Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 15

CASE: Steel Works

Chapter 2
Inventory Management and Risk Pooling

Background of case and intent Overview of business What does data tell you about Specialty? How much inventory might you expect? What opportunities are there for Custom? Wrap up

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Copyright 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-2

Background & Intent


Abstraction from summer consulting job Intent is to examine a realistic, but simplified inventory context and perform a diagnosis of problem poor service and too much inventory

Custom Products
Rapid growth, 1/3 of total sales ($133 MM) One customer per product Very high margins High service level 3 plants, co-located with R&D center Each product produced at a single plant

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-3

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-4

Specialty Products
Rapid growth, 2/3 of total sales ($267 MM) 6 product families 3 plants, each producing 2 product families 130 customers, 120 products Few big customers Highly volatile demand High service level

Consultant Recommendation
Drop low volume products Improve forecasts Consolidate warehouses

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-5

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-6

What Does Data Tell You?


DB R10 DB R12 DB R15 DF R10 DF R12 DF R15 DF R23 15.5 1008 2464 97 18.5 55 35.5 13.2 256 494 92.5 11.4 80 45.9 cv 0.85 0.25 0.20 0.95 0.62 1.46 1.29
2-7

What Does Data Tell You?


Durabend R12:
One customer accounts for 97% of demand

7 products:
High volume (2) is not very volatile Low volume (5) is very volatile

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-8

How Much Inventory Should You Expect?


DB R10

15.5 1008 2464 97 18.5 55 35.5

13.2 256 494 92.5 11.4 80 45.9

Cycle stock
8 504 1232 49 9 28 18 1848

Saf. stock
26 510 990 185 23 160 92 1986

E[I]
34 1014 2222 234 32 188 110 3834

Act. Inv.
72 740 1875 604 55 388 190 3824

Assume base stock model with periodic review Review period = r = ? Lead time = L = ?
E [I ] = r

DB R12 DB R15 DF R10 DF R12 DF R15 DF R23

+ z r + L
Assumes r = 1; L=0.25; and z = 1.8 Cycle stock = r /2

Safety stock = z r+L


Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved
2-10

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-9

What Are the Opportunities at Custom?


Combine production and inventory for common items, e. g. DF R23 Produce monthly: reduce setups by half and pool safety stocks Produce twice a month: same number of setups but cut cycle stock and review period in half

Wrap Up
Realistic diagnostic exercise In real life: not as clean, more data and more considerations Yet simple models and principles can provide valuable guidance

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-11

Stephen C. Graves Copyright 2003 All Rights Reserved

2-12

2.1 Introduction Why Is Inventory Important?


Distribution and inventory (logistics) costs are quite substantial
Total U.S. Manufacturing Inventories ($m): 1992-01-31: $m 808,773 1996-08-31: $m 1,000,774 2006-05-31: $m 1,324,108 Inventory-Sales Ratio (U.S. Manufacturers): 1992-01-01: 1.56 2006-05-01: 1.25
2-13

Why Is Inventory Important?


GMs production and distribution network
20,000 supplier plants 133 parts plants 31 assembly plants 11,000 dealers

Freight transportation costs: $4.1 billion (60% for material shipments) GM inventory valued at $7.4 billion (70%WIP; Rest Finished Vehicles) Decision tool to reduce:
combined corporate cost of inventory and transportation.

26% annual cost reduction by adjusting:


Shipment sizes (inventory policy) Routes (transportation strategy)

2-14

Why Is Inventory Required?


Uncertainty in customer demand
Shorter product lifecycles More competing products

Holding the right amount at the right time is difficult!


Dell Computers was sharply off in its forecast of demand, resulting in inventory write-downs
1993 stock plunge

Uncertainty in supplies
Quality/Quantity/Costs/Delivery Times

Liz Claibornes higher-than-anticipated excess inventories


1993 unexpected earnings decline,

Delivery lead times Incentives for larger shipments

IBMs ineffective inventory management


1994 shortages in the ThinkPad line

Ciscos declining sales


2001 $ 2.25B excess inventory charge

2-15

2-16

Inventory Management-Demand Forecasts


Uncertain demand makes demand forecast critical for inventory related decisions:
What to order? When to order? How much is the optimal order quantity?

Supply Chain Factors in Inventory Policy


Estimation of customer demand Replenishment lead time The number of different products being considered The length of the planning horizon Costs
Order cost:
Product cost Transportation cost

Inventory holding cost, or inventory carrying cost:


State taxes, property taxes, and insurance on inventories Maintenance costs Obsolescence cost Opportunity costs

Approach includes a set of techniques


INVENTORY POLICY!!

Service level requirements


2-17 2-18

2.2 Single Stage Inventory Control


Single supply chain stage Variety of techniques
Economic Lot Size Model Demand Uncertainty Single Period Models Initial Inventory Multiple Order Opportunities Continuous Review Policy Variable Lead Times Periodic Review Policy Service Level Optimization

2.2.1. Economic Lot Size Model

FIGURE 2-3: Inventory level as a function of time

2-19

2-20

Assumptions
D items per day: Constant demand rate Q items per order: Order quantities are fixed, i.e., each time the warehouse places an order, it is for Q items. K, fixed setup cost, incurred every time the warehouse places an order. h, inventory carrying cost accrued per unit held in inventory per day that the unit is held (also known as, holding cost) Lead time = 0 (the time that elapses between the placement of an order and its receipt) Initial inventory = 0 Planning horizon is long (infinite).
2-21

Deriving EOQ
Total cost at every cycle:
K + hTQ 2

Average inventory holding cost in a cycle: Q/2 Cycle time T =Q/D Average total cost per unit time: KD + hQ Q 2
Q* = 2 KD h
2-22

EOQ: Costs

Sensitivity Analysis
Total inventory cost relatively insensitive to order quantities Actual order quantity: Q Q is a multiple b of the optimal order quantity Q*. For a given b, the quantity ordered is Q = bQ*
b Increase in cost .5 25% .8 2.5% .9 0.5% 1 0 1.1 .4% 1.2 1.6% 1.5 8.9% 2 25%

FIGURE 2-4: Economic lot size model: total cost per unit time

2-23

2-24

2.2.2. Demand Uncertainty


The forecast is always wrong
It is difficult to match supply and demand

2.2.3. Single Period Models


Short lifecycle products One ordering opportunity only Order quantity to be decided before demand occurs
Order Quantity > Demand => Dispose excess inventory Order Quantity < Demand => Lose sales/profits

The longer the forecast horizon, the worse the forecast


It is even more difficult if one needs to predict customer demand for a long period of time

Aggregate forecasts are more accurate.


More difficult to predict customer demand for individual SKUs Much easier to predict demand across all SKUs within one product family
2-25

2-26

Single Period Models


Using historical data
identify a variety of demand scenarios determine probability each of these scenarios will occur

Single Period Model Example

Given a specific inventory policy


determine the profit associated with a particular scenario given a specific order quantity
weight each scenarios profit by the likelihood that it will occur determine the average, or expected, profit for a particular ordering quantity.

Order the quantity that maximizes the average profit.


2-27

FIGURE 2-5: Probabilistic forecast

2-28

Additional Information
Fixed production cost: $100,000 Variable production cost per unit: $80. During the summer season, selling price: $125 per unit. Salvage value: Any swimsuit not sold during the summer season is sold to a discount store for $20.

Two Scenarios
Manufacturer produces 10,000 units while demand ends at 12,000 swimsuits Profit = 125(10,000) - 80(10,000) - 100,000 = $350,000 Manufacturer produces 10,000 units while demand ends at 8,000 swimsuits Profit = 125(8,000) + 20(2,000) - 80(10,000) - 100,000 = $140,000

2-29

2-30

Probability of Profitability Scenarios with Production = 10,000 Units


Probability of demand being 8000 units = 11%
Probability of profit of $140,000 = 11%

Order Quantity that Maximizes Expected Profit

Probability of demand being 12000 units = 27%


Probability of profit of $140,000 = 27%

Total profit = Weighted average of profit scenarios


2-31

FIGURE 2-6: Average profit as a function of production quantity

2-32

Relationship Between Optimal Quantity and Average Demand


Compare marginal profit of selling an additional unit and marginal cost of not selling an additional unit Marginal profit/unit = Selling Price - Variable Ordering (or, Production) Cost Marginal cost/unit = Variable Ordering (or, Production) Cost - Salvage Value If Marginal Profit > Marginal Cost => Optimal Quantity > Average Demand If Marginal Profit < Marginal Cost => Optimal Quantity < Average Demand

For the Swimsuit Example


Average demand = 13,000 units. Optimal production quantity = 12,000 units. Marginal profit = $45 Marginal cost = $60. Thus, Marginal Cost > Marginal Profit => optimal production quantity < average demand.
2-33 2-34

Risk-Reward Tradeoffs
Optimal production quantity maximizes average profit is about 12,000 Producing 9,000 units or producing 16,000 units will lead to about the same average profit of $294,000. If we had to choose between producing 9,000 units and 16,000 units, which one should we choose?
2-35

Risk-Reward Tradeoffs

FIGURE 2-7: A frequency histogram of profit

2-36

Risk-Reward Tradeoffs
Production Quantity = 9000 units
Profit is:
either $200,000 with probability of about 11 % or $305,000 with probability of about 89 %

Observations
The optimal order quantity is not necessarily equal to forecast, or average, demand. As the order quantity increases, average profit typically increases until the production quantity reaches a certain value, after which the average profit starts decreasing. Risk/Reward trade-off: As we increase the production quantity, both risk and reward increases.
2-37 2-38

Production quantity = 16,000 units.


Distribution of profit is not symmetrical. Losses of $220,000 about 11% of the time Profits of at least $410,000 about 50% of the time

With the same average profit, increasing the production quantity:


Increases the possible risk Increases the possible reward

2.2.4. What If the Manufacturer Has an Initial Inventory?


Trade-off between:
Using on-hand inventory to meet demand and avoid paying fixed production cost: need sufficient inventory stock Paying the fixed cost of production and not have as much inventory

Initial Inventory Solution

FIGURE 2-8: Profit and the impact of initial inventory

2-39

2-40

Manufacturer Initial Inventory = 5,000


If nothing is produced, average profit = 225,000 (from the figure) + 5,000 x 80 = 625,000 If the manufacturer decides to produce
Production should increase inventory from 5,000 units to 12,000 units. Average profit =

Manufacturer Initial Inventory = 10,000


No need to produce anything
average profit > profit achieved if we produce to increase inventory to 12,000 units

If we produce, the most we can make on average is a profit of $375,000.


Same average profit with initial inventory of 8,500 units and not producing anything. If initial inventory < 8,500 units => produce to raise the inventory level to 12,000 units. If initial inventory is at least 8,500 units, we should not produce anything (s, S) policy or (min, max) policy

371,000 (from the figure) + 5,000 80 = 771,000

2-41

2-42

2.2.5. Multiple Order Opportunities


REASONS To balance annual inventory holding costs and annual fixed order costs. To satisfy demand occurring during lead time. To protect against uncertainty in demand. TWO POLICIES Continuous review policy
inventory is reviewed continuously an order is placed when the inventory reaches a particular level or reorder point. inventory can be continuously reviewed (computerized inventory systems are used)

2.2.6. Continuous Review Policy


Daily demand is random and follows a normal distribution. Every time the distributor places an order from the manufacturer, the distributor pays a fixed cost, K, plus an amount proportional to the quantity ordered. Inventory holding cost is charged per item per unit time. Inventory level is continuously reviewed, and if an order is placed, the order arrives after the appropriate lead time. If a customer order arrives when there is no inventory on hand to fill the order (i.e., when the distributor is stocked out), the order is lost. The distributor specifies a required service level.
2-43 2-44

Periodic review policy


inventory is reviewed at regular intervals appropriate quantity is ordered after each review. it is impossible or inconvenient to frequently review inventory and place orders if necessary.

Continuous Review Policy


AVG = Average daily demand faced by the distributor STD = Standard deviation of daily demand faced by the distributor L = Replenishment lead time from the supplier to the distributor in days h = Cost of holding one unit of the product for one day at the distributor = service level. This implies that the probability of stocking out is 1 -
2-45

Continuous Review Policy


(Q,R) policy whenever inventory level falls to a reorder level R, place an order for Q units What is the value of R?

2-46

Continuous Review Policy


Average demand during lead time: L x AVG z STD L Safety stock: Reorder Level, R: L AVG + z STD L Order Quantity, Q: Q =
2K AVG h
2-47

Service Level & Safety Factor, z


Service Level z 90% 91% 92% 93% 94% 95% 96% 97% 98% 99% 99.9%

1.29

1.34

1.41

1.48

1.56

1.65

1.75

1.88

2.05

2.33

3.08

z is chosen from statistical tables to ensure that the probability of stockouts during lead time is exactly 1 -

2-48

Inventory Level Over Time


FIGURE 2-9: Inventory level as a function of time in a (Q,R) policy

Continuous Review Policy Example


A distributor of TV sets that orders from a manufacturer and sells to retailers Fixed ordering cost = $4,500 Cost of a TV set to the distributor = $250 Annual inventory holding cost = 18% of product cost Replenishment lead time = 2 weeks Expected service level = 97%

Inventory level before receiving an order = z STD L Inventory level after receiving an order = Q + z STD L Average Inventory =
Q 2

+ z STD L
2-49 2-50

Continuous Review Policy Example


Month Sales Sept 200 Oct 152 Nov. 100 Dec. 221 Jan. 287 Feb. 176 Mar. 151 Apr. 198 May 246 June 309 July 98 Aug 156

Continuous Review Policy Example


Parameter Average weekly demand Standard deviation of weekly demand 32.08 Average demand during lead time 89.16 Safety stock Reorder point

Average monthly demand = 191.17 Standard deviation of monthly demand = 66.53 Average weekly demand = Average Monthly Demand/4.3 Standard deviation of weekly demand = Monthly standard deviation/4.3

Value

44.58

86.20

176

Weekly holding cost =

0.18 250 = 0 .87 52

Optimal order quantity =

Q=

2 4,500 44 .58 = 679 .87

Average inventory level = 679/2 + 86.20 = 426


2-51 2-52

2.2.7. Variable Lead Times


Average lead time, AVGL Standard deviation, STDL. Reorder Level, R:
2 R = AVG AVGL+ z AVGL STD2 + AVG2 STDL

2.2.8. Periodic Review Policy


Inventory level is reviewed periodically at regular intervals An appropriate quantity is ordered after each review Two Cases:
Short Intervals (e.g. Daily)
Define two inventory levels s and S During each inventory review, if the inventory position falls below s, order enough to raise the inventory position to S. (s, S) policy

2 2 2 Amount of safety stock= z AVGL STD + AVG STDL

Longer Intervals (e.g. Weekly or Monthly)


May make sense to always order after an inventory level review. Determine a target inventory level, the base-stock level During each review period, the inventory position is reviewed Order enough to raise the inventory position to the base-stock level. Base-stock level policy

Order Quantity =

Q =

2 K AVG h

2-53

2-54

(s,S) policy
Calculate the Q and R values as if this were a continuous review model Set s equal to R Set S equal to R+Q.

Base-Stock Level Policy


Determine a target inventory level, the basestock level Each review period, review the inventory position is reviewed and order enough to raise the inventory position to the base-stock level Assume: r = length of the review period L = lead time AVG = average daily demand STD = standard deviation of this daily demand.

2-55

2-56

Base-Stock Level Policy


Average demand during an interval of r + L days= ( r + L ) AVG

Base-Stock Level Policy

Safety Stock= z STD r + L


FIGURE 2-10: Inventory level as a function of time in a periodic review policy

2-57

2-58

Base-Stock Level Policy Example


Assume:
distributor places an order for TVs every 3 weeks Lead time is 2 weeks Base-stock level needs to cover 5 weeks

2.2.9. Service Level Optimization


Optimal inventory policy assumes a specific service level target. What is the appropriate level of service?
May be determined by the downstream customer
Retailer may require the supplier, to maintain a specific service level Supplier will use that target to manage its own inventory

Average demand = 44.58 x 5 = 222.9 Safety stock = 1.9 32.8 5 Base-stock level = 223 + 136 = 359 Average inventory level = 344.58 + 1.9 32.08 5 = 203.17 2 Distributor keeps 5 (= 203.17/44.58) weeks of supply.

Facility may have the flexibility to choose the appropriate level of service
2-59 2-60

10

Service Level Optimization

Trade-Offs
Everything else being equal:
the higher the service level, the higher the inventory level. for the same inventory level, the longer the lead time to the facility, the lower the level of service provided by the facility. the lower the inventory level, the higher the impact of a unit of inventory on service level and hence on expected profit
2-61 2-62

FIGURE 2-11: Service level inventory versus inventory level as a function of lead time

Retail Strategy
Given a target service level across all products determine service level for each SKU so as to maximize expected profit. Everything else being equal, service level will be higher for products with:
high profit margin high volume low variability short lead time
2-63

Profit Optimization and Service Level

FIGURE 2-12: Service level optimization by SKU

2-64

Profit Optimization and Service Level


Target inventory level = 95% across all products. Service level > 99% for many products with high profit margin, high volume and low variability. Service level < 95% for products with low profit margin, low volume and high variability.
2-65

2.3 Risk Pooling


Demand variability is reduced if one aggregates demand across locations. More likely that high demand from one customer will be offset by low demand from another. Reduction in variability allows a decrease in safety stock and therefore reduces average inventory.
2-66

11

Demand Variation
Standard deviation measures how much demand tends to vary around the average
Gives an absolute measure of the variability

Acme Risk Pooling Case


Electronic equipment manufacturer and distributor 2 warehouses for distribution in New York and New Jersey (partitioning the northeast market into two regions) Customers (that is, retailers) receiving items from warehouses (each retailer is assigned a warehouse) Warehouses receive material from Chicago Current rule: 97 % service level Each warehouse operate to satisfy 97 % of demand (3 % probability of stock-out)
2-67 2-68

Coefficient of variation is the ratio of standard deviation to average demand


Gives a relative measure of the variability, relative to the average demand

New Idea
Replace the 2 warehouses with a single warehouse (located some suitable place) and try to implement the same service level 97 % Delivery lead times may increase But may decrease total inventory investment considerably.
Week Massachusetts New Jersey Total 1 33 46 79

Historical Data
PRODUCT A
2 45 35 80 3 37 41 78 4 38 40 78 5 55 26 81 6 30 48 78 7 18 18 36 8 58 55 113

PRODUCT B
Week Massachusetts New Jersey Total 1 0 2 2 2 3 4 6 3 3 3 3 4 0 0 0 5 0 3 3 6 1 1 2 7 3 0 3 8 0 0 0

2-69

2-70

Summary of Historical Data


Statistics Product Average Demand Standard Deviation of Demand 13.2 1.36 12.0 1.58 20.71 1.9 Coefficient of Variation 0.34 Massachusetts Massachusetts New Jersey New Jersey Total Total B A B A B 1.125 38.6 1.25 77.9 2.375 1.21 Massachusetts 0.31 1.26 0.27 0.81 New Jersey New Jersey Total Total B A B A B A Massachusetts A 39.3

Inventory Levels
Product Average Demand During Lead Time 39.3 1.125 38.6 1.25 77.9 2.375 Safety Stock Reorder Point Q

25.08 2.58 22.8 3 39.35 3.61

65 4 62 5 118 6

132 25 31 24 186 33

2-71

2-72

12

Savings in Inventory
Average inventory for Product A:
At NJ warehouse is about 88 units At MA warehouse is about 91 units In the centralized warehouse is about 132 units Average inventory reduced by about 36 percent

Critical Points
The higher the coefficient of variation, the greater the benefit from risk pooling The higher the variability, the higher the safety stocks kept by the warehouses. The variability of the demand aggregated by the single warehouse is lower The benefits from risk pooling depend on the behavior of the demand from one market relative to demand from another risk pooling benefits are higher in situations where demands observed at warehouses are negatively correlated

Average inventory for Product B:


At NJ warehouse is about 15 units At MA warehouse is about 14 units In the centralized warehouse is about 20 units Average inventory reduced by about 43 percent

Reallocation of items from one market to another easily accomplished in centralized systems. Not possible to do in decentralized systems where they serve different markets
2-73 2-74

2.4 Centralized vs. Decentralized Systems


Safety stock: lower with centralization Service level: higher service level for the same inventory investment with centralization Overhead costs: higher in decentralized system Customer lead time: response times lower in the decentralized system Transportation costs: not clear. Consider outbound and inbound costs.

2.5 Managing Inventory in the Supply Chain


Inventory decisions are given by a single decision maker whose objective is to minimize the system-wide cost The decision maker has access to inventory information at each of the retailers and at the warehouse Echelons and echelon inventory Echelon inventory at any stage or level of the system equals the inventory on hand at the echelon, plus all downstream inventory (downstream means closer to the customer)

2-75

2-76

Echelon Inventory

Reorder Point with Echelon Inventory


Le = echelon lead time,
lead time between the retailer and the distributor plus the lead time between the distributor and its supplier, the wholesaler.

AVG = average demand at the retailer STD = standard deviation of demand at the retailer Reorder point R = Le AVG + z STD Le
FIGURE 2-13: A serial supply chain
2-77 2-78

13

4-Stage Supply Chain Example


Average weekly demand faced by the retailer is 45 Standard deviation of demand is 32 At each stage, management is attempting to maintain a service level of 97% (z=1.88) Lead time between each of the stages, and between the manufacturer and its suppliers is 1 week

Costs and Order Quantities


K D H Q

retailer distributor wholesaler manufacturer

250 200 205 500

45 45 45 45

1.2 .9 .8 .7

137 141 152 255

2-79

2-80

Reorder Points at Each Stage


For the retailer, R=1*45+1.88*32*1 = 105 For the distributor, R=2*45+1.88*32*2 = 175 For the wholesaler, R=3*45+1.88*32*3 = 239 For the manufacturer, R=4*45+1.88*32*4 = 300
2-81

More than One Facility at Each Stage


Follow the same approach Echelon inventory at the warehouse is the inventory at the warehouse, plus all of the inventory in transit to and in stock at each of the retailers. Similarly, the echelon inventory position at the warehouse is the echelon inventory at the warehouse, plus those items ordered by the warehouse that have not yet arrived minus all items that are backordered.
2-82

Warehouse Echelon Inventory

2.6 Practical Issues


Periodic inventory review. Tight management of usage rates, lead times, and safety stock. Reduce safety stock levels. Introduce or enhance cycle counting practice. ABC approach. Shift more inventory or inventory ownership to suppliers. Quantitative approaches. FOCUS: not reducing costs but reducing inventory levels. Significant effort in industry to increase inventory turnover

FIGURE 2-14: The warehouse echelon inventory

Inventory_ Turnover_ Ratio =


2-83

Annual_ Sales Average_ Inventory_ Level


2-84

14

Inventory Turnover Ratios for Different Manufacturers


Industry Electronic components and accessories Electronic computers Household audio and video equipment Paper Mills Industrial chemicals Bakery products Books: Publishing and printing Upper quartile 8.1 Median 4.9 Lower quartile 3.3

2.7 Forecasting
RULES OF FORECASTING The forecast is always wrong. The longer the forecast horizon, the worse the forecast. Aggregate forecasts are more accurate.

22.7 6.3

7.0 3.9

2.7 2.5

11.7 14.1 39.7 7.2

8.0 6.4 23.0 2.8

5.5 4.2 12.6 1.5

2-85

2-86

Utility of Forecasting
Part of the available tools for a manager Despite difficulties with forecasts, it can be used for a variety of decisions Number of techniques allow prudent use of forecasts as needed

Techniques
Judgment Methods
Sales-force composite Experts panel Delphi method

Market research/survey Time Series


Moving Averages Exponential Smoothing

Trends
Regression Holts method

Seasonal patterns Seasonal decomposition Trend + Seasonality Winters Method Causal Methods

2-87

2-88

The Most Appropriate Technique(s)


Purpose of the forecast How will the forecast be used? Dynamics of system for which forecast will be made How accurate is the past history in predicting the future?

SUMMARY
Matching supply with demand a major challenge Forecast demand is always wrong Longer the forecast horizon, less accurate the forecast Aggregate demand more accurate than disaggregated demand Need the most appropriate technique Need the most appropriate inventory policy

2-89

2-90

15

Вам также может понравиться