PROJECT REPORT AIM

BREAKE

INRODUCATION
Brake fluid is a type of hydraulic fluid used in brake applications in motorcycles, automobiles, light trucks and some advanced bicycles. It is used to transfer force under pressure from where it is created through hydraulic lines to the braking mechanism near the wheels. It works because liquids are not appreciably compressible. Braking applications produce a lot of heat so brake fluid must have a high boiling point to remain effective and must also not freeze under normal temperatures. These requirements eliminate most water-based solutions. In the USA brake fluid comes in a number of forms, standardized under by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT). DOT 2 is essentially castor oil; DOT 3, DOT 4, and DOT 5.1 are composed of various mineral oils, glycol esters and ethers; some are synthetic oil based, and DOT 5 is silicone-based. As of 2006, most cars produced in the U.S. use DOT 3. Glycol based fluids are two times less compressible than silicone type fluids, even when heated. Less compressibility of brake fluid will increase pedal feel (firmness), but in either case this effect is minimal. The U.S. Army has used silicone brake fluid exclusively since 1982 successfully. Glycols are hygroscopic and will absorb water from the atmosphere, reducing the boiling point of the fluid and degrading hydraulic efficiency. Changing fluid on a regular basis will greatly increase the performance of the brake system, but this is often not a concern in passenger cars. On the other hand, changing fluid at least every several years will preserve the life of brake system components (by removing accumulated water and other contaminants) and increase the overall reliability of the brake system.

Polyethylene glycol and other brake fluid ingredients may be corrosive to paint and finished surfaces such as chrome and thus care should be taken when working with the fluid. Additionally, polyethylene glycol, in the concentrations found in DOT brake fluids, reacts violently, producing a large fireball, with some household chemicals, notably pool care products. Hotwheelscollectors.com cites that hobby modellers use brake fluid as a safe (if somewhat slow) paint stripper. It is less likely to harm skin and will not harm plastics.

Contents
1 Components
o o

1.1 Mineral-based 1.2 Silicone-based

2 See also 3 External links

Components
Mineral-based

Alkyl ester Aliphatic amine Diethylene glycol Diethylene glycol monobutyl ether Diethylene glycol monoethyl ether Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether Dimethyl dipropylene glycol Polyethylene glycol monobutyl ether Polyethylene glycol monoethyl ether Polyethylene glycol monomethyl ether Polyethylene oxide Triethylene glycol monobutyl ether Triethylene glycol monoethyl ether Triethylene glycol monomethyl ether

Silicone-based

Di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate Dimethyl polysiloxane Tributyl phosphate

See also

Disc brake Drum brake Brake bleeding Hydraulic brake Hydropneumatic

A drum brake is a brake in which the friction is caused by a set of shoes or pads that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to a rotating wheel.

A drum brake with the drum removed as used on the rear wheel of a car or truck. Note that in this installation, a cable-operated parking brake uses the service shoes.

Contents
* 1 History

* 2 Servo design

* 3 Advantages

* 4 Disadvantages

* 5 Adjustment

* 6 Percussive Uses

* 7 See also

* 8 External links

History The modern automobile drum brake was invented in 1902 by Louis Renault, though a less-sophisticated drum brake had been used by Maybach a year earlier. In the first drum brakes, the shoes were mechanically operated with levers and rods or cables. From the mid1930s the shoes were operated with oil pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons (as in the picture), though some vehicles continued with purely-mechanical systems for decades. Some designs have two wheel cylinders. The shoes in drum brakes are subject to wear and the brakes needed to be adjusted regularly until the 1950s introduction of self adjusting drum brakes. In the 1960s and 1970s brake drums on the front wheels of cars were gradually replaced with disc brakes and now practically all cars use disc brakes on the front wheels, with many offering disc brakes on all wheels. However, drum brakes are still often used for handbrakes as it has proved very difficult to design a disc brake suitable for holding a car when it is not in use. Moreover, it is very easy to fit a drum handbrake inside a disc brake so that one unit serves for both footbrake and handbrake. Early type brake shoes contained asbestos. When working on brake systems of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present in the brake assembly. The Federal government began to regulate asbestos production, and there was a period of time where owners complained of poor braking with the non-asbestos linings. Eventually technology advanced to compensate. A majority of daily-driven older vehicles have been fitted with asbestos-free linings. Brake drums are also occasionally used as an instrument in concert band and orchestra. Percussionists strike the brake drum with a hard mallet or drumstick to produce a clanging sound that is usually used as a special effect in the music.

Servo design Drum brakes, depending on the way the shoes are hinged, can have a "selfservo" characteristic. This increases stopping power without any additional effort by the driver because the rotation of the drum drags the shoes around with it, increasing the force holding them together. In rear brakes (as illustrated above) only one shoe will have this characteristic. Front drum brakes may use two actuating cylinders which allow both shoes to utilize the servo characteristic and which also increase the front axle braking force, required to compensate for forward weight shift and also to avoid premature rear-wheel locking. Servo action can be used to make a very powerful brake (as on the rear axles of large commercial vehicles), but it does reduce the ability of the driver to modulate the brakes sensitively. (The disc brake has no selfservo effect because the pads act perpendicularly to the rotating disc.) Advantages Drum brakes are still used in modern cars. There can be engineering and cost advantages. Drum brakes allow simple incorporation of a parking brake. They are often applied to the rear wheels since most of the stopping happens in the front of the vehicle and therefore the heat generated in the rear is significantly less. Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and emergency) brake even when the rear wheels use disk brakes as the main brakes. In this situation, a small drum is usually fitted within or as part of the brake disk. An advanced technology hybrid car using drum rear brakes is the Toyota Prius. (4-wheel discs are used in certain markets - Hybrid vehicles greatly reduce everyday wear on braking systems owing to their energy recovery motor-generators, see regenerative braking).

Disadvantages Drum brakes with internal shoes have a particular disadvantage; when the drums are heated by hard braking the diameter of the drum increases due to the expansion of the material and the brakes must be further depressed to obtain effective braking action. This is known as brake fade and can lead to driver panic and brake failure in extreme circumstances. Under normal driving conditions it is seldom noticed, especially when drums of appropriate size are fitted. The Pontiac GTO is one vehicle often cited as having undersized drums. Before 1984, it was common to re-arc brake shoes to match the arc within brake drums; the machinery used has been phased out. This practice, however, was controversial as it removed friction material from the brakes and caused a reduction in the life of the shoes as well as creating hazardous asbestos dust. It is much better to use shoes for the proper diameter drum, and if the procedure was needed, the drums were so worn that they should have been replaced, as the thickness of the drum contributes to the strength and the heat absorption and dissipation ability of the drum. Adjustment Early drum brakes (before about 1955) required periodic adjustment to compensate for drum and shoe wear. If not done sufficiently often the symptom would be long brake pedal travel ("low pedal"), which could also be caused by low hydraulic fluid level. Low pedal can be a severe hazard when combined with brake fade as the brakes can become ineffective when the pedal bottoms out.

Self adjusting brakes may use a mechanism that engages only when the vehicle is being stopped from reverse motion. This is a traditional method suitable for use where all wheels use drum brakes (most vehicles now use disc brakes on the front wheels). By operating only in reverse it is less likely that the brakes will be adjusted while hot (when the drums are expanded), which could cause dragging brakes that would accelerate wear and reduce mileage. Self adjusting brakes may also operate by a ratchet mechanism engaged as the hand brake is applied, a means suitable for use where only rear drum brakes are used. If the travel of the parking brake actuator lever exceeds a certain amount, the ratchet turns an adjuster screw that moves the brake shoes toward the drum. Percussive Uses The brakedrum can be very effective in modern and film music to provide a non-pitched metal effect. Some drums have more resonance than others and the best method of producing the clearest sound is to hang the drum with nylon cord or to place it on foam. Either way, the brakedrum is struck with hammers of various weight. See also Drum brakes Brake bleeding Brake fluid Disc brake External links Dual Leading Shoe Drum Brakes on Motorcycles

External links

Car care council How Stuff Works: What are the different types of brake fluid? StopTech: Brake Fluid 1A

Brake bleeding is the procedure performed on hydraulic brake systems whereby the brake lines (the pipes and hoses containing the brake fluid) are purged of any air bubbles. This is necessary because, while the brake fluid is an incompressible liquid, air bubbles are compressible gas and their presence in the brake system greatly reduces the hydraulic pressure that can be developed within the system. The same methods used for bleeding are also used for purging, where the old fluid is replaced with new fluid, which is necessary maintenance. Note: brake fluid is toxic, and must be handled carefully and disposed of properly. The process is performed by forcing clean, bubble-free brake fluid through the entire system from the master cylinder(s) to the calipers of disc brakes or the wheel cylinders of drum brakes). The brake bleeder valve is normally mounted at the highest point on each cylinder or caliper. There are three main methods of bleeding: Pump & Hold, Vacuum and Pressure. Pump & Hold generally requires two people, the other methods can be done by a sole person.

Pump and Hold Method: One person pumps the brake pedal to compress the air, then holds pressure on it. The other person opens the bleeder valve to let out fluid and air, then closes the valve after the pedal has landed (to prevent air being sucked back in through the valve on the upstroke). The process is repeated, sometimes many times, for each wheel. Usually a length of clear tubing is connected to the bleeder valve and run to a container during the process, both to collect the toxic brake fluid and to better view the fluid and bubbles. The master cylinder reservoir must be replenished frequently, for if it goes dry the entire process must be redone. The cover must be left loose so that the fluid may be drawn, but should be in place so that

fluid does not squirt out on the return stroke. It may be a good idea to not let the pedal bottom out during this procedure, as the master cylinder seals may be damaged by encountering accumulated sediment and / or corrosion.

Pump and Hold Method, One Person Option: This uses either a "one man" bleeder tool, comprising of a one way valve at the end of a length of tubing which is attached to the bleeder valve, or a special one way bleeder valve, such as the Russell Speed Bleeder. These methods have the disadvantage that air is sometimes sucked back into the system via the bleeder valve threads, this can be alleviated to a degree by using teflon tape on those threads. Vacuum Method: The master cylinder is topped off and the cover left loose. A specialized vacuum pump, such as the MityVac is attached to the bleeder valve, which is opened and fluid extracted with the pump until it runs clear of bubbles. Once again, the master cylinder reservoir level must be maintained. Pressure Method: A specialized pressure pump, such as the Motive Product Power Bleeder is attached to the master cylinder and filled with fluid. The pump is used to pressurize the system to about 10psi, and the bleeder valves are opened one at a time until the fluid is clear of air. One advantage to this system is that the pump reservoir usually holds enough fluid that running dry is not likely. This is the method most professional shops use, though they use commercial equipment instead of the above mentioned unit.

Typically, one starts with the wheel furthest from the master cylinder; almost always the rear passenger wheel, then goes to the rear driver's wheel, front passenger wheel, and finally the driver's front wheel; but see the technical manual for the vehicle in question for proper procedure. External links

How to bleed brakes. Another "how to" on bleeding brakes. A page written by professional racers on maintaining and improving brake performance

The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses hydraulic fluid, typically some type of light-viscosity silicone oil, to transfer pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the vehicle. The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes (for passenger vehicles) consists of a brake pedal, a vacuum assist module, a master cylinder, hydraulic lines, a "slave cylinder", and a brake rotor and/or brake drum. Typical passenger vehicles employ disc brakes on the front wheels and drum brakes on the rear wheels. However, four wheel disc brakes are becoming more popular. General operation When the brake pedal is depressed, leverage multiplies the force applied from the pedal to a vacuum booster. The booster multiplies the force again and acts upon a piston in the master cylinder. As force is applied to this piston, pressure in the hydraulic system rises, forcing fluid through the lines to the slave cylinders. The two most common arrangements of slave cylinders are a pair of opposed pistons which are forced apart by the fluid pressure (drum brake), and a single piston which is forced out of its housing (disc brake). The slave cylinder pistons then apply force to the brake linings (generally referred to as shoes for drum brakes and pads for disc brakes). The force applied to the linings cause them to be pushed against the drums and rotors. The friction between the linings and drum/rotor causes a braking torque to be generated and thus slows the vehicle.

Component specifics
(For typical light duty automotive braking systems) The brake pedal is a simple lever. One end is attached to the framework of the vehicle, a rod extends from a point along its length, and the foot pad is at the other end of the lever. The rod either extends either to the master cylinder (manual brakes) or to the vacuum booster (power brakes). The master cylinder is divided internally into two sections, each of which pressurizes a separate hydraulic circuit. Each section supplies pressure to one circuit. Passenger vehicles typically have either a front/rear split brake system or a diagonal split brake system. A front/rear split system uses one master cylinder section to pressurize the front slave cylinders, and the other section to pressurize the rear slave cylinders. A split circuit braking system is now required by law in most countries for safety reasons; if one circuit fails, the other circuit can stop the vehicle. The diameter and length of the master cylinder has a significant effect on the performance of the brake system. A larger diameter master cylinder delivers more hydraulic fluid to the slave cylinders, yet requires more brake pedal force and less brake pedal stroke to achieve a given deceleration. A smaller diameter master cylinder has the opposite effect. A master cylinder may also use differing diameters between the two sections to allow for increased fluid volume to one set of slave cylinders or the other. The vacuum booster is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems. The vacuum booster is attached between the master cylinder and the brake pedal and multiplies the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing with a moveable rubber diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When attached to the low-pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the pressure in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created by the low pressure in both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake pedal is

depressed. A return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the brake pedal is applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve which lets in atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm moves toward the lower pressure chamber with a force created by the area of the diaphragm and the differential pressure. This force, in addition to the driver's foot force, pushes on the master cylinder piston. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the chamber reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to the pedal apply stopping) or if "runout" is reached. Runout occurs when the pressure in one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be generated by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the runout point is reached, only the driver's foot force can be used to further apply the master cylinder piston. The fluid pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake tubes to a compensator, which performs two functions: It equalizes pressure between the two systems, and it provides a warning if one system loses pressure. The compensator has two chambers (to which the hydraulic lines attach) with a piston between them. When the pressure in either line is balanced, the piston does not move. If the pressure on one side is lost, the pressure from the other side moves the piston. When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical probe in the center of the unit, a circuit is completed, and the operator is warned of a failure in the brake system. From the compensator, brake tubing carries the pressure to the brake units at the wheels. Since the wheels do not maintain a fixed relation to the automobile, it is necessary to use hydraulic brake hose from the end of the steel line at the vehicle frame to the caliper at the wheel. Allowing steel brake tubing to flex invites metal fatigue and, ultimately, brake failure. Steel lines are preferred for most of the system for their rigidity; any amount of bulging or pressure induced distortion in the lines when pressure is applied results in less useful volume and pressure of fluid reaching the slave cylinders, and thus, reduced braking effectiveness. There are multiple manufacturers and brands of steel lines, one of which is Bundy tube. Finally, the fluid pressure enters the Slave Cylinders and use one or more pistons to apply force to the braking unit.

Special considerations Hydraulic systems are used where space restrictions must be considered. Air brake systems are bulky, and require air compressors and reservoir tanks for their operation. Hydraulic systems are smaller and less expensive. Hydraulic fluid must be non-compressible. Unlike air brakes, where a valve is opened, and air is allowed to surge in to the lines and brake chambers until the pressure rises sufficiently, hydraulic systems rely on a single stroke of a piston to force hydraulic fluid through the system. If any sort of vapor is introduced into the system, it will compress, and fluid pressure in the system may not rise sufficiently to actuate the brakes. This can lead to loss of control of the vehicle. Hydraulic braking systems are sometimes subjected to high temperatures during operation in extreme environments such as when descending steep grades. For this reason, hydraulic, or brake fluid must resist vaporization under temperature extremes. Water vaporizes easily with heat, and can corrode the metal parts of the system. If it gets into the brake lines, it can degrade brake performance dramatically. This is the reason for the common use of light oils as hydraulic fluids; oil displaces water and coats metal parts, protecting them against corrosion, and it can tolerate much higher temperatures before vaporizing. "Brake fade" is a condition caused by overheating in which braking effectiveness fades, and ultimately is lost. It may occur for a number of reasons: The pads which engage the rotating part may become overheated and "glaze over" (Become so smooth and hard that they cannot grip the metal sufficiently to slow the vehicle), vapor may be introduced to the system by vaporization of the hydraulic fluid under temperature extremes, and thermal distortion may cause the pads to change their shape and engage less surface area of the rotating part. Thermal distortion may also cause permanent changes in the shape of the metal components, resulting in a reduction in braking capability that is irreparable without complete replacement of the affected parts.

Hydro pneumatic is a type of automotive suspension system invented by Citroen and fitted to Citroen cars, as well as being adapted by other car manufacturers, notably Rolls-Royce, Mercedes-Benz and Peugeot. It was also used on Burliest trucks. Similar systems are also used on some military vehicles. The purpose of this system is to provide a soft, comfortable, yet wellcontrolled ride quality. Its nitrogen springing medium is approximately six times more flexible than conventional steel, so self-leveling is incorporated to allow the vehicle to cope with the extraordinary suppleness provided. France was noted for poor road quality in the post-war years, so the only way to maintain relatively high speed in a vehicle was if it could easily absorb road irregularities. While the system has inherent advantages over steel springs, generally recognized in the auto industry, it also has an element of complexity, so automakers like Mercedes-Benz, British Leyland (Hydromantic, Hydra gas), and Lincoln have sought to create simpler variants. This system uses a belt or camshaft driven pump from the engine to pressurise a special hydraulic fluid, which then powers the brakes, suspension and power steering. It can also power any number of features such as the clutch, turning headlamps and even power windows. The suspension system usually features driver-variable ride height, to provide extra clearance in rough terrain. The suspension setup is referred to as 'olopneumatique' in early literature, pointing to oil and air as its main components. There have been many improvements to this system over the years, including variable ride firmness (Hydractive) and active control of body roll (Active). The latest incarnation features a simplified single pumpaccumulator sphere combination.

The system had one key negative impact on the inventor, Citroen - only specialist garages were qualified to work on the cars - making them seem radically different from ordinary cars with common mechanicals. Citron thus encountered the same issue as Apple Computer did - building a proprietary system deprives you of positive network externalities.
Auto manufacturers are still trying to catch up with the combination of features offered by this 1955 suspension system, typically by adding layers of complexity to an ordinary steel spring mechanical system.

History 1954 Citron Traction Avant 15CVH - high position Citron first introduced this system in 1954 on the rear suspension of the Traction Avant. The first full implementation was in the advanced DS in 1955. Major milestones of the hydropneumatics design were:

During World War II, Paul Mags, an employee of Citron, with no formal training in engineering, secretly develops the concept of an air/oil suspension to combine a new level of softness with vehicle control and self-leveling 1954 Traction Avant 15H: Rear suspension, using LHS hydraulic fluid. 1955 DS: Suspension, power steering, brakes and gearbox/clutch assembly powered by high pressure hydraulic assistance. A belt driven 7-piston pump, similar in size to a power steering pump generates this pressure when the engine is running. 1962 Morris introduces the BMC ADO16 {'1100'} with hydrolastic suspension 1964 Mercedes-Benz introduces the 600 with air suspension designed to avoid Citron patents 1965 Rolls-Royce licenses Citron technology for the suspension of the new Silver Shadow 1966 Mercedes-Benz introduces the 6.3 also with air suspension 1967 The superior LHM mineral fluid is introduced

1970 GS: Adaptation of the hydropneumatic suspension to a small car 1970 SM: Variable speed auto-returning power steering, dubbed DIRAVI, and hydraulically actuated directional high beams 1974 The Mercedes-Benz 450SEL 6.9 becomes the first hydropneumatic Mercedes-Benz automobile, with the pump driven by the engine's timing chain instead of an external belt. This adaptation was used only for the suspension. Power steering and brakes were conventional hydraulic- and vacuum-powered, respectively. 1983 Citron BX, built as a 4WD in 1990 1989 XM: electronic regulation of the hydropneumatic system; sensors measure acceleration and other factors 1990 Peugeot 405 Mi16x4: first Peugeot equipped with rear hydropneumatic suspension 1993 Xantia: Optional 'Activa' (active suspension) system, eliminating body roll by acting on torsion bars. An 'Activa' equipped Xantia was able to reach more than 1 g lateral acceleration 2001 C5: No more central hydraulic pressure generation; combined pump/sphere unit for the suspension only and with electric height adjustment sensors

Functioning Diagram of the Hydractive system, showing centre spheres and stiffness valves At the heart of the system, acting as pressure sink as well as suspension elements, are the so called 'spheres', five or six in all; one per wheel and one main accumulator as well as a dedicated brake accumulator on some models. On later cars fitted with antisink or Activa suspension, there may be as many as nine spheres. They consist of a hollow metal ball, open to the bottom, with a flexible desmopan rubber membrane, fixed at the 'equator' inside separating top and bottom. The top is filled with nitrogen at high pressure, up to 75 bar, the bottom connects to the car's LHM fluid circuit. (See hydraulic accumulator). The high pressure pump powered by the engine pressurizes the circuit and an accumulator sphere. This part of the circuit is between 150 and 180 bars. It powers the front brakes first, prioritised via a security valve, and depending on type, can power steering, clutch, gearchange etc. Pressure goes from this circuit to the wheel spheres, pressurizing the bottom part of the spheres and rods connected to the wheel suspension. Suspension works by the rod pushing LHM into the sphere, compacting the nitrogen in the upper part of the sphere, the damping is provided by a two-way 'leaf valve' in the opening of the sphere. LHM has to squeeze back and forth through this valve which causes resistance and controls the suspension movements, it is the simplest damper and one of the most efficient. Car height correcting works by height correctors connected to the anti-roll bar, front and rear. These height correctors allow for more fluid to travel under pressure to the rod/sphere system when detecting that the suspension is lower than its expected ride height (e.g. the car is loaded). When the car is too high (e.g. after unloading) fluid is returned to the system reservoir via low-pressure return lines. Height correctors act with some delay in order not to correct regular suspension movements. Rear brakes are powered from the

rear suspension spheres. Because the pressure there is proportional to the load, so is the braking power.

LHM Citron quickly realized that standard brake fluid was not ideally suited to high pressure hydraulics. They invented a new, green fluid, LHM. LHM stands for Liquide Hydraulique Minral and is a mineral oil, quite close to automatic transmission fluid. Mineral oil is not hygroscopic (ie will not absorb water from the air) unlike standard brake fluid, so therefore gas bubbles do not form in the system, as used to be the case with standard brake fluid, creating a 'sprongy' brake feel. Use of mineral oil has thus spread beyond Citron, Rolls-Royce, Peugeot, and Mercedes-Benz, to include Jaguar, Audi, and BMW. Manufacturing The whole high pressure part of the system is manufactured from steel tubing of small diameter, connected to valve control units by Lockheed type pipe unions with special seals made from desmopan rubber, a type of rubber compatible with the LHM fluid. The moving parts of the system e.g. suspension strut or steering ram are sealed by extremely small tolerances between the cylinder and piston for tightness under pressure. The other plastic/rubber parts are return tubes from valves such as the brake control or height corrector valves, also catching seeping fluid around the suspension push-rods. The metal and alloy parts of the system rarely fail even after excessively high mileages but the rubber components (especially those exposed to the air) can harden and leak, typical failure points for the system. Spheres are subject to no mechanical wear but suffer pressure loss, mostly from nitrogen naturally diffusing through the membrane. They typically keep between 60,000 and 100,000 km. Spheres originally used to have a valve on top and be rechargeable. Newer spheres do not have this valve anymore, but it can be retrofitted. Though a rechargeable sphere has a longer lifespan, the membranes will eventually wear out though this can take over 20 years. A ruptured membrane means suspension loss at the attached wheel, however ride height is unaffected. Or in the case of the accumulator sphere, reliance on the high pressure pump as the only source of braking pressure to the front wheels.

Advantages

The suspension is self-leveling and ride-height is adjustable; this provides aerodynamic benefits because of the stable ride-height and extra clearance over rough terrain. The ride comfort is excellent (the ride is described as floating above the road surface) but the suspension never 'wallows', giving precise handling and road-holding (like a sports car) Large loads do not seriously affect the dynamics of the suspension system and handling is not affected thereby. Compact suspension design. Maintenance for trained mechanic is relatively easy. Inexpensive in mass production; for vehicles that would otherwise have a conventional power steering pump, hydropneumatic suspension adds no new equipment and in many cases results in a lower unsprung mass. Upon body roll, the pressure exerted between the tyres of the same axle is not subject to the same differential as on some other cars; the pressure in one suspension strut equals the pressure in the other through Pascal's law, potentially giving the 'light' tyre more footprint pressure. Can be conveniently interconnected in the roll plane to improve roll stiffness and thus roll stability limit, especially for heavy vehicles. Can be connected in the pitch plane to improve braking dive and traction squat.

If they are interconnected in the three-dimensional full car model, the interconnected hydro-pneumatic suspension could realize enhanced roll and pitch control during excitations arising from steering, braking/traction, road input and crosswind, as with the Hydractive arrangement Flexibility in the suspension strut design in the interconnected suspension system to realize desirable vertical, roll and pitch properties for different types of vehicles. Horizontal orientation of the rear suspension cylinders below the level of the boot floor means that the full width of the boot is available for loads. Mechanical steel spring suspension systems that try to replicate some of the inherent advantages of hydropneumatic suspension (multilink, adjustable shock absorbers) end up more complex to build and maintain than the straightforward hydropneumatic layout. People who are prepared to carry out simple maintenance can acquire a luxury car for a fraction of the cost as hydropneumatic suspension scares potential buyers and dealers.

Disadvantages

Service requires a specifically trained mechanic. Hydropneumatic suspension systems are expensive to repair or replace, if poorly maintained. Older designs of hydropneumatic suspension systems can lead to significant body roll.

Failure of the hydraulic system will cause a drop in ride height and, possibly, the failure of suspension completely. However, an acute failure will not lead to acute brake failure as the accumulator sphere holds enough pressure to ensure safe braking far beyond the braking needed to bring a vehicle with a failed system to a standstill. The novelty (and unfamiliarity) of the hydropneumatic suspension system leads to people being wary of using, purchasing or trusting it.

Hydractive Hydractive Suspension is a new automotive technology introduced by the French manufacturer Citron in 1990. It describes a development of the 1955 Hydropneumatic suspension design using additional electronic sensors and driver control of suspension performance. The driver can make the vehicle stiffen (sport mode) or ride in outstanding comfort (soft mode). Sensors in the steering, brakes, suspension, throttle pedal and gearbox feed information on the car's speed, acceleration, and road conditions to on-board computers. Where appropriate - and within milliseconds - these computers switched an extra pair of suspension spheres in or out of circuit, to allow the car a smooth supple ride in normal circumstances, or greater roll resistance for better handling in corners. This development keeps Citron in the forefront of suspension design, given the widespread goal in the auto industry of an Active Suspension system. All auto suspension is a compromise between comfort and handling. Auto manufacturers try to balance these aims and locate new technologies that offer more of both. [edit] Hydractive 1 and Hydractive 2 Citron hydractive (Hydractive 1 and Hydractive 2) suspension was available on several models, including the XM and Xantia, which had a more advanced sub-model known as the Activa.

Hydractive 3 The 2003 Citron C5 has continued development of Hydractive suspension with hydractive 3. Compared to earlier cars, the C5 stays at normal ride height even when the engine is turned off for an extended period, through the use of electronics. The C5 also uses a new, incompatible orange fluid, rather than the familiar green LHM mineral oil used in millions of hydropneumatic vehicles. Trivia

The accumulator sphere typically has enough pressure left for multiple hard brakings (up to 50), even if the engine (and attached high pressure pump) stops working. Some hydropneumatic Citrons can drive on 3 wheels. One can remove a rear wheel, then raise the suspension to 'high' position. The suspension, being pressed firmly against its rebound stops, has no flexibility: the rigidity of the chassis raises the corner with the missing wheel. Maseratis in the 1970s borrowed some parts of the system for braking and power steering, but the only Maserati that did use a hydropneumatic suspension was the Quattroporte II. Citron owned Maserati at this time and produced the hydropneumatically suspended SM. Rolls-Royce cars used the system in combination with a standard suspension.

In the early production of hydropneumatic cars different synthetic fluids were used (CH12, SP19, LHS liquide hydraulique synthtique). Significant problems were inherent with these fluids: they were quite hygroscopic, absorbing atmospheric water which would cause pitting in hydraulic valves & pistons/cylinders; they lacked a lubricative quality, limiting the lifespan of hydraulic components, and they would decompose at moderate temperatures, causing (amongst other things) acidity in the fluid. In 1959, an attempt was made to solve the problem of temperature by including ventilators in the upper surface of the front wings of the DS, but the better solution was found in chemistry: LHS2, which resolved the thermal instability but not the problem of hygroscopy, nor the lack of lubrication. In September of 1966, une liquide hydraulique minrale, LHM, replaced LHS2, necessitating the the redesign of all the neoprene rubber seals/diaphragms/covers/boots with a material suitable for mineral hydraulic fluid. The problem of hygroscopy disappeared, and the lack of lubrication became a situation of perfect lubrication. With correct maintenance, the Citron hydraulic system could remain in reliable service for hundreds of thousands of miles In early production, slide valves/valve bodes and pistons/cylinders were machined to tolerances of within 10 microns. Such was the tolerance necessary to guaranty hydraulic sealing at a pressure of up to 2200 psi, and (for example) air-conditionning was essential in the factories producing such parts. Such tolerance in machining did not exist elsewhere in auto manufacture (not even for production of automatic transmission valve chests). In fact the parts could not be machined to 10 microns, but could be measured to that accuracy. So valve barrels and pistons were machined as accurately as possible, and then matched up in pairs.

The "poor man's" alternative to hydropneumatic is British Leyland's Hydragas system, which uses pre-pressurised spheres which are interconnected between axles, and various air suspension arrangements.

From 1974 to 1981, the USA outlawed cars that lower as the hydraulic system depressurises. Over 9 million vehicles have been produced with this type of suspension.

External links

Detailed Explanation Citron: Suspension problems and the hydropneumatic answer(jpeg photobucket folder)

DISC BRAKE
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.

Contents
1 History 2 Discs 3 Racing 4 Disc damage modes
o o o o

4.1 Warping 4.2 Cracking

5 Calipers 6 Pistons and cylinders 7 Brake pads 8 Brake squeal 9 Brake judder 10 Brake Dust 11 See also 12 Notes and references 13 External links

History
Disc-style brakes began in England in the 1890s; the first ever automobile disc brakes were patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham factory in 1902, though it took another half century for his innovation to be widely adopted. Modern-style disc brakes first appeared on the low-volume Crosley Hotshot in 1949, although they had to be discontinued in 1950 due to design problems.[1] Chrysler's Imperial division also offered a type of disc brake from 1949 through 1953, though in this instance they were enclosed with dual internal-expanding, full-circle pressure plates. Reliable modern disc brakes were developed in the UK by Dunlop and first appeared in 1953 on the Jaguar C-Type racing car. The Citron DS of 1955, with powered inboard front disc brakes, and the 1956 Triumph TR3 were the first European production cars to feature modern disc brakes.[2] The next American production cars to be fitted with disc brakes were the 1963 Studebaker Avanti[3] the 1965 Rambler Marlin and the 1965 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray (C2). These brakes offer better stopping performance than comparable drum brakes, including resistance to "brake fade" caused by the overheating of brake components, and recovered quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective). Unlike a drum brake, the disc brake has no self-servo effect and the braking force is always proportional to the pressure placed on the braking pedal or lever. Many early implementations for automobiles located the brakes on the inboard side of the driveshaft, near the differential, but most brakes today are located inside the wheels.(An inboard location reduces the unsprung weight and eliminates a source of heat transfer to the tires, important in Formula One racing.)

Disc brakes were most popular on sports cars when they were first introduced, since these vehicles are more demanding about brake performance. Discs have now become the more common form in most passenger vehicles, although many (particularly light weight vehicles) use drum brakes on the rear wheels to keep costs and weight down as well as to simplify the provisions for a parking brake. As the front brakes perform most of the braking effort, this can be a reasonable compromise.

Discs
The design of the disc varies somewhat. Some are simply solid cast iron, but others are hollowed out with fins joining together the disc's two contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting process). This "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavily-loaded front discs. Many higher performance brakes have holes drilled through them. This is known as cross-drilling and was originally done in the 1960s on racing cars. Brake pads will outgas and under use may create boundary layer of gas between the pad and the disc hurting braking performance. Cross-drilling was created to provide the gas someplace to escape. Although modern brake pads seldom suffer from outgassing problems, water residue may build up after a vehicle passes through a puddle and impede braking performance. For this reason, and for heat dissipation purposes, Cross Drilling is still used on some braking components, but is not favored for racing or other hard use as the holes are a source of stress cracks under severe conditions. Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing environments to remove gas, water, and de-glaze brake pads. Some discs are both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not used on standard vehicles because they quickly wear down brake pads; however, this removal of material is beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids vitrification of their surfaces.

A Mountain Bike Disc brake

On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions because the holes or slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and the pads. Cross drilled discs will eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue. Cross-drilled brakes that are manufactured poorly or subjected to high stresses will crack much sooner and more severely. New technology now allows smaller brake systems to be fitted to bicycles, mopeds and now even mountain boards. The market for mountain bike disc brakes is very large and has huge variety, ranging from simple, mechanical (cable) systems, to highly expensive and also powerful, 6-pot hydraulic disc systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes. Improved technology has seen the creation of the first vented disc rotors, for use on mountain bikes. The vented discs are similar to that seen on cars and have been introduced to help prevent heat fade on fast alpine descents Disc brake discs are commonly manufactured out of a material called grey iron. The SAE maintains a specification for the manufacture of grey iron for various applications. For normal car and light truck applications, the SAE specification is J431 G3000 (superseded to G10). This specification dictates the correct range of hardness, chemical composition, tensile strength, and other properties that are necessary for the intended use.

Historically brake discs were manufactured throughout the world with a strong concentration in Europe, and America. During the period from 1989 to 2005, manufacturing of brake discs has migrated predominantly to China. Today, almost 90% of brake discs and brake drums are manufactured in China and exported globally. Leading manufacturers in China include Laizhou Sanli, MAT (Midwest Air Technology), Winhere, Longji, and Haimeng.

Racing
In racing and very high performance road cars other disc materials have been employed. Carbon discs and pads inspired by aircraft braking systems were introduced in Formula One by the Brabham team in conjunction with Dunlop in 1976.[4] Carbon-Carbon braking is now used in most top-level motorsport worldwide, reducing unsprung weight and giving better frictional performance compared to cast iron. Carbon brakes have occasionally been applied to road cars, by the French Venturi sports car manufacturer in the mid 1990s for example, but need to reach a very high operating temperature before becoming truly effective and so are not well suited to road use. Ceramic discs are used occasionally at the very highest end of the road car market, such as the Porsche 911 Turbo. A similar rationale to carbon is claimed for their use, although prestige probably also plays a large part. In very recent years though, the usage of ceramic brakes on consumer vehicles has increased - mainly due to an increased number of heavy, highperformance passenger vehicles on the road. The first development of the modern ceramic brake was made by British Engineers working in the railway industry for TGV applications in 1988. They were looking for light weight, half the number of brakes per axle, stable friction from very high speeds and all temperatures. They developed the basic carbon fibre re-inforced ceramic process which is now used in various forms for automotive, railway and aircraft brake applications.

Disc damage modes

Discs are usually damaged in one of three ways: warping, scarring, and cracking. Machining the discs to correct these problems also leads to reduced life. It is usually cheaper just to replace the disc instead of repairing the parts.

Warping
A common misconception is that rotors "warp" from overheating and magically reshape themselves. This is not true. Vibrations from a brake disc are commonly misdiagnosed as "warping" due to thickness variation which is caused by pad deposits. Once the pads leave uneven deposits on the rotor surface, the surface will then have peaks and valleys, which will cause a vibration as the rotor passes by the stationary pads. The likelihood of pad deposits increases as the temperature of the brake rotor surface increases. Causes of overheating include unndersized/overmachined brake discs, excessive braking (racing, descending hills/mountains), "riding" the brakes, or a "stuck" brake pad (pad touches disc at all times). See this (free) white paper for more information on warping http://www.stoptech.com/tech_info/wp_warped_brakedisk.shtml Several methods can be used to avoid overheating brake discs. Use of a lower gear when descending steep grades to obtain engine braking will reduce the brake loading. Also, operating the brakes intermittently - braking to slower speed for a brief time then coasting will allow the brake material to cool between applications. Riding the brakes lightly will generate a great amount of heat with little braking effect and should be avoided. High temperature conditions as found in automobile racing can be dealt with by proper pad selection, but at the tradeoff of everyday driveability. Pads that can take high heat usually do best when hot and will have reduced braking force when cold. Also, high heat pads typically have more aggressive compounds and will wear discs down more quickly. Brake ducting that

forces air directly onto the brake discs, common in motorsports, is highly effective at preventing brake overheating. This is also useful for cars that are driven both in motorsports and on the street, as it has no negative effect on driveability. A further extension of this method is to install a system which mists the rotors with cool water. Jaguar has reported great reductions in rotor temperatures with such a system. Warping can also be caused by improperly torquing the lug nuts when putting on a wheel. The manual will indicate the proper pattern for tightening as well as a torque rating for the bolts. The tightening pattern varies little between manufacturers and most mechanics are familiar with them. Lug nuts should never be tightened in a circle. Some vehicles are sensitive to the force the bolts apply and tightening should be done with a torque wrench. Warping will often lead to a thickness variation of the disc. If it has runout, a thin spot will develop by the repetitive contact of the pad against the high spot as the disc turns. When the thin section of the disc passes under the pads, the pads move together and the brake pedal will drop slightly. When the thicker section of the disc passes between the pads, the pads will move apart and the brake pedal will raise slightly, this is pedal pulsation. The thickness variation can be felt by the driver when it is approximately 0.007 inch (0.017 cm) or greater. Not all pedal pulsation is due to warped discs. Brake pad material operating outside of its designed temperature range can leave a thicker than normal deposit in one area of the disc surface, creating a "sticky" spot that will grab with every revolution of the disc. Grease or other foreign materials can create a slippery spot on the disc, also creating pulsation.

Cracking
Cracking is limited mostly to drilled discs, which get small cracks around outside edges of the drilled holes near the edge of the disc due to the disc's uneven rate of expansion in severe duty environments. In the main small hairline cracks will appear in all cross drilled discs, this is normal. Manufacturers that use drilled discs as OEM are doing so for two reasons: looks, if they determine that the average owner of the vehicle model will not overly stress them; or as a function of reducing the unsprung weight of the brake assembly, with the engineering assumed that enough brake disc mass remains to absorb racing temperatures and stresses. A brake disc is a heat sink, so removing mass increases the heat stress it will have to contend with. Generally an OEM application that is drilled will crack somewhat and could fail catastrophically if used over and above the original equipment design. Once cracked, these discs cannot be repaired.

Calipers
The brake caliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads and pistons. The pistons are usually made of aluminum or chrome-plated iron. There are two types of calipers: floating or fixed. A fixed caliper does not move relative to the disc. It uses one or more pairs of pistons to clamp from each side of the disc, and is more complex and expensive than a floating caliper. A floating caliper (also called a "sliding caliper") moves with respect to the disc; a piston on one side of the disc pushes the inner brake pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls the caliper body with the outer brake pad so pressure is applied to both sides of the disc. Floating caliper (single piston) designs are subject to failure due to sticking which can occur due to dirt or corrosion if the vehicle is not operated regularly. This can cause the pad attached to the caliper to rub on the disc when the brake is released. This can reduce fuel effiency and cause excessive wear on the affected pad. Additional heat generated by the constantly rubbing pad can lead to warping of the rotor also.

Pistons and cylinders

The most common caliper design uses a single hydraulically actuated piston within a cylinder, although high performance brakes use as many as twelve. (Some pre-1969 Chrysler and General Motors vehicles had four-piston calipers - usually sought after by restorers.) Modern cars use different hydraulic circuits to actuate the brakes on each set of wheels as a safety measure. The hydraulic design also helps multiply braking force. The number of pistons in a caliper is often referred to as the number of 'pots', so if someone has six pot calipers they mean each caliper has six pistons in them. Failure can occur due to failure of the piston to retract - this is usually a consequence of not operating the vehicle during a time that it is stored outdoors in adverse conditions. For high distance vehicles the piston seals may leak, which must be promptly corrected.

Brake pads
The brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in the process of bedding while wearing evenly. Although it is commonly thought that the pad material contacts the metal of the disc to stop the car, the pads work with a very thin layer of their own material and generate a semi-liquid friction boundary that creates the actual braking force. Of course, depending on the properties of the material, disc wear could be faster or slower than with other pads. The properties that determine material wear involve trade-offs between performance and longevity. The brake pads must be replaced regularly, and most are equipped with a method of alerting the driver when this needs to take place. Some have a thin piece of soft metal that causes the brakes to squeal when the pads are too thin, while others have a soft metal tab embedded in the pad material that closes an electric circuit and lights a warning light when the brake pad gets thin. More expensive cars may use an electronic sensor. Although almost all road-going vehicles have only two brake pads per caliper, racing

calipers utilise up to six pads, with varying frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum performance. Early brake pads (and shoes) contained asbestos. When working on an older car's brakes, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present on the caliper (or drum).

Brake squeal
Sometimes a loud noise or high pitch squeal occurs when the brakes are applied. Most brake squeal is produced due to vibration (resonance instability) of the brake components especially the pads and discs (known as force-coupled excitation.) This type of squeal should not negatively affect brake stopping performance. Some simple techniques like adding chamfers to linings, greasing or gluing the contact between caliper and the pads (finger to backplate, piston to backplate), bonding insulators (damping material) to pad backplate, inclusion of a brake shim between the brake pad and back plate, etc might help reduce squeal. Many times cold weather combined with high early morning humidity (dew) could make the brake squeal worse and vanishes when the lining reaches regular operating temperatures. However, some lining wear indicators are also designed to squeal when the lining is due for replacement. Overall brake squeal can be annoying to the vehicle passengers, passerby, pedestrians, etc especially as vehicles are designed to be more comfortable and quieter. Hence vehicle NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness) is one of the important priorities for today's vehicle manufacturers. An age-old trick is to put a small amount of copper slip (copper grease) onto the back of the pads where they contact the brake caliper piston and on the pad shims, if present. While this will normally stop the squeal, getting grease on the pads or disks will affect braking performance. Dust on the brakes may also cause squeal; there are many commercial brake cleaning products that can be used to remove dust and contaminants from the brakes.

Some mid-performance brake pads, such as PFC pads(which also have many debond issues), will always squeal during operation, and this does not indicate a problem. Apart from noise generated from squeal, brakes may also develop a phenomenon called brake judder or shudder.

Brake judder
Brake judder is usually perceived by the driver as minor to severe vibrations transferred through the chassis during braking.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] The judder phenomenon can be classified into two distinct subgroups; they are Hot (Thermal) or Cold Judder. Hot judder is usually produced as a result of longer more moderate braking from high speed where the vehicle does not come to a complete stop.[14] It commonly occurs when a motorist decelerates from speeds of around 120 km/h to about 60 km/h, which results in severe vibrations being transmitted to the driver. These vibrations are the result of uneven thermal distributions believed to be the result of phenomena called Hot Spots. Hot Spots are classified as concentrated thermal regions that alternate between both sides of a disc that distort it in such a way that produces a sinusoidal waviness around its edges. Once the brake pads (friction material / brake lining) comes in contact with the sinusoidal surface during braking severe vibrations are induced as a result and can produce hazardous conditions for the person driving the vehicle.[15][16][17][18] Cold judder on the other hand is the result of uneven disc wear patterns or DTV. These variations in the disc surface are usually the result of extensive vehicle road usage. DTV is usually attributed to the following causes: waviness of rotor surface, misalignment of axis (Runout), elastic deflection, thermal distortion, wear and friction material transfers.[7][18][19]

Brake Dust
When braking force is applied, small amounts of material are gradually ground off the brake pads. This material is known as "brake dust" and usually deposits itself on the braking system and the surrounding wheel. Brake dust can badly damage the finish of most wheels if not washed off. Different brake pad formulations create different amounts of dust, and some formulations are much more damaging than others. This applies to the use of metallic brake pads. Ceramic brake pads contain significantly less metal particles in them, and therefore produce less corrosion of surrounding metal parts.

See also

Brake lining

Brake linings are the consumable surfaces in braking systems, especially those used in vehicles. Structure and function Brake linings are composed of a relatively soft but tough and heat-resistant material with a high coefficient of dynamic friction (and ideally an identical coefficient of static friction) typically mounted to a solid metal backing using high-temperature adhesives or rivets. The complete assembly (including lining and backing) is then often called a brake pad or brake shoe.

In this view of an automobile disc brake, the brake pad is the black material held by the red metal component (the brake caliper). The brake lining is that part of the brake pad which actually contacts the metal rotor when the brake is engaged. Using a typical bicycle brake as an example, the backing would be the metal shell which provides mechanical support, and the lining would be the rubbery portion which contacts the rims when the brakes are applied. In most modern vehicular applications the system is conceptually identical, except the rims would be replaced with solid steel (or sometimes exotic metal) rotors. Furthermore, a metal tang is usually incorporated into the pad assembly. The tang contacts the rotors when the linings are worn out, causing an annoying noise designed to alert the motorist that brake servicing is required. Since the lining is the portion of the braking system which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into heat, the lining must be capable of surviving high temperatures without excessive wear (leading to frequent replacement) or outgassing (which causes brake fade, a decrease in the stopping power of the brake). Due to its suitability, asbestos was often a component in brake linings; as a result, brake dust should never be inhaled. Most major vehicle manufacturers have banned the use of asbestos in brake linings. Maintenance When the lining is worn out, the backing or rivets will contact the rotors or drums during braking, often causing damage requiring remachining or replacement of the drums or rotors. An annoying squeal caused by the warning tang is the typical alert that the pads need to be replaced; if the squeal is ignored for too long, drum or rotor damage (usually accompanied by an unpleasant grinding sound or sensation) will be the typical result. The lining may also become contaminated by oil or leaked brake fluid. Typical symptoms will be brake chatter, where the pads vibrate as the lining grabs and releases the rotor's surface. The solution is to repair the source of the contamination and replace the damaged pads.

In the automotive repair industry, many consumers purchase brake pads with a lifetime warranty. These pads use a much harder lining than traditional brake pads and tend to cause excessive wear of the much more expensive rotors or drums. For that reason, consumers should ensure that the new brake pads installed are those specified or supplied by the vehicle's manufacturer. Relined brake pads are usually inexpensive and perfectly acceptable, with new lining material attached to reconditioned (cleaned, inspected and painted) backing assemblies. Brake pads must always be replaced simultaneously on both ends of a vehicle's axle, as the different lining thicknesses (and possibly material types) will cause uneven braking, making the vehicle pull in the direction of the more effective brake. For most vehicles, replacing pads (and therefore linings) is very easy, requiring a minimum of tools and time the linings are designed to be consumable and should therefore be easy to service. Brake linings can also be found just about everywhere there are braking systems, from elevator safety brakes to spindle brakes inside a VCR. The form and materials are frequently different, but the principle is the same. See also

Brake pads

Notes and references

1. ^ Crosley Firsts. Retrieved on 2006-05-20. 2. ^ WHAT MAKES A CLASSIC CAR?. CLASSIC CAR. Auto

Lemon. Retrieved on 2006-05-20. 3. ^ The Avanti - Born in Palm Springs. Retrieved on 2006-05-20. 4. ^ Henry, Alan (1985) "Brabham, the Grand Prix Cars" p. 163 Osprey ISBN 0-905138-36-8 5. ^ Abdelahamid, M. K. (1997), "Brake judder analysis: Case studies", SAE, Technical Paper Series, no. 972027. 6. ^ de Vries, A. et al. (1992), "The brake judder phenomenon", SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 920554. 7. ^ a b Engel, G., H. et al. (1994), "System approach to brake judder", SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 945041. 8. ^ Gassmann, S. et al. (1993), "Excitation and transfer mechanism of brake judder", SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 931880. 9. ^ Jacobsson, H. (1996), "High speed disc brake judder the influence of passing through critical speed", In EuroMech 2nd European Nonlinear Ocillation Conference, Prague, no. 2, pp. 7578. 10. ^ Jacobsson, H. (1997), "Wheel suspension related disc brake judder", ASME, no. DETC97/VIB-4165, pp. 110. 11. ^ Jacobsson, H. (1998), "Frequency Sweep Approach to Brake Judder, Licentiate of engineering", Chalmers University of Technology Sweden. 12. ^ Jacobsson, H. (1999), SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 1999-011779, pp. 114. 13. ^ Stringham, W. et al. (1993), "Brake roughness disc brake torque variation", rotor distortion and vehicle response, SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 930803. 14. ^ Thoms, E. (1988), "Disc brakes for heavy vehicles", IMechE, pp. 133137. 15. ^ Anderson, E., et al. (1990), "Hot spotting in automotive friction systems", Wear, v. 135, pp. 319337. 16. ^ Barber, R., J. et al. (1985), "Implications of thermoelastic instabilities for the design of brakes", Jnl. Tribology., v. 107, pp. 206 210.

17. ^ Inoue, H. (1986), Analysis of brake judder caused by thermal

deformation of brake disc rotors, SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 865131. 18. ^ a b Rhee, K., S. et al. (1989), "Frictioninduced noise and vibration of disc brakes", Wear, v. 133, pp. 3945. 19. ^ Kim, M.-G. et al. (1996), "Sensitivity analysis of chassis system to improve shimmy and brake judder vibration on the steering wheel", SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 960734.

External links

BAER Brake Systems - Brake Systems 101, The basics STOPTECH - The Warped Brake Disc and Other Myths of the Braking System - By Carroll Smith Using Ceramics, Brakes Are Light but Cost Is Heavy Disc brake pads Free video content from CDX eTextbook

Drum brake function Drum brakes are original equipment on all older motorcycles including factory racers. However, there are differences in design efficiency that cause the larger and better drum systems to work as well as disc brakes under all but the most demanding conditions, while retaining classic and period appearance. In some cases, vintage racers are limited to contemporary brake designs. The important drum brake components for one wheel are: one (or two) drum(s): cast-iron, steel or stamped sheet metal two (or two pair of) curved shoes: cast-iron, steel, stamped sheet metal or aluminum/zinc alloy

two (or two pair of) curved brake linings: friction material bonded or rivetted to the shoes two (or two pairs of) return springs one (sometimes two or four) eccentric cam(s): steel or cast-iron one (sometimes none, sometimes two or four) anchor post(s): steel or cast-iron Drum brakes convert the wheels rotational inertia (kinetic energy) to heat (thermal energy) by pressing the brake lining material against the inside surface of the drum (cast-iron, steel or stamped sheet metal). The resultant friction increases the temperature of both the lining and the drum, and is transferred from the drums exterior surface to the atmosphere by radiation (at all speeds) and convection (which increases with vehicle speed).

Front vs. rear brake The relative effect of the front vs. rear brakes was not understood for many decades, and cautionary messages to avoid use of the front brake were common. It is now realized that the front brake does almost all the work; at least 75% and as much as 90% depending on wheelbase, weight distribution, tire size, speed &c. Original rear drum brakes are frequently sufficient in type, size and mechanical advantage for competition purposes, although a change in lining material may prove helpful, and additional cooling for sustained use. Under braking weight transfers forward, which relieves the rear wheel of most weight and reduces rear wheel traction. This is not due entirely to front suspension compression, &c. (although this a contributing factor) and takes place even in rigid frames with no suspension travel. Shorter wheelbase machines with high centers of gravity have greater weight transfer. The front wheel now has increased traction, and can accept much more braking force before its traction limit is reached. All but the most advanced front drum brakes are inadequate for performance use, and even these can be improved to some extent. Brake shoe types The secondary or trailing shoe (only present in single leading shoe systems, also called 1LS or SLS) is applied against the direction of drum rotation by the rotation of the brake cam, which forces it away from the drum surface. The friction (and heat transfer, and effectiveness) is limited to the leverage and pressure of the cam. This system works equally well in either direction, and therefore prevents roll-back. 2SLS, or twin single leading shoe, is a variant of this type using a hub with two drums back to back, and one mirror-image backing plate with conventional SLS shoes on either side. A Grimeca 180mm 2-SLS is shown here, right. Notice the single cam lever, and no linkage. Click the picture for a larger view.

The primary or leading shoe (always present) is applied in the direction of drum rotation by the rotation of the brake cam, which wedges the leading edge of the shoe against the drum surface. The friction is the total of the wedging action, plus the leverage and pressure of the cam. In addition to increased pressure, this is also has a self-energizing servo effect in that the primary shoe is more tightly wedged in place by drum rotation without additional cam movement, so its effect increases automatically without any cam or hand-lever motion. The amount of torque contributed by a leading shoe is 27.9% higher than that of a trailing shoe, the proportionate effect of the primary vs. secondary shoe is roughly 56% vs. 44%. A dual leading shoe system (also called 2LS or DLS, or 4LS when two drums per wheel are used) substitutes another primary shoe and its cam &c. for the existing secondary shoe. This increases the braking force by about 14% ( of the 27.9% higher effectiveness of the extra primary shoe since only one shoe is being changed). This makes for a lighter but more delicate control. A dual leading shoe system only works in the designed direction, and is almost useless when reversed. Grimeca 230mm 4LS components are shown here, right. Notice the two cam levers, with connecting linkage. The 2nd backing plate is not shown, but would be a mirror image of the one in the right foreground, and visible through the drum holes. Click the picture for a larger view. A 4LS system does not offer any advantage in operation compared to a 2LS system with the same total lining area, and in fact carries the important penalties of extra weight, complexity of assembly and adjustment, and reduced options of cooling and mounting. However, the flare or bell-mouth (heat-induced taper expansion of the drums unsupported open end) is reduced since the outer end of each drum is substantially closer to the drum inner surface and is more stable under severe use. A 4LS system also applies brake torque back into sides of the front fork equally rather than loading only one leg, which may cause stanchion binding and misalignment.

Movement vs. effort Except for the wedging of the primary shoes(s), the shoe application pressure to the drum surface is directly proportionate to the hand-lever effort, but inversely proportionate to the shoe application distance, and is determined by the ratios of the intermediate components: 1. the brake hand-lever length to its pivot bolt by the distance from the cable ferrule to the pivot bolt is the hand-levers mechanical advantage (handle movement distance effort = cable movement distance pull at the cam lever on the backing plate, &c.). 2. the brake lever length at the backing plate from the cable clevis hole to the lever pivot the lever length from the lever pivot to the cam is the brake levers mechanical advantage. Its presence on the backing plate is a reliable indicator of a dual leading shoe system. The brake lever multiplies the mechanical advantage of the cable. In general, only 2LS and 4LS brakes have this lever type; single leading shoe types typically have only a single lever operating the cam directly from the cable. 3. the cam lever length from the pivot to the cam the cams eccentric motion (height of the lobe) is the cams mechanical advantage. There is no arrangement that gives lighter hand pressure with the same effort applied to the shoes, or the same hand pressure with stronger shoe application. Every choice of components and sizes is a compromise, whether operated by cable, lever, bell-crank, hydraulic cylinder, or any combination of these. Greatest efficiency will derive from the most rigid parts, reducing all flex and slack, and proper lubrication. Any of these dimensions can be changed, and will have an effect on the effort vs. movement ratio directly proportionate to the ratio of new old. Adding 10% to the length of the lever-cable length increases tension on the shoes by 10%, but requires 10% more movement at the handle, &c.

In terms of response to the movement of the hand lever and the riders effort, a hydraulic disc is completely linear: more effort = more stopping power in a 1:1 ratio. There are no ranges or periods of different effectiveness. A lightly applied disc will stop the machine in much the same way as coasting to a halt. A single leading shoe system (SLS or 2-SLS) has some initial servo action, where the brake will self-energize to a higher application pressure without any effort by the rider. A dual leading shoe system (2LS or 4LS) has even stronger servo action, causing some inexperienced riders to lock the wheel up inadventently. The brake feels nervous compared to disc or SLS. However, it does lessen the amount of effort required for stopping, making it a possible choice for small hands, &c. Both SLS and 2LS brakes will lock the wheel as the machine rolls to a halt, and must be partially released to provide a smooth stop. Heres a comparison of the features and function of the most common drum brakes. Table 1: Relative effect of drum brake systems Term Meaning Drums Primary (leading) shoes SLS Single 1 1 leading shoe 2-SLS Twin 2 2 single leading shoe 2LS Dual 1 2 leading shoe 4LS Four 2 4 leading shoe

Secondary (trailing) shoes Brake torque 1 one fork leg

both fork leg

one fork leg

both fork leg

Linkage operation The individual cam levers are normally joined to work simultaneously, although this is not the only method. The connecting link may be of two types: 1. cable, which acts directly in tension on both cam levers. This is done by anchoring the cable sheath at one lever, and the cable end at the other lever. The two brake cams pivot in opposite directions against the shoes. When the cable is tensioned, both cam levers rotate towards each other in opposite directions with equal tension. No balancing or adjustment is needed since the system is self-correcting in this regard. This method was used by BMW, and by BSA/Triumph on the 1971-72 conical front brake (so called because the drum is tapered in outside diameter, with the larger end including the castiron liner), shown here. 2. rod, which may work either in tension (preferred) or compression. Tension applications are more common. Generally the cable sheath is anchored at the backing plate, the master cam lever is lengthened to accept the cable end, and an adjustable rod with heim-jointed clevis ends connects the two levers at exactly the same distance from the cam centers. The cam levers are on the opposite side of the cams as the linkage, and move in the opposite direction to cable tension. Pulling on the master cam lever also pulls the slave cam lever. The rod is generally threaded at one end to permit length adjustment to be made by rotating one clevis in -turns to synchronize the shoes. The degree of precision of the length adjustment is then determined by the pitch of the heim-joint thread: 28 tpi = .036 per turn, .018 per -turn, &c. A CB77 Honda 305 200mm is shown here.

In compression applications the same general pattern is followed where the cable sheath is anchored at the backing plate, the master cam lever is lengthened to accept the cable end, &c. However, the cam levers move in the same direction as cable tension, which pulls the master cam lever, which in turn pushes the slave cam lever. The cam levers are on the same side of the cams as the linkage. Compression applications require more stiffness to the linkage to prevent bowing under pressure, which reduces brake force on the slave cam lever. A Suzuki GT750 200mm 4LS is shown here. There are also variations where the link crosses through the center of the backing plate, and the cam levers rotate in opposite directions. These choices are not arbitrary, but partially based on backing plate orientation in the fork, presence of an air scoop, speedometer drive, cable run, &c. Adjustment The axle, torque stay (if any) and fork cap bolts should be loosened before the adjustment. The cable tension must be slacked off to permit completely free movement of all linkage. The adjustment procedure given in the service manuals for the BSA & Triumph conical brake is accurate and will provide satisfactory results if followed correctly. The individual brake cams must be adjusted separately. Remove the locating pin or bolt from the link connecting the two cam levers.

Apply both cam levers full on. The shoe application force must be as close to real world as possible, not just a light push, to get any springiness or compliance out of the linkage etc. Some manuals suggest a wrench or extension bar on the lever to increase mechanical advantage. Adjust the length of the link until the loose end just fits back into the free cam lever. Insert the pin and tighten all linkage fasteners. Remove cable slack to permit only the specified distance between the lever and bracket, &c. After the brake adjustment is complete the wheel should be rotated rapidly in normal direction, then the brake clamped full on to stop the wheel abruptly. Re-tighten the fork cap, axle &c. bolts. Analysis and modifications

Inadequate stopping power

In addition to actual damage, inaccurate adjustment, severe lining wear &c. Ive seen quite a few inadequate 2LS brakes of various brands that on closer inspection turned out to be: 1. aftermarket cable with spongy sheath 2. wrong hand lever 3. mis-routed cable with multiple S bends 4. lining very worn with radius much smaller than the drum OD

5. worn cam, bushing or shoe only making partial travel on application 6. drum cleaned up by removing rust only on the outer edge of ID, causing partial shoe contact 7. wrong linkage 8. reversed linkage 9. severe wear in the linkage clevis holes causing reduced motion on the slave cam, which converts 2LS to 1LS All of these owners had examined the brake components carefully, but saw no broken parts hanging by a thread, and therefore assumed the poor results were a design flaw. The efficiency of a drum brake system can be improved by several methods, among them are: The cam lever should be positioned on the cam to form an acute angle (< 90) to the cable run at rest. On application, the lever passes through a 90 angle to the cable, ending with the complementary obtuse angle (> 90, equal to 180 - the at rest angle), symmetrically disposed around the 90 point. This gives the largest lever movement and cam rotation for a given cable travel, but I prefer the angle at rest to be somewhat more acute and end at 90 to give the most leverage at the point of shoe contact. Either position may require re-shaping the levers point of attachment to the cam, by welding the hole closed and re-drilling or cutting the lever and re-angling it. In some cases a similar lever from another brand or model will provide an alternate clock position. The cable run from the sheath anchor point on the backing plate should use the largest practical radius to reach the perch at the handlebar. In some cases, re-routing the cable, or a longer cable, allows a single more direct large-radius curve instead of multiple complex curves.

The cable should be of large diameter fine multi-strand wire. The sheath should be thick-walled, and nylon or Teflon lined, otherwise adequately lubricated. The amount of slack at the handlebar adjuster must be sufficient to prevent the cam from being tensioned when relaxed. Any additional slack will reduce cam lever travel and brake shoe application pressure. The hand-lever must not bottom out against the grip or handlebar when the brake is fully applied. If the hand-lever bottoms out (and the slack is correct), some part of the mechanism is out of adjustment, bent, loose, or incorrect. If the hand-lever will not compress completely (but the brake is effective) no correction is needed unless the effort is tiring or uncomfortable. If the hand-lever will not compress completely (and the brake is not effective) the cam lever should be lengthened to provide an alternate cable attachment point farther from the cam, or some other alternation or substitution to increase the hand-levers mechanical advantage and travel. Handlebar levers British brake levers have been made in at least two variants as to the position of the cable receiver hole; there may be others. The effective lever length (shown as the green line in the illustration, right) is not to the extreme end of the lever, since that isnt the natural hand position, but rather to a point slightly inboard where the palm of the right hand would end. The ratio of the distance from this point to the levers pivot bolt to the distance between the pivot bolt and the cable end (shown as the red line) is the levers ratio or mechanical advantage. British levers are available with cable-to-pivot distances of 7/8 (22mm) and 11/6 (27mm), and may be interchanged provided the cable fits, slack adjustment is within range, &c. Various Japanese and European levers may interchange with the same caveats. Click for a larger view.

The effect of substituting the lever with the shorter (7/8) cable-to-pivot distance for the longer is to multiply the mechanical advantage by the ratio .875:1.0625, or an increase of 17.6%. This reduces hand effort and cable movement to this degree. The effect of substituting the lever with the longer (1-1/16) cable-topivot distance for the shorter is to multiply the lever and cable movement by the ratio 1.0625:.875, or an increase of 21.4%. This increases hand effort and cable movement to this degree. There is no lever (or other component) that increases cable travel with reduced effort. If your brake lever does not bottom out on the handgrip, and stopping power is weak, try the lever with the shorter cable-to-pivot distance. If your levers ball end touches the handgrip before full compression, try the lever with the longer cable-to-pivot distance. Linkage modification The mechanical advantage of a cam lever is proportionate to its length. The length is measured between the cable or link hole and the center of the cam. In some cases, there is sufficient room between the existing cable hole and the end of the lever to drill another hole to increase this distance and reduce hand-lever effort and sensitivity without disassembling the brake, or even (in some cases) removing it from the motorcycle. This must have sufficient material between its outer edge and the end of the lever to prevent breakage. The new hole may change the levers clock position (rotation) on the cam. The length can be also increased by adding adapting a longer arm, or adding material to the existing arm. A small bracket can be fabricated from flat steel or aluminum stock at least the same strength as the existing cam lever, and attached to the original cable clevis, heim or rose joint hole in the cam lever with a high-quality bolt and Nyloc nut.

If the clevis is 6mm, the clevis hole should be enlarged with a drill to 8mm or larger so that the bolt has sufficient shear strength for safety. A portion of the bracket extends inward and behind the cam lever, and is held in tension by the cable. A new cable clevis hole of the original size is at the opposite end, at increased distance from the cam. The extended Norton arms shown, above right, are available from muttznuts. Click the picture for a larger view. The new mechanical advantage is the ratio of (new lever) (old lever). The minimum safe separation distance for a new clevis hole is roughly the hole diameter. A new 8mm hole should be centered 12mm away from the old edge (16mm on centers), leaving 8mm of metal between the holes. Additional holes may provide alternate choices. A test under severe conditions will determine which hole provides best control and effect, without bottoming the hand-lever out on the bars. Once this position is known the remainder of the bracket can be removed to save a few grams. The final construction can permanently attach the bracket by welding, rivetting, an extra bolt, &c. and painted, chromed &c. for corrosion resistance. Shown, right, is a fabricated bracket used on a Grimeca 2LS panel. The bracket angle is exaggerated for illustration, the actual angle should be less radical to reduce the amount of additional cable slack needed. Click the picture for a larger view. Backing plate compliance In some cases, the backing plate is not rigid enough to prevent bending on full application. This angles the shoes away from complete contact with the drum ID. A brace can be fabricated to lock the anchor posts of DLS or 4LS shoes together diagonally. Since this is in compression when loaded (to prevent the cams from being squeezed together, reducing motion to the shoes) it must be substantial in cross-section and mount without end-play.

The Norton factory offered this kit (available as 06-3410 from British Cycle Supply, click here to see their page: ) to improve the rigidity of the Commando dual leading shoe front drum brake based on a circular stiffening plate (brake support plate) and hardware to attach it to the existing backing plate, including replacement cams and posts with female thread to attach the support plate bolts. The plates circular shape, although necessary to provide room for the axle in the center, reduces the rigidity considerably and requires the plate to be substantially more robust to be effective. Click the picture for a larger view. A possible anchor location for a stiffening device is the thick washer frequently used to hold the fixed shoe end to its post. New washers as thick as possible (to just clear the existing fasteners) can be welded to the ends of a rectangular box-section tube, or simply extend the bottom of the box enough to drill the holes. A hollow box, although much more difficult to fabricate, saves most of the weight compared to a solid flat plate, but has almost as much stiffness. The box width should be sized to a tight fit when the backing plate is relaxed, and as thick as possible to just provide clearance to the backing plate when assembled. As shown in the Norton photo, the center must be open for axle clearance. Cut a piece of tubing with the ID 1/8 larger than the axle and the length matching the box thickness. Drill a hole matching the tubes OD through the box, insert the tube and weld or braze in place on both sides. Ideally, the axle should be a much closer fit, even to the point of passing through a small bushing fixed in the plate. The smaller hole increases stiffness somewhat, and the axle itself will then also prevent movement. Click the picture (sorry, not to scale) for a larger view.

Cooling If the brake works well, the drum will quickly absorb heat. This causes several problems: 1. the drum may not remain dimensionally accurate when hot, but distort and present a tapered (bell-mouthed) shape to the shoes at the open end. The shoes will only make partial contact and wear unevenly. 2. the drums ability to absorb more heat goes down as its temperature goes up, which reduces braking effectiveness. This is called heat fade. 3. if the heat is not controlled, the high temperature will reach the hub, the grease in the wheelbearings will liquify and the bearings will fail. Do not chrome, polish, coat or paint any brake parts except as needed to prevent corrosion. All surface coatings are a barrier to heat loss by radiation and convection. Although some increase the surface area by darkening the color, unless sparingly applied the result may still be a net loss. The best surface preparation for aluminum is sand-blasted, then black anodized. Various devices have been used to increase the surface area of a brake such as bacon slicers, pie plates, fins &c. as shown, right, but these add to unsprung weight and gyroscopic inertia, and absorb very little heat from the brake due to very thin cross-sectional area at the point of transfer. For best effect, these devices should be flat black, and soldered or brazed in place. If theyre shiney and bolt-on theyre just eye candy.

Aluminum discs could be tigd to the drum OD, but for best effect the path of heat conduction from the shoe-liner-OD-disc would require almost a continuous bead and excellent mechanical fit before welding. The only advantage to simply welding continuously is that you dont have to find a 15 lathe to machine the fins afterward. The drum must be turned after, of course - hopefully its still within limits. This would not only forestall heat fade after a high-speed stop (its the 2nd stop that kills you - the liner cant accept any more thermal load from the shoes since its already glowing) but also prevent the drum shape from going weird from heat, and also the band effect constricting the expansion under the disc. Drilling holes can increase cooling slightly, although the obvious purpose is weight reduction. The cross-over point for hole size is where the radius of the hole becomes larger than the depth of the hole. A hole larger than twice the thickness removes more area from the surface (2 Pi D/2^2) than is exposed in the hole (Pi D D/2). For a 6mm thick flange &c. the maximum hole size is 12mm: New surface area exposed: 3.1416 12mm 6mm = + 226mm2. Existing surface area lost: 2 3.1416 6mm^2 = 226mm2. If the hole diameter is enlarged to 14mm (in the same 6mm flange), the new material exposed is 3.1416 14mm 6mm = + 264mm2, but the area of material lost is 2 3.1416 7mm^2 = 308mm2. Since the surface area inside the hole is shielded from the convection airstream, even a hole smaller than indicated will give a net loss in cooling unless the hole perforates the flange and permits air circulation. A blind hole is almost useless for heat loss. The OD of a drum between the spoke flanges can be inletted on a large lathe to form parallel ribs, which increases the cooling surface area. However, it does not remove as much weight as simply turning the excess aluminum off completely. The next step is getting rid of the hot air. Youll see backing plates with scoops and vents, but I prefer a scoop on the backing plate for air entry and exit holes in the drum, which promotes ventilation across the shoes.

Air Entry The air entry is already provided in many 2LS brakes as a cast-in scoop, and need only be opened to the maximum practical size without inviting breakage, and a finer screen or grate substituted for the restrictive original. In some cases, there either is no existing scoop or its too small or badly placed. The scoop entry must stand proud of the backing plate surface or much of the area will not be exposed to the airstream at any useful speed. The exact distance is not clear and will depend on the clocking of the scoop, width of the fork legs, diameter of the front tire, fender width &c., all of which re-direct air around and into the brake. Dont assume that the wheel itself obstructs airflow, in some cases the front of the engine carries a plug of still air ahead of it at cruising speed, and the wheel actually improves flow to the brake. This 1971-72 BSA & Triumph conical backing plate shows the scoop entry standing away from the plate. Click the picture for a larger view. A new scoop may be made from any material than can be securely attached, and where either the material or its shape make it rigid enough to retain its shape at speed. Thin gauge aluminum sheet can be easily bent over a large pipe into a conical shape, cut with a saw, and attached to the backing plate with pop rivets or small screws. Heres a Honda 350 180mm backing plate with a fabricated scoop heli-arced in place. Note the holes drilled for air transfer inside the scoop. Click the picture for a larger view. The scoop area used by serious (meaning expensive) Ceriani, Grimeca, &c. brakes is very large. Since the scoop is not easy to place in undisturbed air, the size should be generous, especially where the brake is small for the chassis weight, speeds are high, the course has many curves

requiring braking with no prolonged period of acceleration to permit brake cooling, &c.

The shape of the scoops opening edge should be a generous radius (3/8 minimum, 1/2 preferred) to give the highest airflow for the smallest area. Fabrication of a trumpet extension looks attractive but remember that this adds weight, and the horn itself is cantilevered from the point of attachment on the backing plate. If it fractures during the race, the horn may go under the tire, become wedged between the wheel and fork, &c. but in any case its cooling effect is gone and the brake will begin to overheat immediately. If you decide to make the horn large for area and clearance to the backing plate components (as in the conical brake shown) the attachment must be sturdy. There should be a generous radius on the ID of the scoop where it joins the backing plate. The area of the backing plate opening need not be as large as the scoop area, since the air will slow down immediately when it expands into the larger area in the brakes interior and be converted to pressure. This pressure is higher than the atmospheric, so the air will be forced out of the drum vents without any air management devices on the drum. Air Exit The air exit area must be at least as large as the entrance since the exhaust air is hot; I suggest 25% larger area as a minimum, which may be shared between several holes. The drum is a good choice for an exit since metal removed also lightens rotational inertia. For a vented drum, the hole pattern normally avoids the stiffening ribs cast into the inner wall of the drums back face. The holes can be as large as 1 OD if they fit comfortably between the ribs and dont reduce its rigidity too much. A hole should never end adjacent to a change in cross-section, &c. and always leave undisturbed metal between the hole and any other surface, but force exiting air to pass as close to the shoes and the drums hot inner friction surface as practical. Using a larger number of smaller

diameter holes allows closer placement to the drum OD. The pattern should be radially symmetrical in any case for aesthetic effect and to minimize re-balancing. Heres a Honda 350 180mm drum, click the picture for a larger view. In some cases the backing plate is the only available location for an exit. Here the exit hole(s) must be far away from the entry making the path as long as possible to force air to absorb heat from the shoes and drum. A circle of small diameter holes 180 away from the entry and close to the OD is the general idea, similar to that shown above, and here: . A 4LS brake cannot be vented to the atmosphere through the drum, since the two drums are back-to-back. However, if the intake air pressure to the backing plates is high enough even small radial holes in the drum OD next to the lining will do something; otherwise the exits must be in the rear of the backing plates. Weight reduction Weight removal is fairly straight-forward on all original equipment brakes, since manufacturers are more concerned with labor and machining costs than reducing unsprung weight by that last 5 grams. Obviously, areas under high stress such as axle support, torque anchor stud and cam lever bosses, and webbing supporting the drums friction surface must be kept strong enough to prevent breakage, but also sufficiently stiff and rigid to prevent flexing. Here is a Suzuki GT750 backing plate after radical machining for weight removal, click the picture for a larger view. The most effective weight removal is at the maximum distance from the center of rotation, since this has the highest gyroscopic inertia: the drum OD, spoke flanges &c. The flanges can be thinned from both sides on a large lathe, but be careful not to reduce the thickness at the spoke holes too much. Holes large enough to leave only of metal remaining between the hole and the outer rim and the hole and the drum OD can be evenly spaced between spoke holes. E.g. if the flange height is 1 tall, a hole is safe, &c. The drums OD can be reduced slightly, but this is only suitable where the iron liner is fairly thick and will remain geometrically correct

even

when

loaded

and

hot.

The drum can be both lightened and ventilated by drilling or milling holes through its vertical panel surface (directly opposite the backing plate). If there are stiffening ribs connecting the bearing hub to the panel the holes should be centered between rib pairs, and not actually remove any metal from the small radius where the rib joins the parent casting. Shenton sggests that the pattern for the BSA/Triumph 1968-70 8 2LS drum should be five 1 holes equally-spaced along the mid-line. Weight removal from the drum should be radially symmetrical since it affects balance, and the wheel must be re-balanced after all weight removal operations are completed. Please see comments above regarding hole placement for optimum air circulation, which should be given priority over weight reduction.

If the drum or hub is stiffened by cast-in ribs or vanes, the pattern and number of holes should be divisible by the number of ribs. E.g., the 1971-73 Triumph & BSA conical drum has 5 ribs, use a radially symmetrical pattern of 5, 10, 15 &c. holes. This conical rear hub, modified and contributed by BritBike Forum member featherbred, has holes alternating with the ribs to reduce weight without compromising stiffness. Although the backing plate, shoes and torque arm do not rotate, theyre still unsprung weight and greatly affect handling and especially how well the suspension reacts to bumps and ripples. Weight can be removed by drilling through the web supporting the lining area of the shoes. The shoe itself may be wider than needed to support the lining and may be scalloped away to only 1/8 wider than the lining to

prevent cracking except in areas where the shoe width positions the shoe laterally between the drum and backing plate. If new lining is to be applied (rivetted or bonded) a carefully spaced pattern of small (1/8) holes may be drilled in the metal of the shoe, although this is only suitable if the shoe has generous webbing to resist deformation when applied. The torque arm can be lightened considerably since its always in tension and therefore need not resist bending. In fact, a 5/32 wire cable is sufficient for most use, althought I certainly wouldnt go that far. Heres a pair of shoes with a simple hole pattern, click the picture for a larger view. Be careful to de-burr and radius all cuts. Weight removed from the backing plate and shoes doesnt affect wheel balance. Suzuki 4LS The earliest Suzuki GT750 water-cooled 2-stroke 3 cylinder models used a very powerful and heavy 4 leading shoe brake. Its a tight fit in most drum brake forks, since it needs about 185mm (7.28) center to center on the fork tubes for clearance. However, the brake backing plates can be trimmed back at the axle support boss. Click the picture for a larger view. The 1972 Suzuki GT550 air-cooled 2-stroke 3 cylinder model also used a 4LS front drum brake, but the width across the backing plates was about 6mm () narrower. This makes it a better choice for smaller forks such as Betor, Ceriani and original British equipment. Here is a Suzuki GT750 after machining for air exit through the backing plates since there is no drum surface available. The original scoop is at 10 oclock. Click the picture for a larger view.