Overview of Ballistics

Dr. Himanshu Shekhar, Sc F, HEMRL, Pune 411 021

Introduction Ballistics is derived from Greek work Ballistein meaning to throw. The history of human civilization is inked with battles and wars, which started with wrestling, kicking, fisting type of physical contact skills. The muscle energy and stamina played vital role. To augment the injury potential, various hand-held weapons like sword, spears etc are developed. However, a greater leap in inflicting injury to enemy is attained by stand-off weapons. Pelting stone is a primitive concept, but using bow-arrow made the situation slightly better for the warriors. The tension of string augmented muscular energy tremendously. During this period only, a machine called Ballista was developed, which was used to project arrow or spears to larger distance, with greater force and velocity. Guns are evolved out of these concepts only. The limited range and more dispersion of gun-shots led to development of artillery rockets, where ballistic flight is always preceded by propulsion or powered phase. The overview of ballistics covers gun as well as rocket ballistics. Since operation of the guns and the rockets desires energy from combustion of propellant, the initial events is similar i.e. ignition and combustion of propellant to release chemical energy in the form of heat, high temperature and pressure combustion gases. In guns whole energy is imparted in the form of kinetic energy of the shots, while in rockets, reaction of high velocity rearward flow of hot pressurized combustion gases leads to propulsion in initial phases. Later on ballistic flight commences.

Overview of Ballistics by Dr. Himanshu Shekhar

5/22/2012

Gun Ballistics Gun is a single stroke internal combustion engine. Pressure in the gun chamber rises due to combustion of propellants, which exerts force on the projectiles and accelerates it. As motion of projectile in gun barrel starts, extra volume is created for expansion of gases. Since production rate of propellant gases by combustion exceeds the extra volume created by motion of the projectile, pressure continues to rise and projectile accelerates. Around one-third to half the barrel distance, all the propellant gets consumed and pressure rise stops. Projectile continues to move, but pressure drop starts. Projectile velocity rise flattens and pressure also attains a lower value. Once projectile is inside the gun barrel, all events are covered under interior ballistics. When projectile comes out of gun barrel, the restriction of barrel is removed and motion of projectile becomes similar to a projected stone. The motion of projectile freely in atmosphere under some initial velocity and spin conditions is part of external ballistics. Once projectile reaches target, it creates various effects on target for their destruction. The effects may be penetration, incendiary, blast, fragmentation and a combination of these. These target interactions are covered under terminal ballistics. Sometimes a separate branch called wound ballistics is also referred, which has basically medical origin rather than engineering origin. Guns may be classified as true gun, howitzer, mortar, recoilless gun. Calculations of velocity of projectile, when it leaves gun barrel can be calculated simply from thermo-chemical calculations. Under arbitrary assumption for fuel made of carbon and hydrogen, the formation of water from hydrogen precedes that from carbon to carbon dioxide during oxidation process. Generally oxygen is not available in plenty and unburnt carbon and hydrogen remains in the combustion process. Difference in enthalpy of formation of reactants and products may give net heat exchange and can be considered as equivalent to kinetic energy of the projectile. In nutshell, as a rough estimate, velocity of projectile obtained by burning of propellant can be given as [2 x (HR - HP) / mp], H indicated heat of formation, m represents mass, subscripts R, P and p Overview of Ballistics by Dr. Himanshu Shekhar 5/22/2012 2

indicates reactants (fuel), product of combustion and projectile respectively. However, this calculation is a rough estimate only as it does not take into account barrel resistance, engraving resistance, time of propellant burning, losses by heat and expansion of gases etc. In general gun ballistics specially interior ballistic give output in the form of velocity of projectile in the gun barrel. Gun ballistic parameters are divided into three categories: 1. Gun parameters chamber volume, bore, barrel length 2. Propellant composition and configuration force constant, density, co-volume, burning rate coefficient, ratio of specific heats, form factor, web 3. Operating parameters shot start pressure, temperature Once velocity and spin of projectile is known, exterior ballistic calculation or trajectory calculation is undertaken where gravity effects, air resistance, atmospheric effects and projectile imperfections are included in models for estimation of forces and moment in the free-flight of the projectile and path to destination for the projectile is estimated. IN final phase target interaction is simulated.

Rocket Ballistics Rocket ballistics has two components because it undergoes a powered and an unpowered phase. The phenomena taking place inside the rocket motor chamber is a part of interior ballistics, while trajectory estimation is covered under external ballistics. The terminal ballistics has same role in both guns and rockets. In rockets, propellant is initiated by igniter and large volume of hot combustion gases are generated in the recess. This generates high pressure. The high pressure combustion gases are thrown out through nozzle in rearward direction. As a reaction, rocket motor moves forward. The maximum velocity of rocket is Overview of Ballistics by Dr. Himanshu Shekhar 5/22/2012 3

achieved when propellant gets consumed. Later on rocket moves due to its inertia at a diminishing velocity. The rocket performance parameters can also be divided into three categories: 1. Rocket parameters diameter, length, throat, exit diameter, ignition 2. Propellant parameters specific impulse, characteristic velocity, burning rate, ratio of specific heats, burning area, web 3. Operating parameters chamber pressure, temperature One of the most important rocket ballistic equations for velocity of rocket at the end of powered phase was given by Tsiolkovosky. Velocity gained by a rocket is given by product of exhaust velocity and log of mass ratio (initial mass/final mass of the rocket). This also is a bunched calculation and surprisingly gain in velocity is not a function of mass flow rate or burning rate of the propellant. However, more exhaustive calculation always demands estimation of parameters enlisted above and then calculations proceeds as bulked or in incremental fashion (finite difference). Most of the time mass conservation is used to estimate pressure at any instance of burning in a rocket. From pressure, thrust is estimated. From thrust, acceleration is calculated considering the instantaneous mass. From acceleration, velocity and trajectory can be calculated for a given rocket flight. The unpowered phase of rocket propulsion follows simple mechanics equations modified by air drag, gravity, spin, environmental effects and other minor factors.

Interior Ballistics Interior ballistics is study of all the phenomena that takes place inside gun barrel or inside rocket motor chamber. It encompasses following in general: Ignition process of the propellant Combustion of the propellant 5/22/2012 4

Overview of Ballistics by Dr. Himanshu Shekhar

Pressurization of chamber Establishment of Flow field in rockets Ejection of hot combustion gases through nozzle Movement of projectile in gun barrel Engraving of rotating band on projectile Obturation of gun chamber In-bore dynamics of projectiles Tube dynamics Jump of tube and projectile

Combustion of propellant is an oxidation reaction and mostly, available oxygen is insufficient for complete combustion of propellant ingredients.

External Ballistics The movement of rocket freely in atmosphere after completion of powered phase or that of projectile after leaving gun barrel is subject matter of external ballistics. This continues till impact on target is realized. It encompasses the following in general: Projectile dynamics and stability Prediction of flight path Estimation of time of flight Point of impact assessment Angle and velocity of impact studies Development of guidance algorithm

Overview of Ballistics by Dr. Himanshu Shekhar

5/22/2012

Terminal Ballistics Whatever a delivered payload does at the target by either gun or rocket is subject matter of terminal ballistics. It encompasses the following in general: Penetration mechanism Armour effects Fragment spray patterns Lethality assessment Blast overpressure Non-lethal effects Effect on living tissues

Conclusion Overall, ballistics is an interesting area, which is applied for performance prediction of guns and rockets. The domain of ballistics may be extended to fragments generated out of an explosion, where initial velocity imparted to particle of given size may be estimated by momentum transfer and further flight and range of the particle is estimated. The ballistics is a multi-disciplinary fiel involving, mathematics, mechanics, thermodynamics, chemistry, chemical kinetics, meteorology, metrology, engineering, etc. Despite development of many complex concepts, it is difficult to predict all the observed phenomena even in ballistic flights of the objects.

Overview of Ballistics by Dr. Himanshu Shekhar

5/22/2012