic lane in the 1
st
year: 10, 100 or 1000;
- the design life of the pavement: 20, 30 or 40 years.

The calculation results (thickness of the concrete slabs) for the JPCP are given in table 8.
The mentioned thicknesses include 15 mm extra concrete on top of the minimum
thickness calculated by means of the VENCON2.0 program.

Table 8. Design thickness (mm) of JPCP for 2-lane provincial road according to VENCON2.0.

Concrete grade C28/35 (B35) C35/45 (B45)
Axle load frequency
distribution on
provincial road
Heavy Normal Heavy Normal
Number of heavy
vehicles per day on
traffic lane in 1
st
year
10 100 1000 10 100 1000 10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Design life 20 years 234 247 263 224 238 253 208 221 235 199 212 227

In this case study the centre of the free edge of the pavement is always governing the
thickness design of the JPCP. The centre of the longitudinal joint and the centre of the
wheel track at the transverse joint are never decisive for the design.

Table 8 shows that the most influencing factors on the JPCP thickness are:
- the concrete grade: concrete C35/45 results in 25 to 30 mm thinner slabs compared to
concrete C28/35 (due to the better fatigue behaviour, see table 7 and equation 14);
- the heavy axle load frequency distribution (highest axle load group 200-220 kN, see
table 2) requires about 10 mm thicker concrete slabs than the normal axle load
frequency distribution (highest axle load group 180-200 kN);
- the number of heavy vehicles: a 10 times greater number of heavy vehicles requires
about 15 mm thicker concrete slabs;
- the design life: a 2 times longer design life requires only 5 to 10 mm thicker concrete
slabs.

2.4. Concluding remarks on design methods for concrete pavements
It has to be emphasized that one has to be careful with the application of empirical design
methods. They only can be applied with confidence in those areas where all relevant local
circumstances (such as climate, type of traffic, axle loads, material properties, construction
details, drainage measures, construction techniques and equipment, etc.) are (nearly) the
same as those in the areas/countries for which the method was developed.

Certainly when there is a lack of experience with concrete pavements an analytical
concrete pavement design procedure is preferable above an empirical design method.
However, the quality of such an analytical design procedure is totally dependent on:
- the reliability of the values to be used for the various input parameters, such as the
temperature gradient frequency distribution, the number of repetitions of every axle
load group, the concrete layer characteristics (especially the flexural tensile strength
and the fatigue relationship), the joint/crack (load transfer) characteristics and the
substructure characteristics (especially the resistance to erosion of the base and the
modulus of substructure reaction);
- the quality of the theory or method used to calculate the flexural tensile stresses (and
deflections) due to external loadings, such as traffic loadings, temperature gradients
and unequal subsoil settlements; the finite element method is assumed to give the
most accurate calculation results.
It will be clear that it requires extensive material and analytical research to develop a
sound analytical concrete pavement design method for local circumstances.

3 Construction of concrete pavements
3.1. Modern construction techniques
The construction of a concrete pavement requires a number of activities which are briefly
described in this paragraph (CROW, 2004). These activities are the production of the
concrete mix, the transport of the concrete mix to the works site, the actual construction of

the pavement, creating the texture of the pavement surface, protecting the pavement
surface, creating the joints and opening of the pavement to traffic.

3.1.1. Mixing plants
Stationary concrete mixing plants are readily available in most European countries. As
these plants also have to serve other clients their capacity for road construction works is
mostly limited. Stationary plants are thus only an option for small scale construction works.
This might result in longer transport distances which increases the transport costs and the
risk for delayed delivery (e.g. when the trucks are stuck in traffic jams) and stand-still of the
construction equipment.
For larger scale works one or more mobile concrete mixing plants are erected close to the
works site. Such mobile plants have a capacity of a few hundred tons per hour. In this
case the transport distances are very limited. However, such plants require large areas for
stockpiles of raw materials (figure 5) and supplies such as water and electricity which in
the densely populated European countries usually are available in the vicinity of the works
site.

Figure 5. Overview of mobile concrete mixing plant (CROW, 2004).

3.1.2. Transport

The means of transport of the concrete mix to the construction equipment depends on the
required consistency of the concrete.
A slipformpaver requires a rather dry concrete (water/cement-ratio 0.40 to 0.45) which is
transported in open trucks. The fresh concrete mix is covered by canvas to protect it
against wetting (rain) and drying (sun, wind).
A rolling finisher and manual construction require a concrete mix with a higher slump. This
mix is normally transported by truck mixers and brought into the works site by the mixers
themselves or by means of a concrete pump.

The required number of trucks depends on the capacity of the mixing plants, the capacity
of the trucks, the loading time at the mixing plant, the maximum travel distance from the
mixing plant to the works site vice versa, the dumping time at the mixing plant, and the
capacity of the construction equipment at the works site.

If there are no obstacles in front of the construction equipment the concrete mix can be
dumped just in front of the construction equipment (figure 6-left). If there are however
obstacles, such as dowel bars and tie bars installed prior to pouring of the concrete
(JPCP) or reinforcement (CRCP), then the concrete has to be dumped from the side
(figure 6-right).

Figure 6. Dumping of the concrete mix just in front of construction equipment (left) or from the side (right)
(CROW, 2004).

3.1.3. Construction equipment
The normal equipment to construct concrete pavements in Europe is the slipformpaver.
For special projects a rolling finisher is applied. Manual construction is only done in special
cases.

3.1.3.1. Slipformpaver
A slipformpaver is a (very) heavy piece of construction equipment and is provided
therefore with tracks. During construction of the concrete pavement the slipformpaver is
driving over the base which therefore not only needs to be strong enough to carry the
equipment but also needs to be about 0.5 m wider than the concrete pavement. A
slipformpaver runs with a speed of 0.5 to 1.0 m/minute. The formwork for the concrete
pavement is within the slipformpaver which means that the concrete mix is only a few
minutes within the formwork and after that the concrete has to stand upright. Therefore
the water/cement-ratio has to be quite low (0.40 0.45).
Figure 7 shows a top view and a side view of a slipformpaver.

The letters in figure 7 point to the following components of a slipformpaver:
a = tracks g = supersmoother
b = 4 hydraulic sensors for height h = distributing unit
c = 2 hydraulic sensors for direction j = hydraulic leveling plate
d = vibrating dowel bar inserter k = high frequency vibrating needles
e = vibrating tie bar inserter l = stamping knife
f = vibrating leveling beam m = adjustable profile pan (formwork top/sides)

Slipformpavers are available in different sizes (table 9). Examples are shown in figure 8,
where the small size slipformpaver at the right is constructing the kerb of a roundabout..


Figure 7. Top view (above) and side view (below) of a slipformpaver (CROW, 2004).

Table 9. Some characteristics of different sized slipformpavers (CROW, 2004).

Size Large Medium Small
Weight (tons) 60 100 20 45 10 20
Width of pavement (m) 6 18 3 8 4
Thickness of pavement (m) 0.2 0.6 0.15 0.25 0.2
Applications motorways
provincial
roads
large areas
provincial roads
rural roads
roundabouts
airport platforms
small rural roads
bicycle tracks
safety barriers
kerbs, gutters

Figure 8. Large, medium and small slipformpaver (from left to right) (CROW, 2004).

Slipformpavers are guided, with respect to the direction of travel and the height of the
concrete surface, through sensors running over steel wires at both sides of the pavement
(figure 9). The steel wires have to be positioned and leveled very accurately, and during
construction of the concrete pavement their position and level have to be checked
continuously.

Figure 9. Sensors of slipformpaver (at centre bottom of pictures) running over steel wire.

The slipformpavers are provided with automatic dowel bar and tie bar inserters (figure 10-
left).

Figure 10. Positioning dowel bars by means of vibrating them in by slipformpaver (left) or by installing them
on chairs prior to pouring of the concrete (right) (CROW, 2004).

In case of a JPCP, at the predefined locations the dowel bars (transverse contraction
joints) and tie bars (longitudinal contraction joints) are vibrated into the fresh concrete
down to the required depth, generally mid-depth of the concrete layer. The round dowel
bars usually consist of FeB 220 HWL and have a length of 500 to 600 mm and a diameter
of 25 mm. The dowel bars are coated to prevent bond to the concrete and thus allowing
horizontal movements of the concrete slabs due to temperature variations without any
structural damage. The profiled tie bars (usually 3 per slab length) consist of FeB500
HWL, have a length of 800 mm and a diameter of 16 or 20 mm. The central part of the
tie bars is coated to spread the movement of the longitudinal joint (due to shrinkage of the

concrete and temperature variations) over greater length to prevent the tie bar from
yielding.
Sometimes the dowel bars and tie bars are placed on chairs prior to pouring of the
concrete (figure 10-right). In this case the chairs have to be very well fixed to the base
layer and the bars have to be very well fixed to the chair to prevent their movement during
pouring of the concrete.

In case of CRCP the longitudinal reinforcement, supported by a small amount of
transverse reinforcement, is installed prior to pouring of the concrete (figure 8-left and
figure 9-right). The transverse reinforcement continues at the location of the longitudinal
contraction joints, so no tie bars are applied there.

In case of longitudinal construction joints the tie bars can be shooted in the fresh concrete
(figure 11-left and middle) or can be glued in holes drilled in the hardened concrete
(figure 11-right).

Figure 11. Inserting tie bars in longitudinal construction joints (CROW, 2004).

Modern slipformpavers are provided with a so-called supersmoother (figure 7 and figure
12-left) to obtain a better longitudinal evenness (figure 12-right).

Figure 12. Supersmoother at backside of slipformpaver (left) and endproduct of slipformpaver (right) (CROW,
2004).

3.1.3.2. Rolling finisher
A so-called rolling finisher is used to construct special projects, e.g. roundabouts (figure
13-left). The concrete, brought into the works site by means of a truck mixer or a concrete

pump, is constructed between a formwork or between earlier made/placed kerbs or
gutters. The rolling finisher is guided through sensors running over steel wires.
Compaction of the concrete is done by means of vibrating needles and leveling the
concrete surface is done through rollers (figure 13-right). The production rate of a rolling
finisher is lower than that of a slipformpaver.

Figure 13. Rolling finisher (CROW, 2004).

3.1.3.3. Manual construction
Manual construction of concrete pavements is only done on small scale in Europe.
However, in case of very small scale or irregular projects manual construction is the only
option, e.g. concrete pavements with varying width, thin concrete layers (< 100 mm, thin
overlays), connections and repair works. The concrete is poured between an existing
pavement (figure 14-left), formwork (figure 14-right), kerbs or gutters. Manual construction
requires vibrating needles and a vibrating leveling beam.

Figure 14. Manual construction of concrete pavements (CROW, 2004).

3.1.4. Texture
Immediately after pouring of the concrete the pavement surface needs to be textured to
obtain sufficient skid resistance. Texturing is normally done manually by means of a fine

brush and should result in a texture depth (as measured by means of the sand patch
method) of 0.7 to 1.0 mm (figure 15-left). The traffic rolling noise level of such a textured
concrete pavement surface is around 2 dB(A) higher than that of a dense asphalt concrete
pavement surface.

Figure 15. Normal concrete pavement surface texture resulting from brushing (left) and exposed aggregate
surface texture (centre and right).

In European countries where reduction of traffic noise is (becoming increasingly)
important, such as the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany, another type of concrete
pavement surface treatment is applied more and more. This special treatment is called
exposed aggregate surface. Immediately after pouring of the concrete a liquid retarder
(which retards the concrete hardening and also acts as a curing compound) is spread at
the concrete which then has to be covered, both at the top and at the sides of the
pavement, with a plastic sheet to prevent drying out of the fresh concrete (figure 16-
bottom). After about 1 day the non-hardened cement paste at the pavement surface is
removed by brushing (figure 15-centre). After brushing the concrete pavement surface has
to be protected further against drying out of the concrete by means of the application of a
curing compound (see paragraph 3.1.5). From the point of view of traffic noise reduction
the best result is obtained if rather fine coarse aggregate (with a discontinuous grading)
4/7 mm or 5/8 mm is applied in the concrete mix and the maximum texture depth,
measured with the sand patch method, is about 1.4 mm (figure 15-right). In this case the
traffic rolling noise is 1 to 2 dB(A) lower than that of a dense asphalt concrete pavement
surface.

Further reduction of traffic noise is possible through the application of porous concrete. In
situ constructed porous concrete has been tried on a few roads in Germany and the
Netherlands but has not been very successful. However, in the Netherlands an innovative
precast concrete pavement has been developed and recently applied within a junction
between 2 motorways, which is promising in this respect (see chapter 4).

3.1.5. Protection of fresh concrete
After pouring of the concrete, some kind of measure has to be taken to protect the fresh
concrete primarily against drying out (that would result in a lot of fine surface cracks) due
to high temperatures, sun radiation and wind.

The most widely used protection measure is to uniformly apply, mechanically or manually,
a curing compound which is mostly based on paraffin. This has to be applied in an amount
of 150 to 200 grams/m
2
, not only at the pavement surface but also at the pavement sides
(figure 16-top).
Sometimes a plastic sheet is applied, also at the surface and sides of the concrete
pavement. However, a plastic sheet may disturb the surface texture.
Occasionally burlaps (that have to be kept wet) or a roof, fixed or pulled by equipment, are
applied. Especially a roof protects the fresh concrete pavement surface against
mechanical damage.

Figure 16. Application of curing compound (top) and plastic sheet after spreading of a retarder for exposed
aggregate surface (bottom).

3.1.6. Joints
Four types of joints in concrete pavements can be distinguished:
1. contraction joints
2. construction joints
3. day joints
4. expansion joints

Contraction joints are required at predefined locations to prevent uncontrolled cracking of
the concrete pavement due to shrinkage of the concrete and decrease of the temperature
of the concrete. In JPCP both transverse and longitudinal contraction joints are present, in
CRCP only longitudinal contraction joints. The contraction joints are obtained by sawing
the concrete pavement until a depth of 35% to 40% (longitudinal joints) or 30% to 35%

(transverse joints) of the concrete pavement thickness (figure 17-left); the width of the saw
cut is 3 mm. Sawing must be done as soon as possible, but not later than 12 to 24 hours
after pouring of the concrete. Usually all of the longitudinal contraction joints and most of
the transverse contraction joints really crack through (figure 17-centre).
Contraction joints can also be made by pushing a plastic strip into the fresh concrete
(figure 17-right), but this is done rarely, also because the obtained joints are not very
straight.

A construction joint occurs when 2 adjacent concrete strips are constructed at different
times. At the side of the eldest concrete strip tie bars have to be inserted in case of a road
(figure 11) or dowel bars in case of an airport platform as that can be loaded in any
direction (figure 18).

Figure 17. Sawing a contraction joint (left), a cracked contraction joint (centre) and the use of a plastic strip to
create a contraction joint (right) (CROW, 2004).

Figure 18. Dowel bars in a construction joint of an airport platform (CROW, 2004).

So-called day joints are required if the construction of the concrete pavement stops for
whatever reason (end of the production day, shortage of concrete, breakdown of
equipment). In this case the last part of the concrete has to be removed, holes have to be
driven mid-depth in the hardening concrete, dowel bars have to be glued and then
construction can be continued (figure 19). Such a day joint should not be closer than 1 m
to a regular transverse contraction joint.


Figure 19. Day joint (CROW, 2004).

Expansion joints are required when the concrete pavement is ending, e.g. before a bridge
or another type of pavement, and also before and after curves with a rather small radius
(figure 20-right). Usually 2 or 3 expansion joints are applied. Each expansion joint has a
width of 25 to 30 mm, is provided with dowel bars for load transfer and is filled with
compressible material (figure 20-left).

Figure 20. Construction of an expansion joint prior to pouring of the concrete (left) and expansion joint near a
roundabout (right) (CROW, 2004).

Figure 21: Joint filling materials: warm bituminous material (left), cold material (centre) and premanufactured
profile (right) (CROW, 2004).

In major roads the joints are usually filled to prevent the intrusion of water, dust, fine
aggregates, etc. In minor roads the joints normally remain unfilled.
When joints are filled, first the upper part of the 3 mm wide contraction joint has to be
widened to 8 or 12 mm to limit the relative deformations within the joint filling material due
to contraction and expansion of the concrete slabs due to shrinkage of the concrete and
temperature changes. The widened joints have to be cleaned carefully with high pressure
air before application of the filling. Three types of joint filling can be applied:
Warm bituminous material (figure 21-left).
The bottom of the widened joint first has to be closed by means of a chord. The
material has to be applied strictly according to the suppliers guidelines. The horizontal
strain (relative deformation) of the jointing material must be smaller than 15%.
Cold material (figure 21-centre).
Also in this case the bottom of the widened joint first has to be closed by means of a
chord. Again the material has to be applied strictly according to the suppliers
guidelines. The material mostly is a 2-component polysulfide mass.
Profiles (figure 21-right).
Premanufactured profiles are especially applied in expansion joints. The profiles
mostly consist of EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene M-class rubber), a type of
synthetic rubber. The required width of the profile depends on the expected changes
of the joint width.

3.1.7. Opening to traffic
A concrete pavement cannot be trafficked immediately after construction. In case a normal
type of cement is applied in the concrete mix, the following rules of the thumb are valid:
Pedestrians and bicycles are allowed on the pavement as soon as the joints have
been sawn;
Luxury cars are allowed after 3 days;
All cars, in limited numbers, are allowed after 7 days.
In case a fast hardening type of cement is used, of course the traffic can be allowed
earlier.

3.2. Concrete pavement construction example: rehabilitation of Antwerp
Ring Road in Belgium
3.2.1. Introduction
The urban motorway Ring Road R1 around the city of Antwerp in Belgium was opened to
traffic in 1969. The R1 has a total length of 14.2 km and includes the 690 m long Kennedy
Tunnel (2*3 traffic lanes) below the river Schelde and the 1700 m long Viaduct Merksem
(2*4 traffic lanes), see figure 22. Six radial motorways are tying into the R1. The total
length of access and exit ramps on the interchanges amounts 30 km.
During a partial rehabilitation in 1976 and 1977 some stretches of the R1 were widened up
to 7 traffic lanes. After this rehabilitation, except of the Kennedy Tunnel the number of
traffic lanes per direction varied between 4 and 7.

The original pavement structure as well as the structure constructed during the
rehabilitation of the R1 was an asphalt pavement structure (see figures 23 and 25).
In 2004 the traffic intensity on the most heavily trafficked parts of the R1 had increased to
around 200,000 vehicles per day, including 25% of trucks. The capacity of the R1 was
reached and after 35 years of service the asphalt pavement suffered for serious damage
(such as cracking, raveling and patching), there was a severe problem with respect to the
surface run-off, and the concrete pavement in the Kennedy Tunnel suffered from severe
cracking (figure 23).

The R1 is very important for the harbour of Antwerp (the second largest harbour of
Europe) and for the international through traffic. Based on an extensive testing program
(visual condition survey, Falling Weight Deflection measurements, investigation of cores) it
was decided to perform a major rehabilitation to realize a safe, modern and efficient Ring

Figure 22. Overview of Ring Road R1 in Antwerp, Belgium .

Figure 23. Damages on the Ring Road R1 in Antwerp, Belgium in 2004.

Road with a service life of at least 35 years and with only minor pavement maintenance
during this period. The rehabilitation of the Eastern carriageway was done between June
and November 2004, and the rehabilitation of the Western carriageway was done between
April and September 2005. In the following paragraphs some interesting aspects of this
major rehabilitation project are discussed (DEBAERE ET AL, 2006).

3.2.2. Traffic regulation during the rehabilitation works
Because of the importance of the R1 (the green road in figure 24-left) for the international
through traffic, all local entrances and exits (the purple crosses in figure 24-left) were
closed. Local traffic had to use the at grade city ring, called Singel (the red road in figure
24-left), that was temporarily equipped with pre-manufactured fly-over structures (the blue
stretches in figure 24-left).

Figure 24. Closure of local entrances and exits on the Ring Road R1 and upgrading the city ring, called
Singel, in Antwerp, Belgium.

All through traffic was detoured by means of minimum 2*2 traffic lanes on that carriageway
which was not under rehabilitation. From and to this carriageway a thoroughfare with a

minimum width of 1 lane had to be provided for the through traffic to and from the
interchanges with the radial motorways.
As a result of this regulation the carriageway being rehabilitated became available for
construction over its full width and length, with the exception of the at grade thoroughfares
to the interchanges. This allowed a maximum construction efficiency and minimum
construction time.
The execution of the works, the possible hindrance and the partial rerouting of traffic was
communicated very frequently to the road users, not only in the city of Antwerp but in the
whole of Belgium and even in the neighbouring countries (the Netherlands, Germany,
France and United Kingdom). As a result the hindrance for traffic was limited and traffic
jams hardly occurred.

3.2.3. Choice of type of pavement
Considering the limited space because of the requirement to maintain traffic on at least 1
traffic lane and due to the small radii of the alignment curves it was immediately decided to
apply an asphalt pavement structure on the ramps of the interchanges.

For the new pavement on the actual Ring Road R1 a thorough comparative study was
made of an asphalt pavement and a continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP).
In a Life Cycle Cost Analysis the Net Present Value over an infinite horizon was used, i.e.
it was determined how much money one has to reserve now for the construction today and
the maintenance and reconstruction in the future. The construction costs appeared to be
lowest for the asphalt pavement and the maintenance and reconstruction costs appeared
to be lowest for the CRCP. The Net Present Value for both types of pavements appeared
to be comparable.
Other aspects (traffic noise, recycling of materials, driving comfort, traffic safety,
construction time, etc.) were evaluated by means of a Multi Criteria Analysis. The result for
CRCP was slightly better than the score for an asphalt pavement and would only be worse
if absolute priority was given to the construction time.
Based on these studies a CRCP was chosen for the Ring Road, with the exception of the
asphalt pavement on the Viaduct Merksem.

In the Kennedy Tunnel a jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) was applied because of
the difficulties with the supply of fresh concrete in case of a CRCP.

3.2.4. Recycling
A major purpose of the rehabilitation project was to recycle the broken up materials to the
maximum possible, given the very large quantities of broken up and recyclable materials,
the short construction periods, and the decision not to create additional traffic flows by
hauling broken up materials and by supplying new materials. As a result of a recycling
study the existing asphalt pavement was recycled:
partly in new asphalt mixes
partly in the new cement-bound coarse granular base; 15% to 20% sand had to be
added to obtain a continuous grading and a maximum density

The existing base (mainly lean concrete and locally coarse aggregate) was broken up and
recycled in the new granular sub-base.

3.2.5. Structural design of CRCP
The thickness design of the CRCP was done according to the Belgian Guidelines, which
include an asphalt interlayer between the CRCP and the cement-bound base. The design
is based on the traffic loading (cumulative number of equivalent 100 kN standard axle
loads on the design lane during the design period), the CBR-value of the subgrade, the
lane distribution factor and the design speed. The CRCP pavement structure together with
the existing asphalt pavement structure is shown in figure 25.

Figure 25. Existing asphalt pavement and designed CRCP of Ring Road R1 in Antwerp, Belgium.

To reduce traffic noise, an exposed aggregate surface texture was chosen for the CRCP
which requires a rather fine concrete mix (see 3.1.4). The specifications for the concrete
mix were as follows:
The stone grading to be used is 4/7, 7/14 and 14/20 mm. The amount of 4/7 mm
aggregates has to be at least 20% of the total granular mix (sand and coarse
aggregates). The percentage of sand should be as low as possible as far as
compatible with an adequate workability.
The water/cement-ratio is less than 0.45.
The minimum cement content is 400 kg/m
3
.
The use of an air-entraining additive is compulsory.

The total amount of (longitudinal plus supporting transverse) reinforcement amounts
0.74%. The arrangement of the reinforcement steel is shown in figure 26.
The longitudinal reinforcement consists of steel bars (BE 500 S, diameter 20 mm, spacing
0.18 m) with a minimum length of 14 m. When splicing longitudinal steel the minimum lap

is 35 bar diameters (35*20 mm = 700 mm = 0.7 m) with a skewed splice pattern. Having
more than one splice in a transverse cross-section is kept to a minimum.
The transverse reinforcement consists of steel bars (BE 500 S, diameter 12 mm, spacing
0.7 m) that are supported by steel chairs, which are placed on the asphalt interlayer. The
transverse steel bars are placed at an angle of 60to the longitudinal bars. When placed
at a right angle it was expected that the transverse bars could be crack-inducing and could
thus influence the crack pattern.

Tie bars with diameter 16 mm are applied in every longitudinal construction joint. The tie
bars are chemically anchored in holes that are drilled at a right angle to the longitudinal
joint mid-depth in the concrete layer. The spacing of the tie bars varies from 0.80 to 0.85 m
to avoid interference with the transverse reinforcement steel bars.

Figure 26. General arrangement of reinforcing steel (top) and actual transverse supporting reinforcement
(bottom-left) and complete reinforcement (bottom-centre and right) on the
Ring Road R1 in Antwerp, Belgium.

3.2.6. End of CRCP
At the ends a CRCP is subjected to changes in length due to changes in temperature. The
so-called active length mainly depends on the friction between the CRCP and the

underlying asphalt interlayer and the magnitude of the temperature changes and was
estimated as about 125 m. There are 2 possible solutions to cope with these horizontal
end movements:
Restrain the end movements by means of end anchorages. This can be realized by
applying a number of transverse lugs which are anchored in the subgrade (figure 27).
This expensive solution was chosen for auxiliary traffic lanes adjacent to the main
road where the CRCP does not undergo any horizontal movements.
Accommodate the end movements in one or more transverse expansion joints.
Figure 28 shows the (relatively cheap) expansion joint, with a neoprene joint profile,
that was applied at the end of the CRCP of the main road, between the CRCP and
the adjacent asphalt pavement structure. In principle this expansion joint is similar to
the one applied in bridges.

Figure 27. Anchorage lugs to restrain the end movement of a CRCP.


Figure 28. Expansion joint to accommodate the end movement of a CRCP.

3.2.7. Construction
The construction period of the rehabilitation of the Eastern carriageway was limited to 140
calender days and to 150 days for the Western carriageway. For the main road the
working time was 16 hours per day, 7 days per week. The rehabilitation works in the
Kennedy Tunnel were carried out continuously, i.e. 24 hours per day, 7 days per week.
Along with the pavement rehabilitation works, 170 km of storm water sewers and drainage
pipes, 9 utility tunnels below the Ring Road and many bridges had to be rehabilitated.
A separate temporary haul road was built over the entire length of the project. This road
was also intended for use by emergency vehicles.
Two construction plants were erected on the works site to recycle the broken up materials
and to supply the concrete.
The construction of the CRCP had to be split up in many phases, both longitudinally and
transversally, requiring a detailed scheduling and coordination of the placement of both the
reinforcement steel and the concrete.
It was impossible to construct the CRCP at once over its full width. In principle the 4
through lanes were cast (from the middle of the Ring Road to the outer edge) in widths of
2 lanes (2*3.75 m) or 1 lane plus a shoulder. The casting widths varied according to the
number of lanes, the presence of a shoulder in CRCP and/or the necessity to apply an
overwidth at those locations where either no shoulder was available or the shoulder had
an asphalt pavement.
The concrete was cast with a CMI HVW 2000 slipformpaver that is able to construct a
variable width up to a maximum of 10 m.


The figures 29 to 32 show some pictures of the construction of the JPCP in the Kennedy
Tunnel, the construction of the CRCP of the main Ring Road R1, and the completed Ring
Road R1 in Antwerp, Belgium.

Figure 29. Installation of dowel bars and construction of JPCP in Kennedy Tunnel.

Figure 30. Construction of CRCP on main Ring Road R1.

Figure 31. Sawing longitudinal contraction joint (left), drilling holes for tie bars in construction joint (centre)
and filling longitudinal construction joint (right).


Figure 32. General overview of the works site (left) and the in-service CRCP (centre and right) of the Ring
Road R1 in Antwerp, Belgium.

3.3. Roundabouts
In comparison to a normal traffic junction, a roundabout improves the traffic flow and
increases the traffic safety, also because of the reduced vehicle speed at roundabouts.
Therefore, in Western Europe an increasing number of roundabouts are realized during
the last decades, not only within built-up areas (figure 33-top and -centre) but also on
major road crossings in rural areas (figure 33-bottom).

The outside radius of roundabouts usually is in the order of 15 to 30 m, although larger
radius roundabouts are also applied. Depending on the required traffic capacity these
roundabouts have 1 lane (figure 33-centre and -bottom) or 2 lanes (figure 33-top). The
smaller the radius of the roundabout, the wider the lane(s) should be. Normally the lane
width is 4 to 5.5 m. At the inner side of the roundabout a so-called drive-over lane, width 2
to 2.5 m, is constructed that is incidentally used by long vehicles.
Especially when the roundabout will be used by a large number of trucks then often a
concrete pavement is applied on the roundabout, even when an asphalt pavement is
applied on the crossing roads (figure 33-top). The reason for this is that, in comparison to
an asphalt pavement, a concrete pavement can better withstand the huge horizontal
forces resulting from (non-steered) multi-axles which are for instance mounted on trailers.

Both jointed plain concrete pavements and continuously reinforced concrete pavements
are applied on roundabouts (CROW, 2004). The applied concrete grades are C28/35 and
C35/45. The concrete pavement thickness design can be done in a similar way as for
roads, and normally a concrete pavement thickness of 230 to 250 mm is applied on top of
a base. Between the concrete pavement of the roundabout and the pavement of the
crossing roads always an expansion joint should be applied (figure 34).


Figure 33. Examples of roundabouts (with concrete pavement) in the city of Eindhoven, the Netherlands
(top), the city of Genk, Belgium (centre) and on the N277 in the Netherlands (bottom).


Figure 34. Expansion joint between concrete road and concrete roundabout (CROW, 2004).

In case a jointed plain concrete pavement is applied on a roundabout, contraction joints
are made in the traffic lane with a maximum spacing of 5 m, resulting in more or less
square slabs (figure 35). In the drive-over lane contraction joints are made every 2 to 2.5
m, again resulting in more or less square slabs, and also 4 expansion joints are
constructed. Between the traffic lane and the drive-over lane, and also at the outside of the
roundabout, a kerb of in-situ placed concrete or precast concrete elements is constructed.

Figure 35. Example of a 1-lane roundabout with a jointed plain concrete pavement (CROW, 2004).

In case of a continuously reinforced concrete pavement on the traffic lane of the
roundabout, an asphalt interlayer is applied between the pavement and the base. Table 10
gives some data about the longitudinal reinforcement. The transverse reinforcement,
mainly to support the longitudinal reinforcement, amounts about 0.06%. The reinforcement
bars consist of steel FeB 500 HWL.
In this case the structures applied on the drive-over lane as well as for the kerbs are
similar to those described above.

Table 10. Longitudinal reinforcement for a continuously reinforced concrete pavement on a roundabout in the
Netherlands (CROW, 2004).

Concrete pavement thickness 230 mm 250 mm
Concrete grade C28/35 C35/45 C28/35 C35/45
Minimum percentage of reinforcement (%) 0.59 0.70 0.59 0.70
Minimum amount of reinforcement (mm
2
/m) 1357 1610 1475 1750
Reinforcement bars with diameter 16 mm
Spacing of bars (mm) 145 125 135 115
Amount of reinforcement (mm
2
/m) 1387 1608 1489 1748
Overlap length (mm) 420 375 420 375
Reinforcement bars with diameter 20 mm
Spacing of bars (mm) 225 195 210 180
Amount of reinforcement (mm
2
/m) 1396 1611 1496 1745
Overlap length (mm) 510 450 510 450

3.4. Widening of pavements
In Western-Europe the motorway network has largely been completed in the last decades,
only a limited number of new motorways will be constructed. Traffic intensities in parts of
countries like Germany, Italy, Great Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands have however
grown such high that many existing motorways, including their junctions, have reached
their capacity. Certainly in case of disturbing factors (bad weather conditions, accident,
road maintenance) heavy traffic jams do occur. Extension of motorway junctions and
widening of the most heavily trafficked motorways therefore are becoming major
construction activities. When the subsoil is free of settlements both asphalt and concrete
pavements can be widened with an asphalt pavement or with a concrete pavement (table
11).

In Germany widening of a motorway asphalt pavement with a concrete pavement has
become rather common practice, and then the heavy vehicles are mainly driving over the
new concrete pavement. An example is the motorway A4 between the cities of Aachen
and Cologne that was widened from 2*2 lanes to 2*3 lanes (figure 36). The existing
asphalt pavement on the emergency lane was removed and JPCP was applied on the new
3
rd
lane and emergency lane.

Table 11. Possible combinations of pavement structures for existing road and widening (CROW, 2010).

Existing
pavement
structure +
wearing
course
Pavement structure for widening
Asphalt
concrete
(AC)
JPCP CRCP
Brushed or
exposed
aggregate surface
AC
wearing
course
Brushed or
exposed
aggregate surface
AC
wearing
course
AC
JPCP
JPCP + AC
CRCP
CRCP + AC
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
-
X

Figure 36. JPCP widening of asphalt pavement on motorway A4 in Germany during and after construction
(CROW, 2010).

Special attention must be given to the longitudinal joint between the asphalt pavement and
the concrete pavement. This joint must be filled and below the joint a drainage facility has
to be built that is directly connected to the underlying permeable granular base (figure 37).

Figure 37. Basic solution for the longitudinal joint between asphalt and concrete widening (CROW, 2010).

3.5. Safety barriers
Traditionally in Europe galvanized steel safety barriers are applied (figure 38-left).
However, in case of a collision they get damaged (bended) and the required repair is not
only expensive and time-consuming but on heavily trafficked roads it also causes traffic
delays. Besides, at long term the barriers loose heavy metals that may pollute the subsoil
and the groundwater. Therefore, in a number of European countries (such as Belgium,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Spain and Italy) concrete safety barriers are applied more
and more (figure 38-right).

Figure 38. Traditional steel safety barrier (left) and concrete safety barrier (right).

The original concrete barrier was applied first in New Jersey, USA, in 1955 and is
therefore called the New Jersey barrier (figure 39-left). Nowadays also a somewhat
different barrier, called step barrier, is widely applied (figures 38-right, 39-right and 40).
The shapes are optimized to guide colliding vehicles along the barrier in the direction of
travel.
Both types of barrier have a weight of 700 to 800 kg per meter length and they are able to
withstand the heaviest vehicles without any serious damage. Usually 2 to 4 reinforcement
bars are applied in the upper part of the barrier to increase the strength of the barrier in
case of a collision. The barrier has to be constructed on a base (such as an unbound
base, a lean concrete base or an asphalt layer) and embedded in the adjacent pavement
for sufficient lateral support.
A concrete safety barrier is constructed by means of a small slipformpaver or a dedicated
machine (figure 40) (WIRTGEN GROUP, 2009). In both cases the machine is equipped
with a special feeder unit and steel mould to yield the correct shape of the barrier. The
protection of the fresh concrete (grade C28/35 or C35/45) of the barrier is similar as the
protection of concrete pavements (see paragraph 3.1.5).
Usually contraction joints are made in the concrete barrier every 4 to 10 m by saw cutting
the barrier over a depth of 20 to 30 mm. At specific locations, e.g. besides bridges,
expansion joints are required.


Figure 39. New Jersey barrier (left) and step barrier (right).

Figure 40. Construction of a step barrier by means of a slipformpaver (left) or dedicated machine (right).

4 Example of new development: Modieslab precast concrete
pavement in the Netherlands

In this chapter four full-scale applications of a new type of precast concrete pavement in
the Netherlands are shortly described. The pavement system, called Modieslab, was
originally developed in 2001 and extensively tested in the period from 2001 till 2006
(HOUBEN ET AL, 2006). The precast concrete slabs are provided with a structural
reinforcement for bearing capacity and a porous concrete wearing course for reduction of
traffic noise can be applied.

4.1. Full-scale test section in motorway
Based on the quite good functional and structural performance of the Modieslab system in
the testing period 2001 till 2006 (HOUBEN ET AL, 2006), in 2007 a 100 m full-scale test
section was constructed in a bypass within the junction Oudenrijn near the city of Utrecht
in the centre of the Netherlands. Oudenrijn is the junction between 2 of the most important

Dutch motorways, i.e. the A2 (running from the capital city Amsterdam to the south of the
country and further to Belgium) and the A12 (running from the government city The Hague
to the east of the country and further to Germany) (figure 41). The precast concrete slabs
are provided with two-layer porous concrete.

Figure 41. Location of the junction Oudenrijn within the Dutch main road network (left) and location of the
Modieslab test section within the junction Oudenrijn (right).

The applied Modieslab structure has the following characteristics:
- Lane-wide slabs have been applied to improve longitudinal evenness and to allow
repair, if necessary, lane by lane. This means that in case of repair only 1 lane needs to
be closed. The applied slab dimensions are: length * width * thickness = 7.2 * 3.6 * 0.38
m.
- The slabs are heavily reinforced as they are designed as a bridge with very short span.
- The junction Oudenrijn is located in an area with a very weak, compressible subsoil,
and therefore the slabs had to be founded on driven concrete foundation piles. On top
of the piles pre-manufactured headers were applied.
- The voids content of the two-layer porous concrete amounts 20%-22%. The 30 mm
thick upper porous concrete layer has a fine grading 2/8 mm and the 55 mm thick lower
porous concrete layer has a somewhat coarser grading 2/11 mm.
Figure 42 gives an impression of the Modieslab system. The pictures in figure 43 give an
idea about the construction process, which includes hammering the foundation piles into
the subsoil, placing the headers, placing the precast concrete slabs and the accurate
leveling of the slabs onto the headers.

The functional properties of the Modieslab test section Oudenrijn have been measured
immediately after construction. The results were very satisfying (table 12).

A12
A2


Figure 42. Artist impression of the Modieslab system applied on the bypass within the junction Oudenrijn.

Figure 43. Construction of the Modieslab test section on the bypass within the junction Oudenrijn.

Table 12. Functional properties of Modieslab pavement structure.

Required Measured
Deceleration during emergency brake > 5.2 m/s
2
7.1 m/s
2

Friction coefficient > 0.4 0.51 0.57
Raveling (rolling surface abrasion test) < 20 grams 1.7 grams
Permeability < 20 seconds 15 seconds
Noise level reduction at 100 km/h 6 7 dB(A)
Evenness Very good

Mid 2011, so 4 years after construction, no damage has been observed on this Modieslab
test section that every day is trafficked by around 40,000 vehicles including about 15%
trucks.

4.2. Applications within built-up areas
In the autumn of 2009 a Modieslab type of pavement has been constructed on 7 junctions
during the reconstruction of a heavily loaded access road, called Diamantstreet, to an
industrial area within the built-up area of the city of Hengelo, in the east of the Netherlands
(figure 44). During 7 subsequent weekends each time one junction was reconstructed.
Each junction in the 2*2-lane road has an area of 2,000 to 2,500 m
2
.

Figure 44. Overview of the Diamantstreet in the city of Hengelo, the Netherlands.

The subsoil on that location is sand, which is quite good for Dutch conditions. Therefore,
subsoil settlements were not an issue on this project. In this case the precast concrete
slabs were not founded on precast concrete foundation piles but on an asphalt layer
(figure 45).
The applied (rectangular and non-rectangular) precast concrete slabs are so-called
Modieslab LS (Low Speed) slabs, which have especially been developed for low traffic
speeds (up to 80 km/h). A porous concrete toplayer is not applied because that would be
severely damaged in a short period of time due to the high friction forces applied by
turning trucks. On average each slab has an area of around 15 m
2
. The slabs are
interconnected by means of concave-convex connections.

Figure 45. Construction of Modieslab on junctions in Diamantstreet in the city of Hengelo, the Netherlands.

During 3 days in October 2010 in total 1,234 m
2
of Modieslab LS slabs were applied on a
2-lane bus road in the centre of the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands (figure 46). The
slabs are resting on a newly laid asphalt layer. Except of the slabs on a traffic junction, the
slabs have horizontal dimensions of 8 * 4 m. The thickness of the slabs is 400 mm. The
upper part does not contain any reinforcement, which allows to make gutters to install
tramway rails (embedded rail) if the local politicians would ever decide to transform the
bus road into a tramway.

Figure 46. Construction of Modieslab on a bus road in the city of Haarlem, the Netherlands.

Such an embedded tramway structure for silent public transport already was constructed
in November 2008 in the city of Blankenberge in Belgium. In this case the gutters for the
tram rails already were made during the manufacturing of the slabs (figure 47). A two-layer
porous concrete wearing course is applied to yield a reduction of the tram noise of 6
dB(A).


Figure 47. Modieslab slabs for a silent tramway in the city of Blankenberge, Belgium.

References
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Appendix: Overview of European Standards (EN) related to Concrete
Pavements

Materials, requirements and dowel bars for concrete pavements

EN 13877-1 Concrete pavements Part 1: Materials
EN 13877-2 Concrete pavements Part 2: Functional requirements for concrete
pavements
EN 13877-3 Concrete pavements Part 3: Specifications for dowels to be used on
concrete pavements
EN 13863-1 Concrete pavements, test methods for functional requirements Part 1:
Test method for the determination of the thickness of a concrete pavement
by survey method
Test method for the determination of the bond between two layers
Determination of the thickness of a concrete slab
Determination of wear resistance to studded tires

Joint fillers and sealants

EN 14188-1 Joint fillers and sealants Part 1: Specifications for hot applied sealants
EN 14188-2 Joint fillers and sealants Part 2: Specifications for cold applied sealants
EN 14188-3 Joint fillers and sealants Part 3: Specifications for preformed joint seals
EN 13880-1 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 1: Test method for the determination of
density at 25C
cone penetration at 25C
penetration and recovery (resilience)
EN 13880-4 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 4: Test method for the determination of heat
resistance Change in penetration value
EN 13880-5 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 5: Test method for the determination of flow
resistance
EN 13880-6 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 6: Test method for the preparation of
samples for testing
EN 13880-7 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 7: Function testing of joint sealants
EN 13880-8 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 8: Test method for the determination of the
change in weight of fuel resistance joint sealants after fuel immersion
compatibility with asphalt pavements

adhesion and cohesion following continuous extension and compression
EN 13880-11 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 11: Test method for the preparation of
asphalt test blocks used in the function test and for the determination of
compatibility with asphalt pavements
EN 13880-12 Hot applied joint sealants - Part 12: Test method for the manufacture of
concrete test blocks for bond testing (recipe methods)
the discontinuous extension (adherence test)
EN 14187-1 Cold applied joint sealants Part 1: Test method for the determination of
the rate of cure
tack free time
self-levelling properties
the change in mass and volume after immersion in test fuel
the resistance to hydrolysis
the adhesion/cohesion properties after immersion in chemical liquids
the resistance to flame
the artificial weathering by UV-irradiation
EN 14187-9 Cold applied joint sealants Part 9: Function test
EN 14840 Test methods for preformed joint seals

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53 CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DO CONCRETO - CBC2011 1

Concrete pavements in Europe:

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